1) an increase in the well-being and social protection of people;2) weakening of confrontation between people;3) approval of democracy;4) the growth of morality and spirituality of society;5) improving human relations;6) the measure of freedom that society is able to provide to an individual, the degree of individual freedom guaranteed by society.

Philosophy: basic problems, concepts, terms. Textbook Volkov Vyacheslav Viktorovich

SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT

SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT

The reasons for the development of society

Materialists argue that the study of the causes of social development should begin with a study of the process of production of immediate life, with an explanation practices from ideas, not ideological formations from practice.

Then it turns out that the source of social development is the contradiction (struggle) between the needs of people and the possibilities of their satisfaction. The possibilities for satisfying needs depend on the development and struggle of two factors: productive forces and production relations, which constitute the mode of production of material life, which determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. Historical types of production relations are determined by the formation stages of the development of productive forces.

At a certain stage of its development, the productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production. From forms of development of the productive forces, these relations are transformed into their fetters. Then the era of social revolution begins. With a change in the economic basis, a revolution in the superstructure is taking place more or less quickly. When considering such upheavals, it is always necessary to distinguish between the upheaval in the economic conditions of production and the legal, political, religious, artistic and philosophical forms in which people are aware of this conflict and struggle with it.

The essence idealistic understanding of history lies in the fact that the study of society begins not with an analysis of the results of practical activity, but with a consideration of its ideological motives. The main factor of development is seen in the political, religious, theoretical struggle, and material production is seen as a secondary factor. And then, consequently, the history of mankind appears not as the history of social relations, but as history, morality, law, philosophy, etc.

Methods for the development of society:

Evolution (from Latin evolutio - deployment, changes). In a broad sense, this is any development. In a narrow sense, it is a process of gradual accumulation of quantitative changes in society, which prepare qualitative changes.

Revolution (from Lat. revolution - revolution) - qualitative changes, a radical revolution in social life, ensuring progressive progressive development. A revolution can take place throughout society (social revolution) and in its individual spheres (political, scientific, etc.).

Evolution and revolution do not exist without each other. Being two opposites, they, at the same time, are in unity: evolutionary changes sooner or later lead to revolutionary, qualitative transformations, and these, in turn, give scope to the stage of evolution.

Direction of social development:

First group thinkers argues that the historical process is characterized by cyclical orientation (Plato, Aristotle, O. Spengler, N. Danilevsky, P. Sorokin).

Second group insists that the dominant direction of social development is regressive (Hesiod, Seneca, Boistilbert).

Third group States that progressive the thrust of the story prevails. Humanity develops from less perfect to more perfect (A. Augustine, G. Hegel, K. Marx).

Generally progress - this is movement forward, from lower to higher, from simple to complex, transition to a higher stage of development, change to the better; development of the new, advanced; it is a process of the ascending development of mankind, which involves a qualitative renewal of life.

Stages of historical development

Theoretical constructions of the progressive stage development of society were proposed by both idealists and materialists.

An example of an idealistic interpretation of progress can be the concept three-stage development of society, belonging to I. Iselen (1728-1802), according to which humanity in its development goes through successive stages: 1) the domination of feelings and primitive simplicity; 2) the predominance of fantasies over feelings and softening of morals under the influence of reason and education; 3) the domination of reason over feelings and fantasy.

In the era of the Enlightenment, in the works of such outstanding scientists and thinkers as A. Turgot, A. Smith, A. Barnav, S. Desnitsky and others, a materialistic four-stage the concept of progress (hunter-gatherer stage, pastoral, agricultural and commercial), based on the analysis of technological methods of production, geographic environment, human needs and other factors.

K. Marx and F. Engels, having systematized and, as it were, summing up all the teachings on social progress, developed the theory of social formations.

Karl Marx's theory of social formations

According to K. Marx, humanity in its development goes through two global periods: "the kingdom of necessity", that is, subordination to any external forces and the "kingdom of freedom." The first period, in turn, has its own stages of ascent - social formations.

Public formation, according to K. Marx, it is a stage in the development of society, distinguished on the basis of the sign of the presence or absence of antagonistic classes, exploitation and private property. Marx considers three social formations: “primary”, archaic (pre-economic), “secondary” (economic) and “tertiary”, communist (post-economic), the transition between which occurs in the form of long-term qualitative leaps - social revolutions.

Social being and social consciousness

Social being -it is the practical life of society. Practice (Greek praktikos - active) - this feeling is a substantive, purposeful joint activity of people in the development of natural and social objects in accordance with their needs and demands. Only a person is able to practically and transformatively relate to the natural and social world around him, creating the necessary conditions for life, changes in the surrounding world, social relations, and society as a whole.

The measure of mastering the objects of the surrounding world is expressed in the forms of practice, which are of a historical nature, that is, they change with the development of society.

Forms of practice (according to the means of life of society): material production, social activities, scientific experimentation, technical activities.

Perfection material production, his

productive forces and production relations, is a condition, basis and driving force of all social development. Just as a society cannot stop consuming, so it cannot stop producing. Tru

Social activities is the improvement of social forms and relations (class struggle, war, revolutionary changes, various processes of management, service, etc.).

Scientific experimentation - This is a test for the truth of scientific knowledge before its widespread use.

Technical activities today constitute the core of the productive forces of society in which a person lives, have a significant impact on all social life and on the person himself.

Public conscience (according to its content) - this is

a set of ideas, theories, views, traditions, feelings, norms and opinions, which reflect the social existence of a particular society at a certain stage of its development.

Public conscience (by the method of formation and the mechanism of functioning) is not a simple sum of individual consciousnesses, but is what is common that is contained in the consciousness of members of society, as well as the result of unification, the synthesis of common ideas.

Public conscience (in essence) - This is a reflection of social being through ideal images in the minds of social subjects and in an active reverse impact on social being.

The laws of interaction between public consciousness and social life:

1. The law of the relative correspondence of social consciousness to the structure, logic of functioning and changes in social life. Its content is revealed in the following main features:

In epistemological terms, social being and social consciousness are two absolute opposites: the first determines the second;

In functional terms, social consciousness can sometimes develop without social being and social being can in some cases develop without the influence of social consciousness.

2. The law of active influence of public consciousness on social life. This law manifests itself through the interaction of social consciousnesses of various social groups, with a decisive spiritual influence of the dominant social group.

These laws were substantiated by K. Marx.

Levels of public consciousness:

Ordinary level constitute public views that arise and exist on the basis of direct reflection by people of social life, based on their immediate needs and interests. The empirical level is characterized by: spontaneity, not strict systematization, instability, emotional coloring.

Theoretical level social consciousness differs from the empirical in greater completeness, stability, logical harmony, depth and systematic reflection of the world. Knowledge at this level is obtained mainly on the basis of theoretical research. They exist in the form of ideology and natural science theories.

Forms of consciousness (on the subject of reflection): political, moral, religious, scientific, legal, aesthetic, philosophical.

Morality is a type of spiritual and practical activity aimed at regulating public relations and people's behavior with the help of public opinion. Moral expresses an individual slice of morality, that is, its refraction in the consciousness of a single subject.

Morality includes moral conscience, moral behavior and moral attitudes.

Moral (moral) consciousness is a set of ideas and views about the nature and forms of people's behavior in society, their relationship to each other, therefore, it plays the role of a regulator of people's behavior. In the moral consciousness, the needs and interests of social subjects are expressed in the form of generally recognized ideas and concepts, prescriptions and assessments supported by the power of mass examples, habits, public opinion, and traditions.

The moral consciousness includes: values \u200b\u200band value orientations, ethical feelings, moral judgments, moral principles, categories of morality and, of course, moral norms.

Features of moral consciousness:

First, the moral norms of behavior are supported only by public opinion and therefore the moral sanction (approval or condemnation) has an ideal character: a person must realize how his behavior is assessed public opinion, accept this and adjust your behavior for the future.

Secondly, moral consciousness has specific categories: good, evil, justice, duty, conscience.

Thirdly, moral norms apply to such relationships between people that are not regulated by state bodies (friendship, camaraderie, love).

Fourthly, there are two levels of moral consciousness: ordinary and theoretical. The first reflects the real mores of society, the second forms the ideal predicted by society, the sphere of abstract obligation.

Justice occupies a special place in the moral consciousness. Consciousness of justice and attitude towards it at all times have been a stimulus for the moral and social activity of people. Nothing significant in the history of mankind has been accomplished without the awareness and demand for justice. Therefore, the objective measure of justice is historically conditioned and relative: there is no single justice for all times and for all peoples. The concept and requirements of justice change with the development of society. Only the criterion of justice remains absolute - the degree of compliance of human actions and relations with social and moral requirements achieved at a given level of development of society. The concept of justice is always the implementation of the moral essence of human relations, the concretization of what is due, the implementation of relative and subjective ideas about good and evil.

The most ancient principle - "Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself" - is considered the golden rule of morality.

Conscience - This is a person's ability to moral self-determination, to self-assessment of personal attitude to the environment, to the moral norms in force in society.

Political consciousness is a set of feelings, stable moods, traditions, ideas and theoretical systems that reflect the fundamental interests of large social groups regarding the conquest, retention and use of state power. Political consciousness differs from other forms of social consciousness not only in the specific object of reflection, but also in other features:

More specifically expressed subjects of cognition.

The predominance of those ideas, theories and feelings that circulate for a short time and in a more compressed social space.

Legal consciousness

Right is a type of spiritual and practical activity aimed at regulating social relations and people's behavior with the help of the law. Legal awareness is an element of law (along with legal relations and legal activity).

Legal awareness there is a form of public consciousness in which the knowledge and assessment of legal laws adopted in a given society, the legality or illegality of the actions, rights and obligations of members of society are expressed.

Aesthetic consciousness - there is an awareness of social being in the form of concrete-sensual, artistic images.

The reflection of reality in aesthetic consciousness is carried out through the concept of the beautiful and ugly, sublime and base, tragic and comic in the form of an artistic image. At the same time, aesthetic consciousness cannot be identified with art, since it permeates all spheres of human activity, and not only the world of artistic values. Aesthetic consciousness performs a number of functions: cognitive, educational, hedonistic.

Art is a type of spiritual production in the field of aesthetic development of the world.

Aestheticism is a person's ability to see beauty in art and in all manifestations of life.

The laws of the development of society:

General patterns - this is the conditionality of the real social process by the dialectical laws of the development of the objective world, that is, the laws to which all objects, processes, and phenomena are subordinate without exception.

Under general laws we understand the laws that govern the emergence, formation, functioning and development of all social objects (systems) as a whole, regardless of the level of their complexity, from their subordination to each other, from their hierarchy. These laws include:

1. The law of the conscious nature of the vital activity of social organisms.

2. The law of the primacy of social relations, the secondary nature of social formations (communities of people) and the tertiary nature of social institutions (stable forms of organizing human life) and their dialectical relationship.

3. The law of unity of anthropo-, socio- and cultural genesis, who argues that the origin of man, society and his culture and from the "phylogenetic", from the "ontogenetic" point of view should be considered as a single, holistic process, both in space and in time.

4. The law of the decisive role of human labor activity in the formation and development of social systems. History confirms that the forms of activity of people, and, above all, of labor, determine the essence, content, form and functioning of social relations, organizations and institutions.

5. The laws of correlation between social life (practice of people) and social consciousness.

6. Regularities of the dialectical-materialistic development of the historical process: dialectics of productive forces and production relations, base and superstructure, revolution and evolution.

7. The law of progressive-stage development of society and its refraction in the peculiarities of local civilizations, which expresses the dialectical unity of shift and continuity, discontinuity and continuity.

8. The law of uneven development of various societies.

Special laws. They are subject to the functioning and development of specific social systems: economic, political, spiritual, etc., or individual stages (stages, formations) of social development. These laws include the law of value, the law of a revolutionary situation, etc.

Private public laws fix some stable connections, which are manifested at the level of the simplest social subsystems. As a rule, special and particular social laws are more probabilistic than general ones.

A fatalistic and voluntaristic understanding of the laws of social life should be avoided.

Fatalism -the idea of \u200b\u200blaws as inevitable forces that fatally act on people, against which they are powerless. Fatalism disarms people, makes them passive and careless.

Voluntarism -it is a worldview setting that absolutizes the set of human goal-setting and action; a view of the law as a result of arbitrariness, as a consequence of an unrestricted will. Voluntarism can lead to adventurism, inappropriate behavior according to the principle “I can do whatever I want”.

Forms of social development:

formation and civilization.

Social formation - it is a concrete historical type of society, distinguished by the method of material production, that is, characterized by a certain stage of development of its productive forces and the corresponding type of production relations.

Civilization in the broadest sense of the word - it is a developing socio-cultural system that has arisen as a result of the decomposition of primitive society (savagery and barbarism), which has the following characteristics: private property and market relations; estate or estate-class structure of society; statehood; urbanization; informatization; producing economy.

Civilization has three type:

Industrial type (Western, bourgeois civilization) presupposes transformation, breakdown, transformation of the surrounding nature and social environment, intensive revolutionary development, change of social structures.

Agrarian type (eastern, traditional, cyclical civilization) presupposes the desire to get used to the natural and social environment, to influence it, as it were, from the inside, while remaining a part of it, extensive development, the dominance of tradition and continuity.

Post-industrial type - a society of high mass individualized consumption, the development of the service sector, the information sector, new motivation and creativity.

Modernization - this is the transition of an agrarian civilization to an industrial one.

Modernization options:

1. Transfer of all progressive elements in full, taking into account local characteristics (Japan, India, etc.).

2. Transferring only organizational and technological elements while maintaining old social relations (China).

3. Transfer only technology while denying the market and bourgeois democracy (North Korea).

Civilization in the narrow sense - it is a stable socio-cultural community of people and countries that preserve their originality and uniqueness over long periods of history.

Signs of a local civilization are: one economic and cultural type and level of development; the main peoples of civilization belong to the same or similar racially anthropological types; duration of existence; the presence of common values, psychological traits, mental attitudes; similarity or uniformity of language.

Approaches in the interpretation of the concept of "civilization" in its narrow sense:

1. Cultural approach (M. Weber, A. Toynbee) considers civilization as a special socio-cultural phenomenon, limited by the space-time framework, which is based on religion.

2. Sociological approach (D. Wilkins) rejects the understanding of civilization as a society held together by a homogeneous culture. Cultural homogeneity may be absent, but the main thing for the formation of civilization are: a common space-time area, urban centers and socio-political ties.

3. Ethnopsychological approach (L. Gumilev) connects the concept of civilization with the peculiarities of ethnic history and psychology.

4. Geographic determinism (L. Mechnikov) believed that the geographic environment has a decisive influence on the nature of civilization.

Formation and civilizational concepts of social development:

Formation approach was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels in the second half of the 19th century. He pays the main attention to the consideration of what is common in the history of all peoples, namely, the passage of the same stages in its development; all this is combined with varying degrees of consideration of the characteristics of various peoples and civilizations. The allocation of social stages (formations) is based on the ultimately determining role of economic factors (development and interconnection of productive forces and production relations). In formation theory, the class struggle is declared to be the most important driving force of history.

The concrete interpretation of the formations in the bosom of this paradigm was constantly changing: the Marxian concept of three social formations in the Soviet period was replaced by the so-called "five-member" (primitive, slave-owning, feudal, bourgeois and communist socio-economic formations), and now the four-formation concept is making its way.

Civilizational approach was developed in the XIX – XX centuries in the works of N. Danilevsky (the theory of local "cultural-historical types"), L. Mechnikov, O. Spengler (the theory of local cultures passing and dying in civilization), A. Toynbee, L. Semennikova. He examines history through the prism of the emergence, development, prospects and characteristics of various local civilizations and their comparison. In this case, the staging is taken into account, but remains in second place.

The objective basis of these approaches is the existence in the historical process of three interpenetrating layers, the knowledge of each of which requires the use of a special methodology.

First layer - superficial, eventful; only requires correct fixation. Second layer covers the diversity of the historical process, its features in ethnic, religious, economic, psychological and other respects. Its research is carried out by the methods of the civilizational approach and, first of all, the comparative-historical one. Finally, the third, a deeply essential layer embodies the unity of the historical process, its basis and the most general laws of the development of society. It is cognized only by means of the abstract-logical formational methodology developed by K. Marx. The formation approach allows not only to theoretically reproduce the internal logic of the social process. But also to build his mental model, facing the future. The correct combination and correct use of the indicated approaches is an important condition for military historical research.

We will now look at a number of passages, partly for clarification, and partly for proving the above propositions.

History as the development of freedom of society and the individual. Social boundaries of freedom The word “freedom” is familiar to everyone, and everyone strives to live freely. But the understanding of freedom is very diverse. Here, we can say how many heads - so many “freedoms”. The most traditional understanding

39. The political system of society. The role of the state in the development of society. The main features of the state. Power and democracy The political system of society is a system of legal norms, state and civil organizations, political relations and traditions, as well as

The development of primitive society and the transition from it to a class-antagonistic society Reproducing in his book the "triadic" structure of the era of savagery developed by Morgan, Engels clarifies and deepens its materialistic understanding. He focuses on

2. MOTION AND DEVELOPMENT - THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF NATURE AND SOCIETY Marxism teaches: "Motion, considered in the most general sense of the word, that is, understood as a form of existence of matter, as an attribute inherent in matter, embraces all changes occurring in the universe and

Economy.

Natural agriculture

Primitive crafts

· Prevalence of collective ownership. Protecting the property of only the upper stratum of society. Traditional economics.

· The production of goods is limited to a certain type, the list is limited.

Extensive economy

Hand tools

Dependence on natural and climatic conditions

· Slow introduction of innovations into the economy.

· The standard of living of the bulk of the population is low.

Political sphere.

Dominance of the Church and the Army

· Power is hereditary, the source of power is the will of God.

· Monarchical forms of government, political freedoms are absent, power is above the law, absorption of the individual by the collective, despotic state.

· The state subjugates society, society is outside the state and its control does not exist.

Social sphere.

· Dependence of position on social status.

Basic units of society - family, community

· Stability of the social structure, the boundaries between social communities are stable, adherence to a strict social hierarchy.

· Estate.

Spiritual realm.

· Norms, customs, beliefs.

· Providentialism of consciousness, fanatical attitude to religion.

· Individualism and identity of the individual were not encouraged, the collective consciousness prevails over the individual.

· Little educated people, the role of science is not great. Elite education.

· The prevalence of oral information over written.

The purpose of the society: adaptation to nature.

Industrial - a type of society based on a market economy, high industrial development, the introduction of scientific achievements in the economy, the emergence of a democratic form of government, a high level of knowledge development, scientific and technological progress, secularization of consciousness.

Economy.

· At the core - industry, in agriculture - increasing labor productivity. Destruction of natural addiction.

Machine technology

· The basis of the economy is state and private property, market economy.

· Standardization is uniformity in the production and consumption of goods and services.

Intense economy

Machine technology, conveyor production, automation, mass production

· Independence from natural and climatic conditions Scientific and technical progress.

· Growth of incomes of the population.

· Mercantilism of consciousness.

Political sphere.

· The role of the state is increasing.

· The rule of law and law (though more often on paper) Equality before the law. Individual rights and freedoms are enshrined in legislation. The main regulator of relations is the rule of law.

· Granting political freedoms, the republican form of government prevails. Man is an active subject of politics. Democratic transformation

Social sphere.

· The emergence of new classes - the bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat.

· Urbanization.

· The mobility of the social structure is great, the possibilities of social movement are not limited.

Spiritual realm.

· Secularization of consciousness. The emergence of atheists.

· Individualism, rationalism, utilitarianism of consciousness.

· The role of knowledge and education is great. Mainly secondary education.

· The dominance of mass culture.

The purpose of the society: liberation of man from direct dependence on nature, partial subordination of it to oneself. The emergence of environmental problems.

Postindustrial- a modern type of society based on the dominance of information (computer technologies) in production, development of the service sector, lifelong education, freedom of conscience, democracy of consensus, and the formation of civil society.

Economy.

· The basis of production is information.

· The service sector comes to the fore.

· Computer techologies

· Availability of different forms of ownership. Mixed economy.

· Individualization of production, up to exclusive.

· Increase in the share of small-scale production.

· Developed a sector of the economy associated with the production of knowledge, processing and dissemination of information.

· Cooperation with nature, resource-saving, environmentally friendly technologies.

· Modernization of the economy.

· High level and quality of life of people.

Political sphere.

· Political pluralism

· Civil society. The relationship between the individual and society is based on the principle of mutual responsibility.

· Law, right - not on paper, but in practice.

· Democracy. Democracy of "consensus".

· Political pluralism.

Social sphere.

· Growth in the share of the middle class.

The share of the population employed in the processing and dissemination of information over the labor force in agriculture and industry increases significantly

· Elimination of social polarization.

· Erasing class distinctions.

Spiritual realm.

· Continuing education.

· Freedom of conscience and religion.

· Striving to prove yourself, to achieve success in life.

· The role of science, education, the information age is great. Higher education.

· A global telecommunications network - the Internet - is being formed.

Availability of different types of culture

Society's purpose : anthropogenic civilization, i.e. in the center - a person, his personality, interests, solution of environmental problems.

TYPES OF SOCIETY

1.By the degree of openness:

- closed society - characterized by a static social structure, limited mobility, traditionalism, very slow introduction of innovations or their absence, authoritarian ideology;

- open society - characterized by a dynamic social structure, high social mobility, the ability to innovate, pluralism, lack of state ideology.

By the presence of writing:

- pre-written,

-written (proficient in the alphabet or sign letter)

3.According to the degree of social differentiation (or stratification):

- simple - pre-state formations, there are no leaders and subordinates);

- complex - several levels of government, strata of the population.

As part of the transition to more concrete stages of the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, namely, to research historical stages of development of society, it seems appropriate to highlight in brief the specifics of the research methodology. In this case, we focus on two sides of the methodology - historical and logical. Historical there is a process of development of an object, with all its necessary stages, in time. Logical - analysis of the already mature sides of the subject in their "classical", complete form, in their simultaneous given. So, we can make the following judgment on the basis of these premises: logical there is filmed historical... Logical and historical are internally united, interrelated, dialectical-materialistic consideration about pre-given moments development process is reflected in withdrawn the sight of him development in time , and development in time there is development exactly this, and not the other process and, therefore, his moments as simultaneously data , however it is - identity with a difference... This is clear from the above. Consequently, these single moments can be viewed in their relative isolation.

The materialistic understanding of history, discovered by Marx and Engels, made it possible to understand history as a truly objective process with its own laws. History has become a science proper. However, historical materialism did not postulate (and does not do so now) determinism in the form of absolute predetermination, a kind of Fate. Along with the objective processes of historical development, the activity of thinking, feeling people who have their own will and their interests is also taken into account, that is, subjective activity is an important component of the materialistic understanding of history. So, there is a natural development of society, insofar as it is natural, it is carried out in a certain direction. Along with this, there is the activity of subjects acting within a certain historical framework. Realizing this in one way or another, ultimately people must reckon with cash. material conditions of their existence... Historical development is a resultant, consisting of the activities of the masses of people.

History is not free from zigzags, interruptions and accidents, but the pattern of historical development necessarily makes its way. This becomes clear when considering long periods of development.

To characterize any historical development process, it is necessary to consider its general direction, which means the beginning of the process, the stages it goes through, as well as the “mechanisms” of the transition from one stage to another, the specificity, continuity and direction of the development process as a whole and its stages.

It is worth noting that we single out the main direction of the development of society, abstracting from the fact that there are other branches of development, and interaction between them and the main direction can occur.

Society as an organic whole. Stages of its development

So, society is an organic whole, passing through characteristic stages in its development. In the framework of scientific research, we, again, need to abstract from a number of additional circumstances, because in reality the existing history did not happen and does not happen in its “pure form”. It is necessary to carry out this action in order to identify a general pattern, a "main" direction, the study of which will allow in the future to gradually introduce modifying circumstances, specific points. All this will help to fully understand the essence of the subject under study, its internal connections.

The social form of movement is qualitatively different from the biological form of movement, and at the same time society arises from nature and, in the most immediate way, from the biological form of movement.

Since society is an “organic” whole, it is necessary to highlight the stages of its development that are characteristic of any “organic” whole.

1. Start the process of the historical development of society. Within the framework of this stage, in the depths of biological, in general, natural, a new source of movement begins to form - social, or rather, its prerequisites, while maintaining the dominance of the biological and its leading role. The essence of society, as such, does not yet exist.
2. Initial occurrence society. Here we include the primitive communal system.
3. Formation society. There is a process of social transformation of its natural, biological basis. This includes the period of antagonistic class societies and formations.
4. Maturity society. Within this stage, the process of transformation of the natural by the social is completed, the inclusion of the latter as a substantially transformed moment in the movement of the social, in the process of development of society. In fact, this is the end of the "earthly" history of mankind. A mature society is communist society.

All three first stages belong to us the establishment human society.

Within the framework of the first stage, the prerequisites of the social arise, but it is the natural, natural laws that dominate. The source of movement and development should be considered within the framework of natural processes. At the second stage, the social already arises, as a new form of movement, which begins the process of transforming the natural, its basis. Nevertheless, to one degree or another, nature remains not transformed, and in this sense, the dominance of the essence of society, the social, has not yet been established, but the essence acts as leading development factor. In the stage of formation, the transformation of the emerging essence of its natural basis continues.

A mature communist society is characterized by the fact that essence acts not only as a leading factor, but also as a directly dominant factor. Summing up: in the beginning, nature dominates, then the social arises, which immediately becomes the leading, dominant factor, but not the dominant one; dominates the same interaction these two factors. The third stage retains the social factor as the leading one. At the fourth stage, the social becomes the undivided dominant factor, for the reason that the natural is completely transformed. And only now they reign supreme self-movement, self-development of society, interaction of people as an end in itself, the development of a person's essence as an end in itself... Here we are talking specifically about interaction with nature on a planetary scale, but already at the last stages of the formation of society, the prerequisites for the cosmic era arise, that is, the emergence of a fundamentally new stage, a new round of interaction between mankind and nature.

"Beginning" as a logical category

In the usual sense, the concept “ start”Is understood as the first stage of development of any object, process, its most undeveloped stage. In this case, they are identified two different stages: stage of education historical background process, subject, and stage of it the initial emergenceand in fact the beginning is called the initial emergence of the essence of an object, a process.

We have " start”Is the stage of education historical background process, object, that is, the stage when essence this process has not yet emerged... It is wrong to identify and separate these two stages from each other. The beginning of the process, reaching its highest development, changes according to entities and quality. The stage of the beginning in the highest development turns into the stage of the initial emergence of its essence.

As an example, commodity-money relations. Existing before capitalism, they represent the beginning of capitalist relations, and becoming universal, dominant, completely subjugating the entire process of labor, production, labor power, means of production, they turn into capitalist.

Mix wrong start from the simplest relation, because simplest relation there is start inwithdrawn , transformed, in which start persists with the formation entities subject. Consequently, beginning existsbefore processthe beginning of which it serves, and start of this, and not of another process, it is a set of necessary and sufficient prerequisites for the initial emergence of the essence of a process, an object... To determine the necessary and sufficient prerequisites for the initial emergence of the essence of the process, one must keep in mind its emerged essence. Otherwise it is impossible to talk about the prerequisites, preconditions of unknown what. There must also be some idea of \u200b\u200bthe subject, about the beginning of which we are talking. Since we have considered simplest relation society, that is start in the transformed form in which it already exists in the presence of the formed entities society, this provides a well-known guiding thread in the study start.

The beginning of human history

Formation of natural (biological) prerequisites

The beginning of human history - education natural, biological prerequisitesnecessary and sufficient for the occurrence social.

For humanity were the following necessary and sufficient prerequisites:

• - certain external natural conditions (climate suitable for life, availability of natural pantry for minimum satisfaction of needs)
• - the presence of animals with a certain body structure
• — herd lifestyle

The beginning of human history also has stages: start, the initial emergence of its entities, maturity, dying and disappearance.

We will touch on these stages quite a bit.

Development of premises

Prerequisites the emergence of mankind also have their own stages of development, their stages within the stage " start”. Earlier we have already considered these stages, developing forms relations living formations to the environment. In the beginning, it is direct immersion in it, in withdrawn (transformed) form, this immersion, this inextricable connection is preserved even now in a person - for example, breathing. Such a direct connection between a living organism and its environment can be called a basic, minimum necessary condition for the existence of a living organism as such; such existence does not require complexly developed structures of the organism.

The next, much more complex form of connection, a more developed attitude to the environment, is formed with the emergence of animals. More complex forms of organisms are formed as a result (and at the same time) of the development of more complex, indirect connections with the environment. The expression "as a result and at the same time" means the dialectical unity of development processes as living organismas well as relations of this organism to the environment. The difference between such a more indirect connection from the previous stage lies in the ability of a living organism to move in space, which increases its chances of survival, of finding (it should be noted - already available) more favorable environmental conditions. At the same time, the character also changes. reverse action of this living organism on the external environment - in addition to the release of substances, a mechanical external influence also joins this effect - for example, trampling plants or the destruction of prey as an influence factor not related to the process direct consumption, but indirectly influencing the ecosystem of the habitat, its food chains. At the same time, the resulting changes in the environment cause the need to change and relations living organism to this environment, which ultimately leads to the need for certain changes in the living organism itself. Influence wednesday on a living organism remains the leading, decisive.

The end of the stage, the emergence of the basis for the "social"

Then comes the stage of "dying" domination animal relationship to the environment that forms the basis of the new, human relations... This stage is characterized by random, still unstable the use of objects of nature as a means of influencing other objects of nature. Such an attitude to external nature is still characteristic of primates, it was this that became the factor that allowed our animal ancestors to move to a qualitatively new level of development.

Since movement in space and mechanical action on the external environment (as a way of interaction of the organism with it) turned out to be the most promising way, it was these abilities that formed the corresponding organs of animals, gradually changing their morphology. It is no coincidence that the greatest opportunities for the further development of the reverse impact on nature were those animals in which the movement in the space of their own body was often also the movement of other objects of nature in space. The grasping of branches by limbs when climbing trees is a typical example of the coincidence of both movements. At the same time, it is necessary to note an important difference between the expedient movement in space of consumer goods that are available in a finished form, and the movement of objects that are not consumer goods. That is, the movement of prey (food, etc.) in space is fundamentally different from the movement of a stick lifted from the ground by an animal towards the fruit hanging on a tree. In animals adapted to moving in space on trees by grasping branches by limbs, there is a frequent, stable coincidence of movement in the space of their own body with the movement in space of objects that do not have direct meaning neither for the maintenance of its own existence, nor for the continuation of the life of the species. It is, so to speak, an almost constant by-product of their lifestyle.

Stage the beginning of human history ends with the transition of animal ancestors of man to a terrestrial way of life, to upright posture, the release of the upper limbs from participation in the movement of the body, the use of mainly means of influence given by nature in a finished form.

In his classic work on the role of labor, Engels starts from that stage of our ancestors, which he characterized as an unusually highly developed breed of great apes. Here we can mean, for example, a very high level of bodily organization of our ancestors, their flexible adaptability to new environmental conditions, high development of the brain.

Walking upright, according to Engels, was a decisive step on the way to humanizing the monkey, since when the body was straightened, the arms were freed from the functions of support and locomotion. Initially adapting to very simple labor operations, the hands experienced progressive development over a huge period of time when a person was formed under the influence of labor. Engels writes that labor had a direct impact on the structure and function of the hand, with the subsequent transmission of individually acquired characteristics by inheritance. At the same time, Engels emphasizes that upright walking in our ancestors was not established immediately and that, having first become the rule, it then turned into necessity... The straight gait acquired a new meaning and began to progress due to the fact that the hands turned to a completely new function that had not been tested until then, namely, the use of tools. The latter in turn from random phenomenon became vital and a specifically characteristic action, turning into the collective making of tools and their use in a society of their own kind. This again entailed the formation of the hand in a certain direction: the hand not only became an organ of labor, but it also turned into its product, reflecting on its structure and functions the influence of labor activity as a part of the whole. The changing hand influenced the rest of the body... But, being correlatively connected with him, she also experienced the opposite influence.

The stage of the initial emergence of human society

Mining as a precursor to labor

Initial stage human society begins when the accidental, unstable use of objects of nature as a means of influencing other objects of nature gradually becomes necessary, sustainable... The more often, the more stable the use of objects of nature for influencing other objects of nature becomes, the more stable the form and material of the means of influence become, the more the means of influence are differentiated according to their material, the nature of the object on which the impact occurs, and for the sake of which the impact is carried out (for the sake of satisfaction of a particular need). Labor from instinctual turns into human labor proper with all its components (purpose, means, objects, process, result, subject of labor). Material stability, the need to use means of influence is fixed in the creation, production of these very means. It is often said: "Labor created man." This statement is not entirely accurate, because it may give the impression that labor was formed first, and then man. Meanwhile, the education of man proceeded in the process of education of labor.

Due to the very nature of the front, and then the upper limbs, the impact on objects of nature could be mainly mechanical... Of the objects of nature, most often found and given by nature in a finished form, the most suitable for mechanical action on other objects of nature was a rock. Manual mechanical stone processing, which turns it into a means of influence, goes through a number of stages.

From the stage of the beginning of human history, such a way of maintaining existence as prey takes its origin. In the early stages of the initial stage of history directly dominates not production, but booty for it is a society of hunters, fishermen, gatherers.

As the manual mechanical processing of stone reaches perfection and basically exhausts its possibilities, that is, as the transition to the Neolithic period, such improvement of mining occurs, which leads to the exhaustion of the possibility of mining. After all, the possibilities of extraction are determined by the given nature in finished form, the quantity and quality of animals and the biological needs of man. The more perfect the means of extraction become, the more the natural "storeroom" is exhausted, the need arises and grows to influence this "storehouse" of nature itself. And this influence is realized by the transition to cattle breeding and agriculture, that is, to the domination of the not appropriating but of the producing economy, to the domination of not extraction, but of production. With the transition to the Neolithic, the transition to the first stage of cattle breeding and agriculture, to the early stage of the production economy, is also carried out.

The prohibition of intrageneric sexual intercourse as evidence of the emergence of social relations within the herd. Becoming kindand communities

Extraction with the help of the produced means of influence is more complicated (it requires more complex preparation and organization, it complicates the extraction process itself ...), it is more efficient than extraction without such means. Its formation determines the growth of herd stability (due to an increase in consumption items, that is, an improvement in living conditions and an increase in opportunities for the growth of the number of individuals), a higher level of coordination of actions of herd members, leads to the fact that the need to eliminate conflicts within the herd becomes more and more urgent. (just for the consistency between individuals in social labor, production). The most common source of conflict is the struggle to satisfy the sexual instinct. As the herd becomes more resilient, members of the herd are prohibited from having sexual intercourse with each other. Formed genus... One of the quality differences kind from the herd is that, within the herd, the relationship between its members is endogamous, and within the genus - exogamous. In addition to increasing the role of the production of means of influence and improvement, complicating the harvest carried out with the help of these means, their influence on the growth of stability of the herd and on the exclusion of sexual relations within the herd, it makes sense to recognize the role of natural selection in the origin of the genus. Prohibitions on sexual intercourse within the herd becoming by birth, is this or that awareness the need to exclude these links. Awareness - product of occurrence social (in the broadest sense of the word) relationships. Natural selection cannot explain the occurrence of these prohibitions. But it still does not follow from this that unconscious natural selection did not contribute to the formation of the clan by leading to the degeneration and death of those herds in which intra-herd sexual intercourse took place.

Genus finally arises when wholly sexual intercourse within the herd is excluded and sexual intercourse between members of different genera becomes regular, stable. Apparently, these two processes were not completely identical.

With the possibility of regular, periodic meetings of different herds (genera), and even more so with constant living in the zone of their accessibility in relation to each other, the sexual partners could well live each in his own herd, which turned into a genus, without passing into a genus of sexual partners. If the meetings of the communities were - due to the circumstances of their residence - irregular and difficult, then in such conditions it became necessary for the transition of males or females to the clan of their sexual partners.

The most probable, apparently, was nevertheless the predominance in the end of the tendency of resettlement in the genus of one's (one's) sexual partner (s). Firstly, because the connections between different herds during the period of the herd's transformation into a genus, in general, most likely were rather difficult, irregular. Secondly, the tamed instinct could hardly be tamed sufficiently steadily if, at the same time, it was not satisfied regularly enough in accordance with its nature.

In our opinion, the predominance of the resettlement of one's (one's) sexual partner (s) into the genus was conditioned, in our opinion, not only by the nature of the economy, but also by the natural living conditions of the communities, and by the need for sufficiently regular satisfaction of the sexual instinct in accordance with its nature.

Members kind, together with persons who have migrated to the genus from other genera, form communityother than kind... If the clan lives apart, then the community and the clan represent a direct identity, they do not differ from each other.

Period formation productive forces (as opposed to their initial occurrence), if you have in mind product of production, begins from the stage when the level of productive forces allows the production permanent surplus in excess of the absolutely necessary to maintain physical, biological existence, and continues until the level is reached when it becomes possible to produce an abundance of material goods. During this entire stage, there is the following contradiction. One side, production is already there, it develops, the means of livelihood, in the main, are not obtained, but produced... On the other hand, there are not enough livelihoods for optimal satisfaction of biological needs, and throughout the entire stage there is a struggle between people for livelihoods, for satisfaction biological needs, and the purpose of production essentially remains at the animal level - an elementary biological survival... From this side, people still do not rise above the animal world, their struggle in this respect is fighting social animals.

If we mean the instruments of labor, production, then for the stage characteristic, using the terminology of K. Marx and F. Engels, "naturally arising instruments of production." “… Here,” they write, “there is a difference between the naturally arising instruments of production and the instruments of production created by civilization. Arable land (water, etc.) can be viewed as a naturally occurring instrument of production. In the first case, with naturally occurring instruments of production, individuals obey nature, in the second case they obey product of labor» .

In addition, to the stage formation of productive forces also refers to that stage of development of "tools created by civilization", that is, manufactured tools, when they begin to conquer dominance in production, even play the role of dominant, but when their dominance (dominance automatic system) still not completely, i.e., when the stage of development of these tools has not yet reached full maturity.

Formation productive forces starts after they first appeared components, and it consists in essence in the formation social nature of labor... At the stage of the initial emergence of society, the social character of labor only arises, and - with the domination of prey - it exists mainly in a concrete identity with biological links people with a natural attitude to nature. Transition to dominance of production (to early cattle breeding and early agriculture) in the depths of the stage of the initial emergence of society led to the formation of a mismatch of productive forces with the relations that existed then between people, and in the future to going beyond this stage.

Stages formation of productive forces corresponds to the public division of labor... The social character of labor exists here through its division, dismemberment, through its own, one might say, negation... The social nature of labor proper, the social nature of labor in positive relation, although it arises at the last stage (substage) of the formation of human society, but does not matchindustrial relations this substage.

At the stage of formation of the productive forces of society as public there is already a specific difference public the relationship of people to nature from their natural relationship to nature, and this distinction develops. The specifically social relation to nature is becoming more and more isolated from the natural relation to nature and is increasingly transforming the latter. At the same time, within the framework of the connection between a specifically social and natural relationship to nature, the prerequisites for their unity develop, and this is already on the basis of dominance of a specific public (and not natural) relationship to nature. The formation of the social character of labor begins to end when processes in which production on the scale of all mankind begin to prevail. different people serve as moments of a single processproduction. The formation of the social character of production ends completely when produced implements of production come to undivided domination and when the whole production process humanity becomes internally dismembered.

At the stage of formation of the productive forces, a transition occurs from the predominant use found in nature ready objects of labor to prevailing use artificial objects of labor, objects of labor with predefined properties.Humanity at the stage of formation of productive forces begins to move to appropriate impact on all terrestrial natural conditions, on the entire surrounding terrestrial natural environment. Finally, at this stage, man as a component of a specifically social productive relationship to nature... All of the above transformations mean penetration into essence of natural processes, therefore, assume the beginning of the transition from everyday empirical level of knowledge development to dominance theoretical... The formation of man as a productive force is not only his mastery of the "tools created by civilization", but also his transformation into an individual armed with theory, capable of all-round activity, the need for which is formed with the transition to dominance of manufactured tools (the fragmentation of human activity at this stage is determined mainly by the social division of labor).

The process of the formation of society, from the point of view of the development of industrial relations

Formation of society, if we mean development industrial relations , is committed ultimately under determining influence emerging productive forces... But at the same time, the formation of production relations is relatively independent process. Productive forces are also something external in relation to the relations of production, but at the same time the productive forces and the relations of production form inner unity, social mode of production ... Neither one nor the other exists outside of their difference and unity with each other. Their inner unity and "struggle" and form internal source of self-development of society... The social mode of production, the internal source of self-development of society, is not something immutable, it also goes through the stage formation.

Availability produced instruments of production determines the actual relations of production... The presence of "naturally occurring instruments of production" human enslavement by natural forces cause the preservation of one or another form of natural connection, natural community of people... We will henceforth call them "Naturally occurring communities", "Naturally occurring connections."

Development industrial relations at the stage formation society is contradictory as in the respect that is formed contradiction between productive forces and relations of production, which will ultimately lead to the elimination of both sides of this contradiction, and in the sense that relations of production gradually detached from natural ties people, subjugate them and are filming them, actually relations of production in comparison with "naturally occurring connections" people gradually turn into reigning... That is, if initially people arose and existed mainly as animals, as a special biological species, then over time their existence becomes social, and the maintenance of biological life becomes subordinates (removed) the moment of a new form of existence.

The social division of labor and the struggle of people to satisfy biological needs determine the existence of classes and the struggle between them. Consequently, stage of formation of society there is a stage of it antagonistic class development... This stage, in turn, itself is divided into several substageswhich will be discussed later.

Relations of production relatively independent. Their relative independence affects a certain mismatchstages (as well as substages) of the formation of productive forces and the stage (as well as substages) of the formation of production relations. First, a new stage (substage) of productive forces arises, which begins not to correspond to the previous stage (substage) of production relations and, in its further development, comes into conflict with the old stage (substage) of production relations, the contradiction is resolved by the transition or to a new stage (substage) of production relations , or, upon reaching maturity, to create the prerequisites for a significant change the very dialectics of productive forces and production relations (in particular, by displacement of a person from the sphere of direct productionThus, we have already seen that the producing economy goes through its early stage already at the stage initial emergence society, and with the further development of cattle breeding and agriculture, a contradiction develops between them and the primitive communal structure of society, the resolution of this contradiction means a transition to the stage of formation (of society)

Periodization of the history of the development of society

Different approaches to articulating the history of mankind

With the formation division of society, it is not directly recorded development society and just stated one historical form along with another, the formations are presented as external each other.

There is a more general division of society: pre-class, class, classless. The original in the definition here is one stage of society - class, and rest characterized by only negative in relation to her. Here, too, the positive development of society is not recorded. In addition, this division of history takes, although extremely important, but only one of the aspects of development. Finally, in the division of history into communal, private and public property, an essential side of the development process is highlighted and, moreover, positively, but the process is considered unilaterally. In our periodization, it is directly indicated that we are talking about the stages of development of society and periodization is given from the point of view of the entire development of mankind as a whole, that is, we are talking about the periodization of the history of mankind according to internal to the development process base.

In our opinion, the main task of the modern era is the fight against capitalism, negation capitalism, the accomplishment of the socialist revolution - in the end subordinate to the task constructing communist society. And not only in terms of practical-political, but also in terms of the methodology of historical research, it must now be considered in the perspective of solving the problem of building a communist society.

In the light of the task building communistsociety comes to the fore not opposing communism only capitalism, and the difference and connection of communism with all previous historyhumanity as background human society. At the same time, attention is fixed on the turn of the spiral: primitive communal system - pre-class society; the initial emergence of society - antagonistic, class societies; the formation of society, communism - a classless society, a mature human society. Consequently, the formational division of history turns out to be a necessary, but subordinate, moment of a more general division of history.This division we would call division by types historical process.

To divide the history of pre-capitalist societies according to the forms of communal structure means to highlight the fact that disappears. To divide the history of antagonistic societies on the basis of forms of private property is to highlight that denies primitive communal system, communal structure. But denial of something exists only as long as, to one degree or another, in one respect or another what is denied persists... Throughout the stage formation there is not only a denial of the primitive communal system, but also in one way or another, in one respect or another and in the form of preservation of remnants, survivals of the primitive communal system. If we proceed from the fact that communism is the history of mankind, one with all previous history and different from it as from prehistory, if we proceed from the problem constructing communism as of the main task, then it is necessary to dismember the stage of the formation of society into such stages, in the difference of which both sides: and preservation certain forms of relations, etc. primitive communal structure, and negation the primitive communal system with the system of private property.

Stages of the formation process. The logical structure of the process in relation to the formation division

Any formation process, in our opinion, is divided into three stages, or periods:

1) the initial period of formation, transformation of the inherited basis;

2) the emergence of an adequate, new basis;

3) completion of the formation of an adequate, new basis.

This is, for example, the process of the formation of capitalism:

1) the manufacturing period (the period of domestic capitalist production);

2) the transition to large-scale industry, to machine production (during the period of this transition, the machines themselves were still created by the manufacture, handicraft method);

3) the completion of the transition, the period of large-scale industry itself (in this period, the production of machines by machines already predominates).

In the process of the formation of human society, in our opinion, three periods should also be distinguished.

1. The initial period of the formation of human society. This includes the slave-owning socio-economic formation. Private property already arose, but it exists and develops in general on the basis of naturally occurring means of production, based on the direct relationship of people to the conditions of production and to each other, the relationship inherited from the previous stage. Private property remains subordinate clan, communal property to the ground.

Therefore, in slave societies, slave labor can quantitatively prevail over communal labor only in completely exceptional cases.

2. The period of transition to a basis adequate to private property is feudalism. It is for the feudal socio-economic formation that the predominance of private property is characteristic, but private ownership of land, i.e. on naturallyarisen means of production. Consequently, private property continues to exist on an inadequate basis.

What is the transition to a basis adequate to private property? Iron tools appear and begin to spread even before feudalism. But agriculture, based on the widespread use of iron implements and, moreover, as the main type of production, corresponds precisely to feudal production relations.

In the slave-owning socio-economic formation, agriculture was carried out mainly on soft lands and could well occur mainly with the help of stone tools. But if the stone is by nature such a material that can be used quite widely (as a means of labor) without pre-treatment, then iron is by its nature such a material that, with its more or less widespread use as a means of labor with the need assumes preprocessing.

Widespread use, and therefore production iron tools - first mainly in agriculture - there is a transition to a basis adequate to private property.

3. The period of completion of the formation of a basis adequate to private property - capitalism. An adequate basis for private property, in our opinion, not naturally occurring, and produced means of influence. Feudal social (including production) relations correspond to the internally necessary division into production means of production and production commodities, but such a division in which the main role belongs to the use of labor tools to earth (naturally emerging education). Capitalist social relations correspond to such an internally necessary division into the production of means of production and the production of consumer goods, when the main role is played by the production of means of production (and not the production of consumer goods), the use of the produced means of labor to already past the process (or processes) of production of the subject of labor. Under capitalism for the first time dominated by private ownership produced means of production. For the first time, the dominant type of production becomes industry, not agriculture. Industry as a determining type of production on the scale of the entire human society is necessarily industry on a large scale, large-scale industry. Before the formation of such an industry, handicraft can determine the entire social order only within the limits of one or another separate community under exceptional conditions.

Literature

Required literature:

1. V.A. Vazyulin. ... Questions of theory and methodology. Part III (from the beginning to §1 of Chapter 2)
2. Can we say that the social in man is no longer subordinated to the biological? Why?
3. To what extent, in your opinion, do social ties now prevail or, on the contrary, are subordinated to natural (including clan, "blood") ties?
4. What is the materialistic understanding of history? Why is it the materialistic understanding that is the scientific understanding? Give a comparative description of the essential features of the materialistic and idealistic understanding of history. What understanding prevails in modern approaches to the study of the historical process, and why is there a prevalence of one approach over another? Or is there none?
5. Can we divorce the philosophy of dialectical materialism (methodology in general, the relationship between the logical and the historical) from historical materialism?
6. What do you think: was there a rational understanding of economic activity among people who worked in the framework of the first forms of productive economy: cattle breeding and agriculture?

Control section for grades 10-11

In the process of development, society: A) separated from nature, but remained inextricably linked with it;

B) separated from nature and became independent of it;

IN) remained a part of nature;

D) has ceased to influence nature.

2. The activities of the legislature are related to:

A) the spiritual sphere of the life of society;

B) the economic sphere of society;

IN) the political sphere of the life of society;

D) the social sphere of the life of society.

3

A) judgment; B) observation;

C) sensation; D) inference

4. The position of a person in society is:

A) social status; B) social role;

C) social mobility; D) social adaptation.

5. One of the main features of the rule of law is:

A) public authority;

B) the system of state laws;

C) the system of law enforcement agencies;

D) separation of powers.

6. A distinctive feature of the elite culture is:

A) the complexity of the content;

B) limited by national boundaries.

C) the ability to make a profit;

D) targeting the general public.

7. Branches of private law include:

A) civil; B) criminal;

C) administrative; D) constitutional.

8. The highest representative body of the Russian Federation is:

A) Federal Assembly; B) government;

C) the Supreme Court; D) President.

9 ... Deviant behavior is:

A) any changes in a person's life;

B) moving a person within his group;

C) non-observance of norms accepted in society;

D) change in the social status of a person.

10. In a society with a market economy, the state influences economic life through:

A) taxation system;

B) centralized pricing;

C) directive planning of the production of goods;

D) supply of the population with goods

11. Are the following judgments correct?

A. Interaction with the outside world is a characteristic of human activity.

B. Human activity has goals and motives

12. Are the following judgments correct?

Political party as an institution of the political system:

A. Has the right to develop and adopt corporate regulations.

B. Represents and defends various public interests in the political arena.

a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;

b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.

13. Establish types of societies and characteristics of social development. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.

Types of societies: Characteristics of social development:

traditional A) industrial revolution;

2) industrial B) development of information technologies;

3) post-industrial B) the estate character of social stratification.

14 ... What is related to vertical social mobility? Write down the corresponding letters in alphabetical order.

A) a citizen has moved from a two-room apartment on the fifth floor to a three-room apartment on the ninth floor in the same building;

B) an ordinary engineer is appointed as the project manager;

C) the officer was stripped of his military rank for committing an unseemly act and dismissed from the army;

D) a small food merchant started selling used things;

E) the citizen remarried;

F) the secretary agreed to perform additional duties

15 .What is the division of society into different social groups called?

16. Which of the following is characteristic exclusively of elite culture?

a) the expression of the refined tastes of the privileged part of society;

b) commercial focus;

c) complexity and inconsistency;

d) general availability;

e) calculation for a narrow circle of experts;

f) anonymity.

17. Insert the missing word:

The _________________ process is the assimilation of social roles and cultural norms, starting in infancy and ending in old age

18. A political party criticizing the government's program and proposing an alternative version of the country's development is called ______________________.

19. Karl Marx divided the entire historical path of mankind into five socio-economic

formations. Write them down in sequential order in the form of a "ladder."

20. Draw a diagram of the form of government.

21 ... What word is missing in the diagram?

22. Write down the word that is missing in the next phrase.

“The problems affecting the interests of all mankind were especially pronounced in the second half of the XX century. in the context of the scientific and technological revolution and the growing threat of a nuclear catastrophe ”.

23. Establish a correspondence between areas of culture and their characteristics; for each position from the first column, select the corresponding position from the second.

Signs Area

culture

performance of rituals A) morality

belief in the existence b) religion of a higher power

focus on ideal relationships between people

lack of special institutions that approve norms and monitor their implementation

belief based

24 ... Find facts about the economic life of society in the list below. Circle the numbers under which they are indicated.

holding a scientific conference

study of economic theory at the university

development of state budget items

participation in an antiwar rally

use of new technology in production

Write the circled numbers in ascending order.

25 ... Read the text below where a number of words are missing.

Close (1) with particular acuteness raise the question of compliance with certain (2). The transformation of these requirements into personal rules, their acceptance by a person as an indispensable condition for attitudes towards others is moral _________________ (3). The family primarily influences the upbringing of children. Society represented by ___________ (4) assumes the protection of the family, motherhood and childhood, and requires parents to fulfill their responsibilities. Every child from the moment of birth has a state guaranteed right to the care and attention of adults. Although the family is a purely personal matter, the state is not indifferent to the conditions in which its citizens are formed,
it, providing (5), at the same time determines their duty - to take care of their children, to create the necessary conditions for their full development.

Select from the proposed list the words (phrases) to be inserted in the spaces. The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Remember that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to select. Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap.

Note that spaces are numbered. The following table shows the numbers of the spaces. Under each number, write down a letter that represents your chosen word in the list. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form.

26 ... What are five hallmarks of a democratic state?

27 .Give three examples of legal relations governed by the norms of civil law.

28. Composite task. Read the text and complete the assignments.

On the omnipotence of the majority in the United States of America and its consequences

The basis of democratic forms of government is the undivided rule of the majority, since, apart from it, there is nothing permanent in democratic states.<...> Of all types of political power, the legislature is best subordinated to the will of the majority. At the will of the Americans, its representatives are elected directly by the people and for a very short term. This forces them to express not only the fundamental views of their constituents, but also their passing passions. Representatives of the same classes can become members of both chambers, the procedure for their election is the same. In this regard, the legislative body is subject to the same rapid and inevitable changes as one single assembly. By giving the legislature such a structure, the Americans placed almost all government functions into its hands.<...> The law did not ensure either stability or independence to representatives of the executive branch; it completely subordinated them to the whims of legislators. In many states, the formation of the judiciary was also left to the will of the majority, since it was elected, and in all states the judiciary depended on the legislature: the people's representatives had the right to appoint the salaries of judges annually.<...> In the United States, a habit is becoming more and more prevalent, which in the end can negate the possibility of a representative form of government. Highly

often, when electing a deputy, voters outline a plan of action for him and give him some specific assignments that he must fulfill.

Alexis de Tocqueville

D. State any three principles of political power that are described in the text.

1. A characteristic feature of evolutionary processes in social life is:

A) spasmodic changes;

B) the revolutionary nature of the changes;

C) the gradual nature of the processes;

D) irreversibility of processes.

2. A person differs from an animal in that he:

A) has natural instincts;

B) has a large brain size;

C) does not depend on natural conditions;

D) has an articulate speech.

3 ... The forms of sensory cognition include:

A) judgment; B) observation;

C) sensation; D) inference

4. The generally accepted means of payment that a consumer can exchange for any goods and services is:

A) discount card; B) sales receipt;

B) money; D) bond.

5. Which of the following applies to natural resources:

A) raw materials not included in production;

B) machines operating in production;

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7. {!LANG-da6a54c391a0466051b681ef827cf61e!}

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8. {!LANG-b9be9f7a6e7e3fe3741191faecbd2190!}

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11. Are the following judgments correct?

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a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;

b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.

12. {!LANG-cb15895b86f179ae493f4a1694960992!}

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a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;

b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.

13. {!LANG-7c7afec8977038e9faa22f15e82d1ab5!}

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14 {!LANG-c2e9df87c5ad1c6053958d1d9629108d!}

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16. {!LANG-a324bbe1bd7b015d81a84724a919cbd1!}

« {!LANG-b693fca167454b362f8fd46c80032125!}

17. {!LANG-261654f5116777b32022d5ee5323ac88!}

18. {!LANG-bf1cd6abb74e80d10bdf35b6965ddfd5!}

19. {!LANG-4c97959d5575ac27271fa080bf8445f0!}

20. {!LANG-9eb8e5613e68ce5288b6a3b7db51db73!}

21. {!LANG-f3479277463ecf258ab58d9a6acdd48b!}

22. {!LANG-195d47da284a979514f8b8ca45197ac2!}

{!LANG-ffa35d540e3f4b17ea23193207871d82!}

23 {!LANG-599a67eeb8ef9106f68ebe3dd2fb721b!}

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1. {!LANG-40d3c87afd3c42e800512c53d4999434!}

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