Abroad. Here, dozens of universities offer many programs for the study of law. You can get bachelor's, master's or doctoral degrees, and you can choose from continuing education or internship programs. There are many pluses.
First, the foundations of British law are widely used throughout the world. Second, in many universities, students work on real cases, which, of course, is ideal practice. It remains only to decide on the university. His choice will depend on your tasks and financial capabilities. However, in England, in most universities, the cost of training is about the same.
Location: South England
17 legal programs (,) lasting from 8 months to 4 years.
Cost: An average of £ 13,200 per year. Accommodation approx £ 10.000
10 legal programs (,). Moreover, if in Oxford there are more opportunities for those who need a bachelor's degree, then in Cambridge there is more focus on doctoral degrees. It is no coincidence that this university is considered a supplier of Nobel laureates. Duration of training is from 1 to 3 years.
Cost: Slightly higher than Oxford - an average of £ 14,500 per year. But accommodation will cost less than about £ 7,000-8,000.
How to apply to Oxbridge?
The most important thing is that you need to know English no worse than an Englishman (according to IELTS - 7.0, TOEFL - 230). Ideally, it would be good to graduate from an English school with an "A" grade in at least three subjects and apply.
The second option is to use an international student scholarship. For example, participants in the Chevening scholarship can obtain a master's degree from any university in the UK, including Oxbridge.
The third option is to study at one of the Russian schools, which issues international bachelor's degrees, and then set off to storm Oxbridge.
Oxbridge Rivals
"Red Brick Universities" is an informal term for a group of six prestigious universities in England located in major industrial cities. All of these universities were previously viewed as "upstarts" in comparison with Oxbridge. Currently 6 "red brick universities" belong to the prestigious Russell Group, which accounts for 2/3 of all UK research grants.
Location: Central England
21 legal programs (,) lasting from 1 to 4 years.
Cost: Average £ 14,000 per year. Accommodation - £ 6.000
Pros: The university distributes to international students. But perhaps the most important plus is the university library. It ranks among the largest libraries in the UK. You can find unique editions including Shakespeare and Dickens.
Location: Northern England
21 legal programs (,) lasting from 6 months to 4 years.
Cost: Average £ 12,000 per year. Accommodation - £ 4.000.
Pros: the university has offices in different countries, including on the territory the former USSR... In addition, the university gives out every year.
You can trust students
Among students who came to study in England from different countries, very different universities are popular. Those with many international programs.
Location: North West England
15 legal programs (,) lasting from 1 to 3 years.
Cost: Average: £ 10,000. But the university offers various scholarship opportunities. In addition, it is much cheaper to live here than in Oxbridge - it will cost you around £ 4,500 a year.
The obvious advantages: Liverpool is the third largest city in England (fifth in the UK) and a major trade and economic center, therefore, there will be many opportunities for practice. Excellent transport links with other cities - airport, port, railway... In addition, it is considered one of the centers of youth culture, so you will definitely not be bored in it. Besides, Liverpool is the birthplace of The Beatles !!!
Location: South England
10 legal programs (,
UDC 34 (091) (4/9)
LEGAL EDUCATION IN THE UK:
© 2014 V.V. Zakharov1, T.N. Ilyina2
1doct. jurid. sciences, professor, head of the department. theory and history of state and law e-mail: [email protected] 2cand. jurid. Sciences, Art. teacher of the department. constitutional and administrative law e-mail: [email protected]
Kursk State University
The article presents the historical path of development of legal education in England. Throughout this period, there was a search for the optimal combination of academic and practical training. The article presents the role of professional associations in the process of training lawyers, analyzes the positions and current state of law corporations - inns.
Key words: legal education, inns, barristers, solicitors, justice.
Futuristic reflections on reforming legal education in our country are already unthinkable without presenting the experience of other states in this area. Quite often the search for an ideal model for training lawyers encourages the mechanical borrowing of the most successful elements of the systems of foreign legal education. Thus, it is proposed to introduce a narrow specialization in the training of lawyers, which exists in US law schools, to make it mandatory
postgraduate internship in Germany, or organize practical training by the professional community, as is the case in England [Karnakov 2009; Akimova 2011]. At the same time, domestic reformers do not take into account that even in the context of European integration processes, legal education continues to preserve specific national features that were formed along with the formation of law schools over several centuries. It is no coincidence that the four founding countries of the Bologna Process (Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy), countries with rich university traditions, including in the field of legal education, are gradually moving away from the generally accepted line of development, hindering the implementation of certain provisions of the Bologna Declaration. The variety of educational models for training lawyers largely depends on the traditional understanding of the legal profession in society. For example, in Germany, the crown of a legal career is considered to be the position of a judge, according to the American concept of success, this is the practice of law. Another factor that has a significant impact on the training of legal personnel is the legal system. Features of the Romano-Germanic legal family: the rule of law in the system of sources of law, a complex system of bylaws, the significant role of codified laws, the special position of legal doctrine in the process of interpreting law - make it necessary for the law enforcement officer to have sufficient theoretical training, while in the Anglo-Saxon legal family from a practicing lawyer is not required to know the basic principles of law, to be familiar with
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historical background, judicial methods or have a sufficient understanding of the relationship between legal and other aspects of public life. The ability to track, detect and work with regulatory information contained in legal precedent is key for them. Thus, the training of a lawyer cannot take place according to a certain “ideal model”; historical traditions and national traits will always prevail. However, this does not mean a complete lack of similarities in national legal education systems. For example, the legal education of European states is quite similar: it concerns training programs, methods and even development trends. At the same time, English legal education stands apart in the European family of law training systems, which is a kind of hostage to its own traditions and legal system.
"The English lawyer," F. Engels believed, "is based on such a historical development of law, which carried through the Middle Ages a significant portion of ancient German freedom, which does not know the police state, in the embryo strangled by the revolution of the 17th century, and which culminates in two centuries of continuous development of civil freedom "[Marx, Engels 1961: 475]. The German thinker pointed out that the originality of the legal profession in England is determined by the traditional conditions for the formation of a lawyer in this country.
The legal profession in England is divided into two categories,
formed in the XIII-XIV centuries. These are barristers and solicitors. Solicitors are a category of lawyers who prepare court materials for the conduct of cases by barristers. Solicitors also work as legal advisers in various
organizations and have the right to prosecute in the lower courts (county and city-county magistrates). Barristers are a category of higher rank lawyers who specialize in litigation.
The origin of legal education in England should be attributed to the XII century, when the first universities (Oxford and Cambridge) appeared on the territory of the state. Oxford University was founded by immigrants from France. In 1228, due to a conflict with the authorities, part of the teachers and students of the University of Paris, at the invitation of King Henry III, moved to England and organized a new university in Oxford [Aleksandrenko 1887: 14]. Later, due to similar contradictions, the University of Cambridge was formed by separation from Oxford University. The first English universities enjoyed the support of the kings and the church, which consisted in the gradual receipt of a number of privileges (exemption from the payment of a number of taxes, the obligation of the city authorities to annually confirm the rights of universities).
English university education was distinguished by its originality in terms of the organization of education and the form of teaching. The organizational structure of the university was the collegium system. Persons who devoted themselves to the study of science constituted a community - collegia. Internal organization such a collegium was determined by its charter. The founder of this system is considered Walter Merton, Chancellor of England, and later - Bishop of Rochester. In the charter that Merton drew up for his college, much was taken from the organization of monasteries: a group of people engaged in a common business, obeying general rules, having one head and somewhat isolated from the outside world. But at the same time, Merton abandoned the system of restrictions that existed in spiritual associations; on the contrary, members of the colleges were forbidden to make any vows [Ibid: 15-16]. Later, the colleges began to acquire financial independence and their own buildings. There were colleges at the expense of patrons, as well as for a fee paid
traditions and development prospects
students. Thus, under the English universities of that period it is necessary to understand precisely the system of colleges.
From this feature - the organization of the university - another specific feature of English higher education comes, which consists in the form and content of teaching. IN general course training included theology, verbal sciences, philosophy. Students were able to study civil law, canon law, medicine, or astronomy to obtain a Master of Science degree, according to their abilities and interests. In addition, the collegial organization of the university did not imply lectures: classes were held in the form of conversations between students and mentors. Such an organization educational process persisted with minor changes over several centuries. In the XVII century. the content of education given at the university has been partially adjusted. In 1636, at the suggestion of Chancellor Laud, rules were adopted according to which in the first year students studied grammar, including acquaintance with some ancient authors, the second year was devoted to the study of ethics, politics and logic, and the third and fourth years were devoted to the study of geometry, philosophy and Greek. A student who successfully completed such a course and passed the final exam received a bachelor's degree. Applicants for a master's degree were expected to study metaphysics, astronomy, natural philosophy, Greek and Hebrew for another three years.
Thus, higher education in England in the initial period of its existence it was a general education, the purpose of which was the preparation of a gentleman. In the conditions of the existence of parliamentary government, the absence of the need for a ramified bureaucratic apparatus in England, the development characteristic of other European states did not receive qualification requirement - a certain educational qualification.
But at the same time, there are areas of activity for which general education is not enough. For example, this is medicine and jurisprudence. The training of lawyers was carried out outside universities in special practice-oriented schools, since certain legal disciplines taught at universities were not in demand in legal practice.
The reason for the current situation in English jurisprudence is considered to be the clash and confrontation of two concepts regarding understanding the essence of English law and the vector of its development. The first was represented by the clergy who came to England with the Normans and sought to subordinate all civil legal relations to Roman law, and the state to papal decrees. Local lawyers had a different idea. According to E.V. Vaskovsky, lawyers in England appeared earlier than the 10th century. and were mostly of the clergy. However, starting from the XII century. numerous church councils forbade them to act as lawyers in secular courts [Vaskovsky 1893]. Another important factor that influenced the formation of the legal profession in England is considered to be the emergence of the Westminster Court, which was supposed to include 140 professional defenders [Ibid]. Thus, the legal profession in the XII-XIII centuries. was a fairly powerful consolidated group, firmly defending the position of national law.
On the other hand, being the heirs of the European university traditions, English scholars limited themselves to teaching Roman and canon law, which was in the spirit of the development of scientific legal thought in continental Europe. In universities, there was a widespread disdain for "native law", which consisted mainly of customs, while the courts required knowledge of this particular barbaric law: there were
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what is needed is lawyers who can handle a case under customary law, as well as judges who can "create" precedents.
The controversy regarding the development of English law was closely related to the training of legal personnel. This task was solved by creating special law schools - Inns of Court, which are still operating in England.
The appearance of inns dates back to the 13th century. and is associated with the desire to provide training for legal practitioners. In addition, in the Middle Ages, corporate organizations were typical of representatives of one professional group. Inns of Court is not only a training school. Individuals who graduated from the college continued to be considered its members throughout their lives, no matter what social position they occupied. The names of innam most often gave the location of the college. Thus, the first collegium in the time of its emergence was located in a building owned by the Earl of Lincoln, as a result of which it received the name of the Lincoln "s Inn. Three more collegiums subsequently emerged: Gray" s Inn, also named after the former owner the buildings - Gray, the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple - were located on the site of the former possessions of the order of the Templars (Templars). Training in such a college was like a boarding school. Colleges were housed in large buildings and had their own libraries, classrooms, chapels and living quarters for teachers and students. Education in the college was paid, and therefore the contingent of students consisted mainly of representatives of wealthy strata of society, and the legal profession was actually a closed caste. J. Fortescue, in his famous treatise on the laws of England, pointed out that the majority of English lawyers belong to aristocratic families.
Students of the college were not equal in their legal status and were divided into three categories: students of clerical colleges, students who received the right to teach younger students, students who received the right to practice in court, as well as those who were allowed to lecture and conduct disputes. The first stage of training for future lawyers took place in the so-called clerical inns. Initially, they were separated from the judicial collegiums and training in them was a necessary condition for admission to the judicial collegium. But gradually there was a process of combining judicial innovations with clerical ones, as a result of which the latter became the lowest step for those preparing for the title of law. The time spent in the first category, that is, in the clerical inn, was not regulated. Most sources talk about the need for mature age to move to the next category of students. The training program in the clerical college included the study of the nature of judicial acts, their structure, types and forms. Moreover, the students immediately began practical exercises: drawing up and checking such papers. Also at this stage, the student received a general education, took a course in music, dance, English and foreign languages... Moreover, unlike universities, innas studied not classical languages: Latin and
ancient Greek, and "live", mostly French. Such a didactic set should, in the opinion of the lawyers themselves, form the type of lawyer that best meets the requirements of the court and the position in society that he will occupy [Aleksandrenko 1887: 179]. However, over time, education at the lower level in clerical inns became optional and could be replaced by home education.
The second stage of training a lawyer involved a more detailed study of English law, also through practical training. Lecturing in inns was not practiced. Lectures were an exceptional form of conducting classes, on
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which speakers - the most talented and successful members of the legal community - shared their experience. After such a lecture, there was always a treat for all those present, which was associated with quite serious expenses that the lecturer bore. The researcher of English education V. Aleksandrenko names the amounts from 2,000 to 6,000 rubles (in terms of money of the 19th century) for one lecture! He also suggests that the unpopularity of the lecture system in English inns is connected, among other things, with this circumstance.
The duration of the second stage of training was three years and ended with the assignment of the title of innobarister, that is, a barrister (but within the legal community), who did not yet have the right to practice independently. The third period of study lasted for another five years and ended with the student receiving the right to practice outside the walls of the legal community.
Disputes were one of the widespread forms of education in inns. This form of education reached its greatest flourishing in the 15th-16th centuries, and by the end of the 17th century it became obsolete. However, in 1875, students of one of the inn proposed to restore this form of classes, but the procedure for conducting them was adjusted. In earlier periods, a dispute was a discussion of a legal problem that the participants did not know in advance. On the appointed day, the students in the presence of three foremen (from among the trainees of the last training period) and the rector discussed the proposed topic. As a rule, younger members of the community started the debate, then the more experienced students spoke, and in the end one of the elders made a summary of the debate and expressed their opinion. This form of training was of great importance for the development of dialectic abilities in future lawyers.
Renewed disputes of the 19th century model consisted of a specific court case from real practice. Often a case was selected for a dispute from an unfinished process, which allowed the courts to take into account the opinion of both young colleagues and experienced members of the legal community. The disputes were held twice a semester and required considerable preparation from the organizers. As before, the students of the last years supervised the lesson. The case proposed for discussion was carefully selected and had to be published in a periodical for general information. The dispute began with the presentation of the case materials by one of the presiding officers. This was followed by a discussion, the results of which were summed up by an experienced lawyer specially invited by the corporation. According to contemporaries, this form of study was “the best educational tool for lawyers and future practitioners” [Aleksandrenko 1887: 180].
Annual gala dinners were another form of corporate interaction in the inns. Attendance at such events served outward sign stay of students in the college. The appearance of such meals dates back to the Middle Ages, when a joint meal was an indispensable attribute of the communal way of life. By the 19th century, dinners had become part of the tradition, but visiting them was mandatory for those who had just entered the judicial inna, as well as for those who received another status in it. Such an event was intended to unite the legal community, to help establish links between its members.
Assessing this form of life of the legal community, contemporaries and descendants often expressed opposite judgments about expediency, excessive ceremoniality and tradition. For example, A. Kistyakovsky argued in his essay on the training of lawyers in England that such dinners "are a good school for young lawyers", because in
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private conversations at a meal, the trainee best assimilates what a continental European student receives by attending numerous lectures [Kistyakovsky 1863: 67]. On the contrary, soviet explorer IN AND. Popov
speaks scornfully of gala dinners in legal inns, which, in his opinion, make the trainee's stay in the community a formality [Popov 1980: 86].
Summarizing the consideration of legal education in England from the moment of its inception until the 19th century, it is important to note that starting from the 13th century. it consisted of two parallel existing systems: one - university,
which consisted in receiving a general education and studying Roman law, the other was training in inns, which was characterized by insufficient theoretical training and a noticeable predominance of practical training based on customary law. The originality of the approach to training lawyers was explained by the need for specialized training, which was determined by the nature of English law, based on custom and precedent.
From the first quarter of the XIX century. in the English legal press and in various government instances, they increasingly began to talk about the inadequate quality of legal education [Lawyers in England 1894]. The lack of a theoretical component in the learning process, as well as the low level of scientificity that was characteristic of the inns, was called its main shortcomings. In 1846 the British Parliament proposed to reform the existing system. According to the project, all four inns were to be united into one educational institution, which was to be guided by the theoretical and scientific nature of teaching. It was also planned to introduce a system of examinations in the learning process [Legal Education in England 1872: 59]. However, the judicial communities managed to defend their right to exist (they were not united) and to the form of training lawyers. Nevertheless, inns recognized the possibility of introducing additional theoretical pre-training. In 1852, four judicial communities developed a plan to improve legal education. The main resulting innovation was the formation of five departments for all communities with a unified system of examinations and requirements for conferring the status of a lawyer (barrister and solicitor) [Kistyakovsky 1863: 62]. Thus, the Department of General Jurisprudence and Civil Laws was established in the Middle Temple community. Teaching general jurisprudence implied the study of the foundations of law through its reflection through philosophical categories. In addition, this course included familiarization with the concepts of state law. Civil law, also provided for by this department, was understood primarily as roman law... In general, the teaching of the disciplines of this block was of a pronounced encyclopedic character.
The Gray’s Inn community had a department of common law, which meant national English law, based on precedent and jurisprudence, and which was opposed to statutory law. Thus, this department combined the disciplines of various branches of law: criminal law and procedure, civil law and procedure, administrative and constitutional law. But common English law in this sense is a fairly extensive object, so some of its elements constituted not only a separate discipline, but also a separate department. Thus, the Inn Temple corporation owns a department property rights, and
constitutional law in his historical development is the discipline of the fifth (common for all communities) department.
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The department, assigned to the Lincoln Inn community, represents a special system of law called Eguity - justice. The right to justice was created by the English courts, which took it upon themselves to make up for existing legislation characterized by incompleteness and injustice. Basically, this lawmaking concerned property relations. Gradually, along with the laws, whole system rules and regulations that have received the force of law. By the XIX century. Eguity has become a positive law. The norms of Eguity began to operate in the court of the Lord Chancellor, which has a special procedural order [Tonkov 2013: 14-15].
A specially created council of eight representatives from each judicial inna began to oversee the quality of teaching. Among the powers of the council was also the appointment of professors to general departments. The remaining teachers were assigned to the community.
By the middle of the XIX century. The educational program characteristic of the Inn included the following minimum of disciplines: the gradual development of law in the history of Roman and English laws, the influence of Roman law on the newest systems of law mainly in England and its colonies, Roman and French codes, their sources and compilation, jurisprudence, its area and connection with morality, the doctrine of the state, the doctrine of residence [Kistyakovsky 1863: 64]. To this set of theoretical disciplines, which were taught through lectures, was added a whole block of practical exercises, traditional for judicial communities.
This content of legal education was an attempt by the Inn to combine two models of training lawyers, theoretical and practical, and thereby, firstly, to eliminate all complaints from the public related to the lack of scientific knowledge in the learning process, and secondly, to preserve the form of training developed judicial communities, aimed at the formation of a lawyer-practitioner.
However, active criticism english version training of lawyers contributed to the development of university legal education. At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. new universities with law faculties are being created in England. Thus, the University of Liverpool has existed since 1881, a university in Manchester was formed from several educational institutions in 1903, a university in Leeds has been operating since 1904, and in Sheffield since 1908. Leaving the program features of individual universities outside the brackets, all the disciplines studied in the legal block can be combined into four basic courses typical for all law faculties. These are Roman law, general theory of law, public international law, English law, which includes constitutional law, criminal law and procedure, separate sub-branches of civil law, and justice. Thus, the university course in law has been noticeably adjusted in relation to the demands of reality. The universities began to study English law proper. At the same time, universities, as before, tried to provide general education, therefore, along with legal disciplines, English, Latin, history, mathematics, Greek (at Oxford and Cambridge) and other general subjects were also studied. In addition, the university entrance examination system was more rigorous than admission to judicial communities, which replaced the exam with the advice of an experienced inna member lawyer.
Another aspect leading to the conclusion about the loyalty of university education to the judicial communities was the work of universities to train
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students to pass the qualifying exam for the title of barrister, which was accepted by the Innas. But if the oldest schools (Oxford and Cambridge) only built the curriculum in such a way that it correlated with the content of the exam, then the newly created, “young” universities even introduced special courses aimed at preparing for such an exam [Elyashevich 1910: 213].
The resulting link between university legal education and training in inns made the English model of training lawyers almost ideal. At universities, future lawyers received a general education and studied legal disciplines in a theoretical context, practical skills and special legal courses were mastered by students already in judicial communities. However, one of the factors of ineffectiveness and inconsistency of such a setting in the training of lawyers was that for admission to an inna and for admission to the qualifying exam, the end of the university course was optional. Those wishing to become lawyers could, as in the Middle Ages, begin their studies in the judicial community. We do not have the relevant statistics for those years, however, according to the remarks of contemporaries, we can conclude that at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. educational trajectory lawyer, which includes secondary education, university and internship in inns, was the most common [Elyashevich 1910: 212].
The twentieth century made some adjustments to the structure and content of legal education. First, universities have taken the path of further strengthening the proportion of special legal disciplines in their educational programs. Second, learners vocational schools increasingly began to receive a university education.
As a rule, the first year of study at the university was assigned to general legal disciplines, and the next two years were devoted to in-depth study of special legal disciplines. So, in the middle of the twentieth century. the program of study at the University of Southampton Law School was as follows. In the first year of study, the following subjects were compulsory: legal methodology, constitutional law, the general part of contract law, criminal law. The second year of study included courses in comparative law, international public, family, land law, and tort. In the third year, a special part of contract law, property law, as well as the general theory of law [Training of legal personnel in foreign countries 1976: 47.]. Besides, curriculum additional disciplines of an optional nature were envisaged: administrative law, commercial law, conflict law, criminology, human rights, labor law, history of law, Roman law, urban development law, financial law. Students had to choose a minimum of two additional courses they would like to take.
The University of Cambridge program was distinguished by the presence of more disciplines of a historical and theoretical nature. The mandatory block included: Roman law, the history of Roman lawmaking, the application of Roman law, digests, an introduction to the history of the English legal system, an introduction to the history of constitutional law, an introduction to the history of international law, and a general theory of law. Special legal disciplines were represented by criminal law, courses of civil law, as well as some national branches of law (Muslim law, Scottish law, South African law) [Training of legal personnel in foreign countries 1976: 48.].
Education at the university on a similar program ends with a bachelor's degree humanities or bachelor of rights (difference in name
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degree depends on the university). A person with such a degree can continue their studies either at a lawyer's inn or at a university, thereby increasing their academic status. At the end of the second cycle of university studies, a Master of Laws or Bachelor of Comparative Law degrees are awarded. Among the students in the second cycle there may be persons who have decided to devote themselves scientific activitiesas well as barristers and solicitors already in professional practice but wishing to acquire a university degree. In the twentieth century. the fact of studying at the university began to play an important role in the future career of a lawyer, defining his higher position in society, which led to the influx of trainees from judicial inn in higher educational institutions. Thus, the tensions that existed in previous periods between lawyers studying at universities and in
professional communities can be viewed as an atavism. Modern English lawyers independently combine both forms of education. The transition between different levels and forms of education and at the same time the assessment of the student's abilities is the system of examinations, which is provided both in universities and in law firms.
Studying at the university in the second cycle finally determines the specialization of the future lawyer. That is why applicants apply for the second university cycle. Having legal practice, they thus expect to improve their qualifications. The most common specializations that exist in English universities are the following: "private law", "public law", "Roman law and Roman jurisprudence", "history of English law", "English law", "comparative and foreign law", etc. The above examples allow us to conclude that there are two groups of specializations: practice-oriented, popular, like
as a rule, among interns of inn, as well as of a theoretical nature, with the goal of preparing for research activities.
Thus, modern legal education in England is becoming more and more practical. Law programs must meet the standards of the Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education.
At the same time, all Bachelor of Law programs that count towards admission to a regulated legal profession must be approved by the professional community (Joint College of Higher Education (combines the Barristers' Standards Commission and the Solicitors Regulatory Authority)). The College is responsible for the development and implementation of academic training standards for solicitors and barristers. It establishes the requirements for a diploma, which provides access to regulated professions, the general professional examination, and master's degree programs.
This does not mean that universities can only introduce such legal education programs. They can offer their law training program without meeting the requirements of the College. But since students are attracted to programs that meet the requirements of the College, law schools prefer to introduce them.
Two thirds of the disciplines of the program are compulsory. The content of compulsory disciplines must meet the requirements of the College. There are seven main subjects: criminal law, securities and fiduciary law, EU law, contract law, obligations arising from harm, property and land law, public law (constitutional
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law, administrative law and human rights). Jurisprudence is often taught in a social, economic and political context, although the exact content of courses from different universities (and even different professors) may differ significantly. In addition, students must take part in scientific research... Practical exercises are not a mandatory component of the program, but they are allowed to be included in it.
However, in addition to lectures and small group workshops, many law schools are increasingly using role-playing methods and law clinics. Sometimes these methods are initiated and organized by the students themselves on a voluntary basis. Increasingly, teachers and representatives of law firms are taking part in this activity. However, this activity is carried out on a voluntary basis and not all students participate in it.
On the basis of these requirements, universities independently develop training programs and requirements for graduates. Compliance with the standards of the Agency and the Board is ensured by the control of the Agency's auditors, through inspections by the Board, internal audit, through regular internal audits and external controllers.
The goal of legal education is that by the end of the course the student has basic knowledge, understands the main features of the legal system, and has the skills to apply existing knowledge and suggestions in solving specific problems. A typical set of knowledge and skills expected from a law school graduate is as follows.
Students must:
know and understand the basic doctrines and principles that underlie the law of England and Wales, in particular as part of the course "Foundations of Legal Knowledge";
to acquire basic knowledge about the sources of this right, its origin or development; about the institutions within which this right is exercised and the persons carrying out practical activities in the field of law;
develop the ability to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of a wide range of legal concepts, values \u200b\u200band norms of England and to explain the relationship between them in a number of specific areas;
acquire the intellectual and practical skills necessary for legal research and analysis on a specific issue based on primary legal sources, as well as apply the results of such work to solve legal problems;
have the ability to present research and analysis results orally and in writing in accordance with the needs of different target audiences.
Students should be able to:
apply your knowledge to solve complex situations;
identify potential alternative solutions for specific situations and formulate justifications for each decision;
identify and clearly formulate research questions;
use traditional and electronic resources to obtain up-to-date information;
formulate informed judgments based on a deep understanding of standard argumentation in the relevant field of law;
use English and legal terminology accurately and appropriately;
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conduct an effective search for the necessary information on the Internet; exchange information by email and manage the exchange of information by email;
prepare texts using a computer and present them in the required form.
In the UK, there is no consensus on the balance of theoretical and practical components in curricula... The dominant point of view is that legal education is a kind of liberal education... The academic community tends to view law primarily as a theoretical discipline. Only after obtaining a basic degree in law is it permissible for practical training through appropriate programs and internships organized by the professional community. In recent years, there has been more and more talk about the need to smooth out the differences between the academic and professional stages of legal education.
Nevertheless, for the time being, practical components are in most cases included in the training programs for lawyers as additional or optional courses. Many in the academic community believe that practical training should only begin after completing a basic degree in law through appropriate practical programs and internships organized by professional communities. One of the obstacles to such integration is the fact that many university teachers are not certified lawyers and have very limited experience. practical work... The criteria for evaluating their academic performance and even funding universities are also largely based on the amount of research they do.
Speaking about teaching methodology, it is important to note that lectures and seminars in small groups, which are complemented by the use of electronic resources... Law school teaching or assessment methods can include practical elements. Currently, role-playing games and legal clinics are increasingly being introduced. During their studies, students interested in legal practice have the opportunity to contact professional lawyers, who, in turn, are interested in best students - their future employees and colleagues. These students actively seek temporary employment at law firms that offer summer internship programs. Some students, at the end of their second year of study, enter into formal relationships with large law firms, which may partially finance their further education. Thus, students planning a legal career can relatively early stages learning to meet the requirements of the professional community.
Obtaining a Bachelor of Laws degree opens up the opportunity to gain access to post-academic training. Note that bachelors in other programs also have the right to gain access to the profession. They undergo a one-year retraining course, as a result of which they receive a diploma of higher legal education.
After completing a bachelor's degree, solicitors undergo legal practice for a year. The task of this stage of training a lawyer is to develop the skills and abilities necessary for advocacy. The form and content of the courses are strictly controlled by the professional community. Their governing bodies approve course programs, a list of organizations that have the right to conduct them, set standards (they include a list of required
LEGAL SCIENCES
practical skills). Solicitors, unlike barristers, have many vacancies in the legal practice course. At the end of the course, exams are taken.
The final stage of training a solicitor is 2 years of internship. Essentially, it is professional training under the guidance of a practicing lawyer. The applicant independently searches for an internship. Limited number of seats. The internship should prepare students for practical activities as solicitors. The country has a description of the course (77 pages), which includes a detailed listing of all the necessary practical skills.
The completion of the barrister's training is structured similarly. After obtaining a Bachelor of Laws degree, a one-year practical training course follows, within the framework of which the skills and abilities necessary for advocacy are formed. The form and content of the courses are strictly controlled by the professional community. Its governing bodies approve course programs, a list of organizations that have the right to develop them, set standards (they include a list of necessary practical skills). To enroll in these courses, barristers must pass a rigorous selection process, join one of four legal inn.
The final stage is a one-year internship. The applicant is looking for an internship place himself. During the internship under the guidance of an experienced barrister, the trainee gains practical skills in working with court cases, searching for legal information; general document drafting skills, drafting legal opinions (i.e. written advice); interpersonal skills; skills in consulting (conversations with clients), etc. The internship is divided into two stages: 1) student; lasts six months; the trainee oversees the mentor and works under his supervision; 2) practical, when the trainee, having received the approval of the curator, provides legal services and appears in court.
So, the formation of the system of training lawyers in the UK has gone through several stages. Each of them was looking for the optimal combination of academic and practical training. In general, the English system differs in that the center of gravity is shifted towards practical training within the framework of certain professional associations. In any case, the ideal (organic) balance between theoretical and practical training is found in such a format when both segments are represented either in equal shares, or with a certain predominance of internship.
The constant and rather strong influence of professional communities can be considered as another tradition of English education. Their representatives, using various tools, strive to maximize the effectiveness of the legal education system in preparing students for future professional careers. At the same time, all major stakeholders clearly understand that professional competence formed in the process professional activity... And therefore, as noted above, attention is so focused on it.
Bibliographic list
Akimova E. Ya. Features of the legal regulation of the formation of the judiciary in Germany // Russian justice... 2011. No. 8. S. 84-95.
Aleksandrenko V. From history english universities // Legal Bulletin. 1887. No. 9. S. 3-31; No. 10. S. 175-192.
Auditorium: electronic scientific journal of Kursk State University. 2014. No. 2
Zakharov V.V., Ilyina T.N. Legal education in the UK:
traditions and development prospects
E.V. Vaskovsky Organization of the legal profession. T. 1.SPb., 1893.
Elyashevich F. State of the art legal education in England // Journal of the Department of Justice. 1910. No. 4. S. 208-216.
Karnakov Ya.V. Features of legal education in the United States // Law. 2009. No. 3. P. 73-84
Kistyakovsky A. Legal education in London lawyers' communities - Inns Of Court // Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1863. LI. P. 67.
K. Marx, F. Engels, Soch. 2nd edition. T. 21.M., 1961.S. 475.
Training of legal personnel in foreign countries. Moscow: VNIISZ Publishing House, 1976.195 p.
Popov V.I. Training of lawyers in England // Jurisprudence. 1980. No. 2. S. 86-91. E.N. Tonkov Interpretation of the law in England. Saint Petersburg: Aleteya, 2013.352 p. Legal education in England // Vestnik Demidov juridical lyceum. 1872. Book 2. S. 59-82.
Lawyers in England // Russkie vedomosti. 1894. No. 98, p. 3.
Andrew Edgar Inns // Law Magazine and Review. 1872. No. 1.
Solicitors Regulation Authority. Completing the academic stage of training: Guidance for providers of recognized law programs at: httn: //www.sra.org.uk/documents/student.s/acariemic-stage/academicstageguide.pdf (accessed 1 March 2012 .).
Clinical Legal Education Organization Materials // www.ukcle.ac.uk/rencT04HHK:s/clinic/index.html (accessed 23 May 2013). http://www.qaa.ac.uk (date accessed: 30.08.2013).
http://www.sra.org.uk/documents/students/lpc/info-pack.pdf (date accessed:
ACLEC First Report op. cit 211-2.13; 2.21 Heppie "The liberal law degree" (1996) Cambridge Law Journal 470, at 471 (accessed 30.08.2013).
An overview of the practice of Kent Law School. URL: http: //www.ukcle.ac.iik/newsevents/lllac/2010/papers/carr.html (date accessed.
There are two types of lawyers in England - solicitor and barrister. A barister is a lawyer who conducts court cases, speaks to a judge, prepares documents for a court, etc. Solicitors after 1990 also received the right to appear before a judge if they have a special certificate. Although a solicitor (with a certificate) has the right to speak before a judge, there are very few such solicitors and the practice has developed in such a way that they still attract baristers to appear before a judge (a solicitor cannot appear in court above the High Court level - that is, solicitors cannot appear in the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court of England.
In England (that is, not in Britain, but in England) in 2008 there were 112.2 thousand solicitors and about 16.5 thousand baristas. From 1997 to 2008, the number of lawyers in England increased by over 50%. In England, it is very easy to check whether a person is a solicitor or not - you just need to drive in the person's data using this link - http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/choosingandusing/findasolicitor/view\u003dsolsearch.law
In the blog, I will cover mainly the activities of the solicitor, since it is the solicitors who are involved in 90% of cases as legal advisers.
In order to become a solicitor, you need to have a law degree. This is either (1) a Bachelor of Law in England (3 years) (LLB) or (2) a Bachelor of Anything (you can not in England) plus a one-year very intensive course (called GDL - Graduate Diploma in Law). Since I have a Ukrainian education, I followed the path of "Ukrainian bachelor" plus GDL.
Also, in addition (regardless of whether the person received a Bachelor of Laws in England or a Bachelor plus GDL), you still need to take a one-year LPC (Legal Practice Course) course. That is, in my case it was education in Ukraine plus GDL (year) and LPC (year). GDL and LPC cost about 8 and 12 thousand pounds respectively.
In addition to legal education, you also need to undergo an internship in a law firm (training contract) for two years in 4 different departments for 6 months in each department or 4 months in 6 departments - in each firm in different ways. Education is relatively easy. What is really difficult is getting a training contract - the competition today in good firms is about 20-40 people per place. In England, more than half of people with a legal education will never work as lawyers (they will not even start), since firms have a limited number of places per year for those who will undergo training contracts (the number of training contracts is several times less than the number of graduating lawyers).
If you become a solicitor, then you have to go through training all your life and receive a certificate every year, which costs a little more than $ 1,600 a year (although if you work for a law firm, the firm covers these costs). This fee goes to the organization that regulates the activities of lawyers. If you do not have a certificate, but continue to provide services as a soloist, then it is a criminal offense.
I will make the next entry about how lawyers are regulated in England - what they can do, what they cannot, what rules are in force in the market.
UK legal qualifications are widely recognized and respected in many countries. The variety of courses, study modes, the ability to combine courses, the presence of universities and faculties offering either only jurisprudence, or a combination of courses - all this speaks of the extreme flexibility of approaches to studying law in the UK.
However, in order to become a practicing lawyer, as a rule, one higher education diploma is not enough. The choice of the program depends on the career prospects of the applicant. The steps that students wishing to practice law in the UK must pass are different from those required for employment in Russia. Obtaining a legal education in the UK is a long, complicated and expensive process. Before making such a responsible decision, answer yourself the questions - where do you plan to live and work after obtaining the qualification, and what exactly do you want to do?
Who are solicitors and barristers?
These are the types of practicing lawyers in the UK. The educational path is different for different types.
- Solicitors (solicitors) do a wide variety of legal work, such as corporate transactions, property transfer cases and litigation. They can be narrow specialists and broad specialists. Those who specialize in litigation can do so only in lower courts (they will be allowed to appear in higher courts by acquiring additional, higher qualifications). Many solicitors are in private practice, and many work in the legal departments of public or private organizations.
- Barrister (barristers / attorneys), also called advisers or legal advisers, work as lawyers in any court.
- Legal advisers, whose work resembles that of solicitors, but who usually specialize in a specific field, for example, in the field of transfer of property rights, in the field of litigation or in inheritance cases. They work with solicitors in England, Wales, and in the legal departments of public or private organizations.
So, you want to practice law in the UK.
- After leaving school in the Russian Federation you will need to go through the steps:
1) Obtaining a complete secondary education in accordance with the British education system
A-Levels
2 years
2) Academic Stage (academic level)
LLB (Bachelor of Laws)
2 years
3) Vocational Stage (professional stage)
Legal Practice Course (LPC)
1 year
4) Workplace training (practical level)
Training Contract
Pupillage
2 years
- With higher education , obtained in Russia (legal or any other) or UK higher education not in the field of law, as well as in the case of a non-academic legal degree with relevant professional experience, the following scheme applies:
1) Academic Stage (academic level)
Graduate Diploma in Law (GDL)
1 year
2) Vocational Stage (professional stage)
Legal Practice Course (LPC) - for those who plan to qualify as a solicitor
Bar Professional Training Course (BPTC) - for those who plan to qualify as a barrister
1 year
3) Workplace training (practical level)
Training Contract - to qualify as a solicitor
Pupillage - to qualify as a barrister
2 years
- If you are a certified practicing lawyer in your country You can become a solicitor or barrister in England and Wales, bypassing the normal qualifications process but passing specific exams.
Qualified Lawyers Transfer Test (QLTT) - for those who plan to practice in the UK as a solicitor
B ar Transfer Test (BTT) - to obtain the British qualification barrister (barrister)
If you want to practice law in Russia.
For those who plan to work in Russia after completing their legal education in the UK, the most suitable course of study would be a program leading to an LLM (Master of Laws) degree.
In Russia, holders of LLM overseas legal degrees are considered generalists. To be able to study on an LLM program in the UK, the candidate must have a Russian higher education (in any field) or a British LLB degree, good knowledge of English language, summary and recommendations.
The program is very convenient for those who need a law degree to advance their careers. Many Russian lawyers strive to obtain exactly the LLM degree for successful work in Russia in an international company.
Program Graduate Diploma in the UK is a preparation course for international students who have graduated in their home country and are planning to continue their studies in a master's degree british university... The program focuses on language and academic preparation, and also includes the development of students' research and study skills for further successful graduate studies.
Hi everyone!
This blog might be interesting for those who:
1.Works in the civil service or is related to politics - I am absolutely sure that if at least 10% of what I write here will be used in Ukraine (in the field of administrative, constitutional, criminal, financial law, judicial system, etc. ), then our country will rush forward and we will be able to build a legal state very quickly.
2. He wants to organize his legal business in Ukraine - firms have existed in London for centuries and here is the largest legal business on the planet (the three largest law firms on the planet are English firms) - therefore, the things that I will write about here can be safely taken on arms for all those who want to build a correct legal business focused on the long term.
3. Wants to work as a lawyer in England - I will write a lot about how you become a lawyer here, what qualities you need to have for this, how legal education is built here, etc.
4. Often works with English law firms - I will periodically write about the most important concepts of English law and especially cover those aspects that are unknown to Ukrainian law or are fundamentally different from it.
A few words about myself: I just started a training contract as a trainee solicitor in English law firm Linklaters LLP. Linklaters in 2008 became the largest law firm by revenues on the planet (http://amlawdaily.typepad.com/amlawdaily/2009/07/linklaters-results-.html). The phenomenal success of this company is especially interesting and I want to devote a separate post to this company (but not now). I have already lived in London for 4 years and all this time I have been combining study and work. Before coming to London, I worked in the civil service and in a law firm in Ukraine.
The blog entries will be structured in such a way that I will periodically write about those aspects that are especially important for the lawyer and legal business (commercial, ethical, career aspects, etc.) and how it all happens in England. My first entries will concern common system legal "infrastructure" in England, and only then I will "string" other facts and events that are relevant to English lawyers and to English law in general.
All records that I will make are for informational purposes only and provide only basic information. I deliberately omit many details to make it easier and more interesting to read. If someone is interested in some aspect, then Google will always come to the rescue.
So ... Entry 1
What is a lawyer in England?
There are two types of lawyers in England - solicitor and barrister. A barister is a lawyer who conducts court cases, speaks before a judge, prepares documents for a court, etc. Solicitors after 1990 also received the right to appear before a judge if they have a special certificate. Although a solicitor (with a certificate) has the right to speak before a judge, there are very few such solicitors and the practice has developed in such a way that they still attract baristers to appear before a judge (a solicitor cannot appear in court above the High Court level - that is, solicitors cannot appear in the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court of England.
In England (that is, not in Britain, but in England) in 2008 there were 112.2 thousand solicitors and about 16.5 thousand baristas. From 1997 to 2008, the number of lawyers in England increased by over 50%. In England, it is very easy to check whether a person is a solicitor or not - you just need to drive in the person's data using this link - http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/choosingandusing/findasolicitor/view\u003dsolsearch.law
In the blog, I will cover mainly the activities of the solicitor, since it is the solicitors who are involved in 90% of cases as legal advisers.
In order to become a solicitor, you need to have a law degree. This is either (1) a Bachelor of Law in England (3 years) (LLB) or (2) a Bachelor of Anything (you can not in England) plus a one-year very intensive course (called GDL - Graduate Diploma in Law). Since I have a Ukrainian education, I followed the path of "Ukrainian bachelor" plus GDL.
Also, in addition (regardless of whether the person received a Bachelor of Laws in England or a Bachelor plus GDL), you still need to take a one-year LPC (Legal Practice Course) course. That is, in my case it was education in Ukraine plus GDL (year) and LPC (year). GDL and LPC cost about 8 and 12 thousand pounds respectively.
In addition to legal education, you also need to undergo an internship in a law firm (training contract) for two years in 4 different departments for 6 months in each department or 4 months in 6 departments - in each firm in different ways. Education is relatively easy. What is really difficult is getting a training contract - the competition today in good firms is about 20-40 people per place. In England, more than half of people with a legal education will never work as lawyers (they will not even start), since firms have a limited number of places per year for those who will undergo training contracts (the number of training contracts is several times less than the number of graduating lawyers).
If you become a solicitor, then you have to go through training all your life and receive a certificate every year, which costs a little more than $ 1,600 a year (although if you work for a law firm, the firm covers these costs). This fee goes to the organization that regulates the activities of lawyers. If you do not have a certificate, but continue to provide services as a soloist, then it is a criminal offense.
I will make the next entry about how lawyers are regulated in England - what they can do, what they cannot, what rules are in force in the market.
And now the same thing, but in Ukrainian - mine good friend Svetlana made a translation of the first entry in order to promote the Ukrainian language (thanks to Sveta !!!):
Privit usim! If you read the numbers, then you will soon be a lawyer, or if you want them to do something, or if you just read a professional. The main idea of \u200b\u200bthis blog is the idea of \u200b\u200bbeing a lawyer in England and the life of a lawyer here. I got a lot of attention on the whole blog to start a steady stream of new knowledge, and I didn’t want to transfer the knowledge to us. Oskilki I am a qualified lawyer in Ukraine (that is, I’m a lawyer’s testimony and a singing admission), and two times later I can recognize the qualifications of a lawyer in England, and I’ll be able to predict the situation in Ukraine, too. in the same countries, including the countries of the SND, the USA, Asia and the EU.
Tsey blog can be quiet, hto:
1. Pratsyu on the state services, I am absolutely convinced of the fact that I want to write 10% of the fact that I am writing here, being victorious in Ukraine (in the sphere of administrative, constitutional, criminal law, judicial .ін.), then our land is rushing forward, and perhaps even more quickly zbuduvati the right state.
2. If you want to organize your own legal business in Ukraine - in London, see companies in the capital, and here you can find the best legal business on the planet (three of the most legal companies on the planet - here are the English ones) revitalizing all team members, who would like to create the correct legal business, are organizing for a dovgostrokov perspective.
3. If you want to be a lawyer in England - I will write a lot about those who are here to become a lawyer, as for the mother's demand, as the legal education is prompted here.
4. Often practice with English legal firms - I will periodically write about the most important concepts of English law, and especially open up those aspects, as it is impossible for Ukrainian law to be the root of all this time.
Dekilka to myself: I have successfully opted for a training contract as a trainee solicitor in the English legal company “Linklaters LLP”. Linklaters in 2008 became the largest legal company in terms of revenues on the planet (http://amlawdaily.typepad.com/amlawdaily/2009/07/linklaters-results-.html). The phenomenal success of the whole company є especially the tsikavim, and I want to dedicate an okremier post to the company (ale not at once). I already live 4 rock music in London and have spent the whole hour visiting a robot. Before coming to London, I have worked on government services and in the legal firm in Ukraine.
Entries in the blog will be motivated by such a rank, that I periodically write about those aspects that are especially important for a lawyer and legal business (commercial, ethical, caring aspects of thinness), and how to value everything in English. My first records will be able to go back to the foreign system of legal "infrastructure" in England, and then I will "string up" the facts and reasons, which may be related to the English law and the English law. All the records, as I will be robotic, may be aware of the character and will deprive you of the basic information. I am not overlooking a lot of details, more simply and more readily. If you want to cast in such an aspect, if you help, if you will come, Kuґl.
Otzhe ... Entry 1
Who is such a lawyer in England?
There are two types of lawyers in England - solicitor and barrister. A barister is a lawyer, who knows how to do justice, who stands before the judge, and is ready to document for the court. The solisitori in 1990 was also denied the right to stand in front of the judge, as they have a special certificate. If I want a solicitor (from a certificate) and I have the right to stand in front of a judge, there are still few such solisitors, and the practice was of such a rank that for appearing before a judge I still get baristers (a solicitor cannot stand in a High Court in the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court. In England (not in Britain, but in England itself) in 2008 there were 112.2 thousand solicitors and nearly 16.5 thousand barysters. From 1997 to 2008 The number of lawyers in England has grown by 50%.
In England, it is even easy to confuse, є lyudin is a solicitor of chi ni - it is necessary to simply enter the dans of people for the sake of their power - http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/choosingandusing/findasolicitor/view\u003dsolsearch.law
In blots, I will be the leading rank of the solicitor's power, and some of the solicitors themselves will be awarded to 90% of the candidates as legal experts.
In order to become a solicitor, the mother needs legal knowledge. Tse abo (1) bachelor of law in england (3 rocky) - LLB), or (2) bachelor's degree (maybe not in england) plus a one-time intensive course (called GDL - Graduate Diploma in Law). Oskilki in me є Ukrainian legal education, I have chosen the "Ukrainian Bachelor" plus GDL. Also, it is necessary to complete a one-time LPC (Legal Practice Course) course (not only because of the fact that Lyudmila Bachelor of Laws in England gave her bachelor's degree plus GDL). Tobto my vipadku is the price of education in Ukraine plus GDL (rik) and LPC (rik). GDL and LPC cost close to 8 and 12 thousand pounds per unit.
In the context of legal education, it is also necessary to undergo an internship in a law firm (training contract) for two years at 4 different departments, 6 months each at the skin department, or 4 months each in 6 departments - at the skin department in a reasonable way. Rewrite the light - it's pretty easy. From the very efficiently foldable - the process of ruling out the training contract - competition in good companies for the season here, 20-40 people per place. In England, more than half of the people with legal education do not qualify for lawyers (know or do not know).
As soon as you became a solicitor, then in the goiters, all life goes through trainings and skin fatigue and a certificate, which is more than 1600 dollars. on rik (well, if you are praying in law, then the company is pokryvaє ci vitrati). Tsey of additions will eliminate the organization, which regulates the activity of lawyers. If you don’t get a certificate, but you will continue to give servants as a solicitor, a criminal punishment.
An offensive my record will be about those who are regulated by lawyers in England - there can be a stench, but you can't, as there are rules to go to the market.