Phonetics (from the Greek. Phonetikos - sound) - a section of linguistics in which the sound system of the language and various sound changes occurring in the speech stream are studied. The sound system of a language is formed by small linguistic units - sounds.
Phonetic system of language
Phonetic system is a system of sound units and means by which linguistic signs are formed. The phonetic internal system, which unites all the sound means of the language, is heterogeneous and consists of internally connected subsystems, within which we deal with various units: phonemes, prosodems, sylabems.
The units of the subsystems of the phonetic system are unidirectional, they are not directly related to linguistic meanings, but they are precisely the material from which two-lamp quantities are formed: content plan and expression plan.
Sound structure as an internal system (endosystem - endo - the first part of compound words corresponding to a word interior) language consists of three closely related and interdependent parts one after another: phonemic, prosodic and syllabic subsystems.
Connections between these three subsystems are not the same in different languages. In some languages, in the formation of morphemes and words, the leading role is played by phonemic subsystem (such languages \u200b\u200bare called phonemic), in others the leading role belongs to syllabic subsystem (such languages \u200b\u200bare called syllabic). In most languages \u200b\u200bof the world - composition - purely phonetic (nezmistova unit), however, in Chinese, Vietnamese, the composition coincides with the morpheme. Languages \u200b\u200bin which warehouses coincide with morphemes do not distinguish sounds separately. The morpheme limit in Japanese always corresponds to the warehouse limit, although the composition and morpheme do not match. Consequently, in both the first and second cases, the connections of these subsystems with tonic subsystem. Therefore, the structure of the sound structure is noted in each language with a vivid originality.
Phonetics as a system of material means of language is a set of sounds, accents and intonations. Phonetics in this sense should be distinguished from phonetics - the science of the sounds of speech as we distinguish the object itself from the conversation about it. At the center of phonetics is the doctrine of the sounds of speech: the nature of speech sounds, the laws of combination, sound changes, the conditioning of sound changes.
Units and means of the phonetic subsystem of the phonetic system of the language
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I. Phonematic language subsystem |
The unit of the phonemic subsystem of the language is phoneme - smallest linearly indivisible quantity used to form, recognize and distinguish significant units - morphemes and words |
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AI Prosodic language subsystem |
The means of the prosodic subsystem of the language are stress, melody, intonation. Stress - it is the selection by phonetic means of one of the warehouses of the phrasal beat. Intonation - the rhythmic and melodic structure of the language, a consistent change in pitch, the strength of the voice, reflecting the intellectual and emotional-volitional content of speech. Timbre, tempo, stress, melody, pauses, manner or shade of language express certain feelings of the speaker, his attitude to the object of speech, their ratio can change depending on the content, goals, situation of the statement |
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AII is a strong language subsystem |
The unit of the syllabic subsystem of the language is the composition. Composition - a segment of the sound stream of speech, consisting of one or more sounds and is determined by the change in the rise and fall of sonority |
The relationship of phonetics with linguistic disciplines
Phonetics is closely related to other linguistic disciplines, in particular with spelling, graphics, spelling, as well as vocabulary, grammar and stylistics.
Phonetics is directly related to orthoepy (rules of pronunciation of sounds). Orthoepy uses phonetic data, is completely based on them when establishing literary norms of pronunciation, stress of words and their forms, as well as the melody of speech. So, from the point of view of orthoepy, two variants of the pronunciation of a word are possible: [beᴻz] final and [beᴻs] finite. As for the articulation and acoustic characteristics of the sounds [s] and [s], they are the subject of phonetic analysis proper.
The connection between phonetics and vocabulary (sound is a building material for a word, a means of expressing its meaning). The expression plan of each word, which has a corresponding meaning, is a sequence of sounds, organized according to the rules of their compatibility, characteristic of the Ukrainian language. On the basis of differences in phonetic design, lexical units associated in the mind of the speaker with the corresponding meanings are distinguished, for example: step lesson, she is water, city of bridge.
The basis of Ukrainian charts make up letters - the defining means of fixing the written form of speech. They are in direct connection with those units that form the phonological system of the Ukrainian language, therefore, they are preferable to function as a means of their graphic designation, that is, graphics determine the ways of designating speech sounds in writing.
Phonetics has a connection % morphemic and word formation (morphemes, word-building means are formed by sounds).
Spelling The Ukrainian language is largely based on the phonetic principle, which is that the spelling corresponds to the sound expression of a word. In this regard, the letters acquire the status of spelling.
The close connection between phonetics and morphologists testifies, for example, such a phenomenon as the alternation of sounds, is a phonetic means of expressing a number of grammatical meanings, for example mow - cat, wages - led - led - continued, run - run. Grammatical forms, studied in morphology, are formed and expressed using sounds.
Phonetic phenomena play a significant role in syntax. So, one of the main ones. signs of a sentence realized in oral speech in the form of an appropriate expression is intonational organization. Communicative varieties of sentences (statements) differ only in indicators, by their nature, phonetic phenomena. The role of logical and phrasal stress is manifested only in the sentence as a communicative and unit.
In the system of stylistic devices, focused on the transmission of the actual meaningful and emotional plan of the corresponding messages, phonetic means, or means of phonetic stylistics, are distinguished. These include various phenomena of the sound design of prosaic and poetic speech, namely: rhythmic division, achieving expressiveness of rhymes, alliteration and assonances, onomatopoeia, sound forms, perform important stylistic functions.
The syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech, pronounced in one articulation.
The sounds of speech are created by air vibrations and the work of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. audible. However, these two aspects cannot be limited to characterizing speech sounds; linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform a social function, i.e. the function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with distinguishing between the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore, at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new department of linguistics appeared - phonology.
The sound composition of the Russian language
All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.
Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory features: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [n], a gap between the tongue and a hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated according to the method and place of formation, for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) during the formation of vowels, the organs of speech are tense evenly, during the formation of consonants, the organs of speech are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream when pronouncing vowels is weak, and when pronouncing consonants it is strong, since it needs to overcome the obstacle that exists on its way; 6) all vowel sounds can be syllabic, consonants (except for sonorants) cannot independently form a syllable.
In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which partly of the signs approach consonants (formation with the help of an obstacle, differentiation by the method and place of formation, the presence of noise), and partly with vowels (the predominance of tone, the ability to form a syllable) ...
There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in Russian: [and], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory signs: the degree of tongue lift, row, lip involvement.
There are 37 consonants (phonemes) in modern Russian. Their formation and classification is much more complicated than vowels.
Intonation
Each phrase is intonationally framed.
Intonation - this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional sides and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melody - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (the ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and slowing down in the course of speech), the strength of sound (intensity of speech), intraphrasal pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the general timbre of the utterance, which, depending on the target setting, can be “cheerful”, “playful”, “frightened”, "Gloomy", etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only forms phrases, sentences and various syntactic constructions, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and the expression of the will of people. Indeed, the same segment of a sounding speech, depending on how, with what intonation it will be pronounced, can have a different meaning: He came. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of a phrase, in indentation; an interrogative phrase is characterized by a sharp increase in indentation; the intonation of the exclamation phrase is even high.
It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. In addition to the period, colon, dash, comma, parentheses, exclamation, question marks and ellipsis, we have no ways to convey the character of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs, it is far from always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For instance:
Who does not know that he was the first to express this idea? - there is a question mark at the end of the sentence, but the phrase has an affirmative, not interrogative, meaning.
Intonation also performs another important function - with its help, the sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagmas.
Variety of sounds and their difference
There are quite a few sounds in each language. Moreover, in different languages, their number is different, as well as the ratio between vowels and consonants.
Each sound has its own acoustic characteristics, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying more and more attention, since they believe that acoustic classification is a truly linguistic classification concerned with figuring out what a sound is, while articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at figuring out how sound is made.
Sounds differ from one another in pitch, longitude, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different pitch, strength and timbre are acoustically different. In addition, there are differences between sounds due to subjective and objective points. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the peculiarities of the pronunciation of individuals. Each person pronounces sounds to some extent in their own way. For linguistics, only such differences between sounds are important, which make changes in the meanings of words. If two people (for example, a student and a professor) uttered the word student, then we notice that this word was pronounced by them differently, but at the same time we claim that they pronounced the same word. But if one and the same person utters two words, for example, garden and judgment, then we will without the slightest difficulty learn that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y] that distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.
Thus, individual differences in the pronunciation of the same sound are not linguistically significant. Conversely, linguistically important are different sounds as units of the language system, regardless of their different pronunciation by individuals.
2.
When we say the word city [gort], in the stressed syllable in place of the sound [o] there is a very vague sound, since reduction (from Latin reducere - return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of those phonetic conditions in which the sound was (unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses some of its sonority, but also loses its quality - it turns into sound [b]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants in the position of the end of the word are deafened). Stunned or make voices consonants can also be in the middle of a word under the influence of a subsequent voiceless or voiced consonant: oak - oak [dupka], ask - a request [prose "ba]. These phenomena indicate that in certain phonetic conditions (voiced before the deaf, voiceless before the voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) the influence of one sound on another and their changes or other sound processes are possible. phonetically determined... They also have no linguistically significant meaning since the word and its meaning do not change.
3.
In words wHO and university after the consonant [v], we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve discriminators their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both act in the same position (stressed - strong for vowel sounds), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds here. Differences between sounds that are not due to either individual characteristics of pronunciation, or the position of the sound, or the influence of one sound on another, are called functional. Functional differences between sounds are linguistically significant.
Therefore, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.
onetic transcription
To record sounding speech, a special system of signs is used - phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription is based on the principle of one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.
The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Speech recording is performed without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.
In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z'imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [in_dom].
In Russian phonetic transcription, the letters of the Russian alphabet are mainly used. The consonant sounds are recorded using all the corresponding letters, except for u and d. Special superscript or subscript characters can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some of the features of the sound:
[n '] is a soft consonant ([n'] yobo palate);
[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be indicated by a superscript or [n:].
The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound that is transmitted by the sign [ш ’:]: у [ш’:] élye, [ш ’:] etina. A voiced parallel to [w ’:] will be the sound [f’:], appearing, for example, in the word dró [f ’:] and yeast (another pronunciation is allowed - dró [w:] and).
The Latin letter [j] denotes in the transcription the consonant "iot", which sounds in the words blocko apple, water reservoir, b'ji´] sparrows, tongue language, sara [j] barn, má [j] ka mike, cha [ j] nickname kettle, etc. Please note that the consonant "iot" is not always conveyed in writing by the letter y.
Vowel sounds are recorded using different kinds of signs.
Stressed vowels are transcribed using six characters: [and] - [p'ir] feast, [s] - [ardor] ardor, [y] - [ray] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on the place in relation to stress, from the proximity of hard or soft consonants, from the type of syllable. To write unstressed vowels, the symbols [y], [and], [s], [a], [b], [b] are used.
Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: m [y] zykalny, r [y] ká, vod [y], [y] dár.
Unstressed vowels [and], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed): [r'i] du rows, mod [s] lier fashion designer, d [a] ská plaque ... The same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear in the absolute beginning of the word: [and] ckursant excursionist, [a] to search.
Unstressed [and], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding percussive sounds, but not identical to them. So, unstressed [and] turns out to be a vowel, the middle between [and] and [e], but closer to [and]: [l'i] sá fox - compare: [l'i'] fox itself. The pronunciation of the other vowels is also different. The use of the symbols [and], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of convention.
So, the unstressed vowels listed above are characteristic of the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [b] and [b] are pronounced.
The sign [b] ("ep") conveys a very short sound, in terms of its quality average between [s] and [a]. Vowel [b] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed syllables and in the post-stressed syllables after the hard ones: n [b] rokhod steamer, in [b] doz water carrier, zad [b] l set, gór [b] d city.
In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that resembles [and], but is shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [ь] ("er"): [my] world world, [my] fishing chalk, for [my] r froze, for [ly] zhi deposits.
Organs of speech. Formation of vowels and consonants
Sounds are made during exhalation. The exhaled air flow is a prerequisite for the formation of sounds.The jet of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close, then the exhaled air will cause them to vibrate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.
The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming the obstacle created in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the speech organs to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [v], [z], [w]) or full articulation ([p], [m], [d], [k]).
Various organs may be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [c]), certain parts of the tongue with a hard and soft palate ([h], [e ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in the creation of the barrier are subdivided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter perform certain movements.
The air jet overcomes a gap or bow, as a result of which a specific noise is generated. The latter is an obligatory component of the consonant sound. In voiced voices, noise is combined with tone; in deaf people, it is the only component of sound.
When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords oscillate, and a free, unobstructed passage through the oral cavity is provided for the air stream. Therefore, the vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and the complete absence of noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.
The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the corresponding characteristics of sounds are called articulation characteristics.
caressing sounds
Stressed vowels: classification signs
The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the work of the organs of speech: 1) movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);
2) movement of the tongue up - down (rise);
3) the position of the lips (labialization).
On the basis of a number, vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating the front vowels ([and], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the mouth. When articulating back vowels ([y], [o]) - in the back. The middle vowels ([s], [a]) occupy an intermediate position.
The lift sign describes the position of the tongue when moving up or down. Vowels of the upper rise ([and], [s], [y]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the lower vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. The vowels of the middle rise ([e], [o]) are allocated a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because as they are pronounced, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The rest of the vowels are pronounced with a neutral lip and are non-labialized: [and], [s], [e], [a].
The table of stressed vowel vowels looks like this:
climb:
upper i´ s´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial.)
lower á
Unstressed vowels: classification signs
In unstressed syllables, sounds other than under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the speech organs. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in Russian are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed vowels (compare: s [a] d´ sady´ - s [á] dik sádik, p [i] lá pilá - p [i´] lit púlit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration but also the very quality of the vowels changes. In this regard, they talk about a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. Paired with [b] the sadovod argument - with [á] dik sádik unstressed [b] is not just shorter - it differs from the shock one [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time high-quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed, the language does not reach the extreme points of advancement and tends to take a more neutral position.
The most "convenient" in this regard is the sound [b].This is a vowel of the middle row, medium rise, unlabialized: with [b] the plane is flying, b [b] is a furrow.
The articulation of all unstressed vowels is shifted towards the "central" [b]. When pronouncing unstressed [s], [and], [y], [a], the force of change is not very significant: cf. r [s] buk rybák - r [s´] bar ry´ba, [s'i] net blue - [s' and´] niy suniy, r [u] ká ruká - r [ý] kiryki, l [ a] skát fondle - l [á] skovy tender .. Unstressed [s], [and], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as percussion, slightly shifting them to the center.
Unstressed [b] ([s'ь] neva blue) should take an intermediate position between unstressed [and] and "central" [b].
The sound "er" is characterized as a front-middle vowel, upper-middle rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [b] and [b] stand out for their brevity. The rest of the vowels are pronounced more clearly.
The vowel table, supplemented with unstressed sounds, looks like this:
row: front middle back
climb:
upper i´ s´ y (labial) y
u u
b
middle
e´ b ó (labial.)
lower a
á
Features of pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)
The pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depends on a number of conditions:1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,
2) positions at the absolute beginning of a word,
3) hardness / softness of the preceding consonant.
The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of vowel reduction. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not according to their order in the word, but according to the place occupied with respect to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into pre-stressed and post-stressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, four vowels are possible - unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]: n [y] awa need, [ch'i] s'hours, w [s] lká silk, n [a] chnóy night.
In the remaining unstressed syllables (the second, third pre-stressed and post-stressed) strongly reduced vowels [b], [b], as well as the sound [y], are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d [b] moovy smoke and brownie, [me] sorbka meat grinder, [ch’u] half-doodily miraculous.
In post-stressed syllables: bolt [b] m swamps and swamps, tender and tender, si [n] m blue and blue, pó [l'l] m field, horse horse.
In the post-stressed syllables at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [b], [b] and [y], the vowel [s] is fixed, only very short: nut [s] notes, nut [b] note, nó [t'y] nut , nut [y] nut.
The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the features of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [y], [and], [a] are pronounced regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [y] remove the birát, [and] exporter exporter, [a] speak to stipulate.
The features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.
In the stressed syllable: percussion [ý], [and´], [s´], [e´], [ó], [á]In the 1st pre-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of the word: unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]
In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,in post-stressed syllables: unstressed [b], [b], [y] + [s] (at the abs. end of the word)
The hardness / softness of the preceding consonant is an important factor determining the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:
1) after solid can appear [y], [s], [a], [b]: [lu] say meadow, [ly] net bald, [la] rets casket, [lъ] shady horses;
2) after soft are pronounced [y], [and], [b]: [l'u] bob to admire, [ch'i] to blacken, [l'l] dorib an ice ax;
3) pre-shock [a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [p'i] d'rows, [p'i] ti'five, [p''y] next private, [p''] five-year ticket;
4) [b] after soft appears only in return, in endings and formative suffixes. Such a pronunciation is possible, not mandatory and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc .:
got y'l [s''] turned out - from the baby [s''] from the grandmother;
káp [l'ъ] drop - káp [l'l] drop;
honey [d'y] m bears - bear [d'y] m bear;
When you land, when you land, land.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They admit, for example, the following pronunciation of non-upward vowels: slept, n [o] not for long, b [o] á, andánt [e] .ct
It is easy to see that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires a mandatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech measures in a phrase. Thus, a speech tact is a part of a phrase limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. The pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases.
A speech tact, like a phrase, is directly related to the expression of content in a language. Depending on where one speech bar ends and the next begins, sometimes the whole meaning of the phrase changes: How he was struck // by the words of his brother. - How surprised his words // brother. The arbitrariness of the division of a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.
As a rule, a phrase consists of several speech bars: In the hour of testing // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at the feet (D. Kedrin). A measure can coincide with a single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech bar.
onetic alternations of vowels. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing
A vowel belonging to a certain morpheme can be stressed in some words and unstressed in others. So, unstressed [and] in the word [d'i] shevy cheap correlates with the stressed labialized [ó], which sounds at the same root in the word [d’ó] shevo cheap.Sounds belonging to one morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form a phonetic alternation. The above example captures the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and].
In Russian, the following are possible alternation of percussion and unstressed sounds:
1. [ý] // [y] s [ý] would, s [y] bnóy: teeth, dental.
2. [and '] // [and] // [b] [p'i'] shet, [p'i] sat, [p'y] san'ina: writes, write, scribble.
3. [s´] // [s] // [ъ] w [s´] re, w [s] rok, w [ъ] rock: wider, wider, wider.
4. [and´] // [s´] // [and] // [s] [and´] games, with [s´] grand, [and] grating, with [s] grating: games, played, play, play.
5. [e´] // [s] // [b] sh [e] st, sh [s] stá, sh [b] stow: pole, pole, pole.
6. [e´] // [and] // [b] [p'e'] shy, [p'i] shkom, [p'y] shehud: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.
7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d [ó] mik, d [a] mashny, d [b] move: house, home, brownie.
8. [ó] // [and] // [b] [p'ó] strut, [p'i] strut, [p'y] strotá: motley, dazzle, variegation.
9. [ó] // [s] // [ъ] sh [ó] lka, sh [s] lká, sh [ъ] lkov and´sty: silk, silk, silky.
10. [á] // [a] // [b] tr [á] vka, tr [a] vá, tr [b] vyanoy: grass, grass, herbal.
11. [á] // [and] // [b] [p'á] ty, [p'i] tak, [p'y] wheelbarrow: fifth, penny, piglet.
Please note that the quality of unstressed sound is not indicated in writing. The fact that a vowel is unstressed is a signal spelling... In the roots of words on foot, dazzle, dime, pronounced with unstressed [and], the letter is not written. When choosing the correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of pronouncing the root: [p'e'] shii, [p'ó] str, [p'á] ty.
Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). The morpheme gets a graphical representation in which. positionally alternating sounds are written in one letter in accordance with the strong variant (the vowel is checked by stress, the consonant is written before the vowel).
Spelling of unstressed vowels, not checked by stress, falls under another principle of spelling - the traditional one. In dictionary words with [a] báka, p ['i] chal, p [' and] b and'na, it is customary to write letters o, e, i, in examples like um ['u] pla / um [' u] rala - letters e and and. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which are given in all reference books under the heading "Alternating vowels at the root". It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.
It is extremely rare that unstressed vowels are indicated in writing in accordance with the phonetic principle of spelling. The prefix ras- / ras- / ros- / ros- has four graphic options, correlating with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the situation of the check: p [a] confuse to unravel, p [a] to ruin destroy, p [ó] list the list in the presence of p [ó] rally rally (it is the last option that would be a test, since in it the vowel is under stress, and the consonant is in front of the vowel).
voiced sounds
Consonants: classification signs.
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noise / sonority),
2) participation or non-participation of the voice (voiced / deaf),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of education,
5) the way of education.
The properties of deafness / voiced pairing and hardness / softness pairing are specially stipulated.
Noisy and sonorous, deaf and voiced consonants
Noisy and sonorant consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.
Nine sounds are sonorous in Russian: [m], [m ’], [n], [n’], [l], [l ’], [p], [p’], [j]. As with all consonants, an obstruction is created in the oral cavity when articulating the sonorants. However, the friction force of the air jet against the close / closed speech organs is minimal: the air jet finds a relatively free outlet to the outside and no noise is generated. Air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m ’], [n], [n’]), or in the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and cheeks ([l], [l ’]). The absence of noise can be associated with the instantaneousness of the obstacle ([p], [p ’]) or with the rather wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is generated and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.
In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [c], [d], [d], [g], [h], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It arises as a result of overcoming an obstacle with an air jet. The tone component of the sound is minor and can either be absent altogether (for voiceless consonants), or supplement the basic component (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of the tone (voice) in the formation of a consonant sound.
The tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced ones, their articulation presupposes the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Voiced, therefore, are all sonorous: [m], [m ’], [n], [n’], [l], [l ’], [p], [p’], [j]. Among the noisy consonants, the following sounds are voiced: [b], [b '], [c], [c'], [g], [g '], [d], [d'], [g], [ w: '], [h], [h'].
[b] - [n] [b ’] - [p’] [h] - [c] [h ’] - [c’]
[v] - [f] [v ’] - [f’] [f] - [w] [f: ’] - [w:’]
[d] - [t] [d ’] - [t’] [g] - [k] [g ’] - [k’]
The listed sounds are respectively voiced paired or voiceless paired. The rest of the consonants are characterized as unpaired. All sonorous ones are referred to voiced unpaired, sounds [c], [h ’], [x], [x’] are referred to as voiceless unpaired.
onetic alternations of consonants for voicelessness / voicedness. Deafness / voicedness of consonants in writing
Deafness / voicedness of consonants remains an independent, independent feature in the following positions:1) before the vowels: [su] d court - [zu] d itching, [ta] m there - [yes] dam;
2) before sonorous: [sl] oh layer - [evil] oh evil, [aphid] I aphid - [dl '] I am for;
3) before [in], [in ’]: [sv’] er beast - [star] er beast.
In these positions, there are both voiceless and voiced consonants, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness / voicedness.
In other cases, the appearance of a dull / voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the neighborhood of a particular sound. Such deafness / voicedness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the indicated attribute.
In the Russian language, there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf .: dý [b] and oak - du [n] oak, má [z ’] and ointments - ma [s’] ointment. In the above examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants in deafness / voicedness is fixed: [b] // [n] and [z ’] // [s’].
In addition, positional changes relate to situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are near. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants before the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf .: ló [d] point boat - ló [tk] a boat (ie [d] // [t] in front of the deaf), goto [in '] it prepares - goto [f't'] do not cook (ie [in '] // [f'] before the voiceless).
Voiceless consonants standing in front of voiced noisy (except for [v], [v ']) change to voiced, there is an assimilation in voiced, cf .: mol [t'] and 'to thresh - young [d'b] á threshing ( [t '] // [d'] before the voiced one), about [s'] and´ to ask for - pró [z'b] and a request (ie [s'] // [z '] before the voiced) ...
Articulation assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from the Latin assimilatio ‘assimilation’). Thus, above was described assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicing.
The designation of voicelessness / voicedness of consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only an independent, independent deafness / voicedness is indicated in the letter. Sound signs that turn out to be "forced" are not positionally determined in writing. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written in one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling is at work: in the word du [n] oak, the letter b is written, as in the test dý [b] a oak.
An exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription [p] ration transcription in the presence of transcription [b '] and transcribe) and prefixes on s / s (and [s] use if available and [s] teach to learn). The graphic appearance of such examples is subject to the phonetic principle of spelling. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work to the end, combining with the traditional: ra [w:] move \u003d ra [w] stir to stir.
The traditional principle of spelling obeys the choice of a letter in vocabulary words such as в [г] hall station, and [в] best asbestos. Their spelling does not depend on verification (it is impossible) or on pronunciation.
hard and soft consonants
Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.When pronouncing soft consonants ([b ’], [in’], [d ’], [z’], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstacle.
When pronouncing hard consonants ([b], [c], [d], [h], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.
The consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in terms of hardness / softness. All of them are either hard paired or soft paired:
[b] - [b ’] [n] - [p’] [m] - [m ’]
[v] - [v ’] [f] - [f’] [n] - [n ’]
[g] - [g ’] [k] - [k’] [p] - [p ’]
[d] - [d ’] [t] - [t’] [l] - [l ’]
[h] - [h ’] [c] - [c’] [x] - [x ’]
Hard unpaired consonants include [c], [w], [w], and soft unpaired consonants [ч ’], [w:’], [w: ’] and [j].
The consonants [w] and [w: ’], [w] and [w:’] do not form pairs, since they differ in two features at once: hardness / softness and brevity / longitude.
It should be noted that the sound [w: '] is rare. It is possible only in a limited circle of words: ride, reins, yeast, splashes, and later some others. Moreover, [w: ’] is increasingly being replaced by [w:].
The sound [j] occupies a very special position among soft consonants. In the rest of the soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the basic articulation, because there are no other obstacles in the pronunciation of [j]. Therefore, the sound [j], in principle, is not able to have a paired solid.
onetic alternations of consonants in terms of hardness / softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b
The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent, and not arising from positional changes, sign is fixed in the following strong positions:1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to hatch, [but] from the nose - [n'o] from carried, pas [t e´] l pastel - pos [t 'e´] eh bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in originally Russian words, paired hard consonants - in borrowed ones. However, many of such borrowings were no longer recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in common words.
2) at the end of a word: ko [n] kon - ko [n '] horse, zha [p] heat - zha [r'] heat;
3) for sounds [l], [l '], regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l ’] is free;
4) consonants [c], [c '], [h], [z'], [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [n], [n '], [ p], [p '] (in front-lingual)
- in a position before [k], [k '], [g], [g'], [x], [x '] (before the back-lingual): gó [p] ka gorka - gó [p'] to bitter, bá [n] ka bank - ba [n '] ka bath;
- in the position before [b], [b ’], [p], [p’], [m], [m ’] (before the labial): and [z] bá izba - re [z’] bá carving;
In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.
Comparison in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], compare: kó [n'] horse - kó [ns] cue horse, Spain [n '] ia Spain - Spain [ns] cue (ie [n '] // [n] before hard). A pair of june [n'] June - yu' [n's] cue June does not obey the specified pattern. But this exception is the only one.
Similarity by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. Only the replacement of [n] with [n '] before [h'] and [w: '] does not know any deviations, cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch'] ik drum, gó [n] ok gónok - zó [n 'w:'] ik racer (ie [n] // [n '] before soft).
In accordance with the old norms, it was necessary to say: l '[m'k'] and the straps, [in'b '] to drive; [d'v ’] er door; [s'j] eat eat; [s't '] ena wall. In modern pronunciation, there is no obligatory softening of the first sound in these cases. So, the word la´ [mk ’] and straps (similar to shaking [pk’] and rags, lá [fk ’] and benches) is pronounced only with a solid, other sound combinations allow for variability of pronunciation.
The designation in writing applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined, hardness / softness of paired consonants. At the literal level, the soft sound quality [n '] in the words drum and racer is not graphically captured.
In contrast to voicelessness / voicedness, the independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - by the letters and, e, yu, i: face, ice, hatch, clang;
IN modern language the letter e has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant. A combination of letters ... those ... cannot be read if you do not see which word it belongs to - dough or test.
2) at the end of the word with a letter a soft sign: horse, heat, dust;
3) in the middle of the word before the consonant letter there is a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.
The independent hardness of paired consonants is transmitted by such means:
Letters y, o, y, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;
At the end of the word, the absence of a soft sign: end_, heat_, py_l;
In the middle of a word before a consonant without a soft sign:
t_ min, s_ looks, ban_ ka.
The hardness / softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling u / s, e / o, u / u, z / a after the letters w, w, h, sch, c, corresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use / non-use of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, marriage _, quiet, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.
Note that the names of the letters b and b turn out to be insidious. The letter "hard mark" never denotes hardness, its use is associated with a separation function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the next vowel: st will eat, and [d'ju] tant adjutant.
The functions of the letter "soft sign" are broader. First, it can also be used in the separating function, but not after the prefixes: [вjý] ha blizzard, bu [l'jó] n broth. In this case, the letter ь does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, the soft sign can, by tradition, be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). Again, the letter b does not convey the softness of sounds with this use. And finally, in a number of situations, the letter b denotes the softness of consonants in writing. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).
where and how consonants are formed
The place of formation of a consonant sound is a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle. This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (immobile) organs. So, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labial ([n], [n '], [b], [b'], [m], [m ']) and labiodental ([ ф], [ф '], [в], [в']). The consonants formed with the active participation of the language are subdivided into the anterior-lingual dental ([s], [s '], [s], [s'], [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [ ts], [l], [l '], [n], [n']), front-lingual anterior palatine ([w], [w '], [g], [g'], [h '], [p ], [p ']), middle lingual mid palatine ([j]), dorsal lingual mid palatine ([k'], [r '], [x']) and dorsal lingual dorsal palatine ([k], [r], [x]) ... All the listed groups of sounds are reflected in the consonant table (see below).
Considering the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own speech organs will help you understand why each sound is placed in one or another cell.
The method of formation of a consonant is a characteristic with the help of which the type of obstruction in the oral cavity and the method of overcoming it are simultaneously indicated.
There are two main ways of forming a barrier - either the complete closure of the speech organs, or their convergence to the distance of the slit. Thus, stop and slot consonants are distinguished.
When articulating the slotted stream of exhaled air comes out in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction against the adjacent organs of speech: [f], [f '], [in], [in'], [s], [s'], [s], [ z '], [w], [w¯'], [g], [x¯ '], [j], [x], [x'].
Pronunciation of occlusive consonants includes the moment of complete shutter of the speech organs, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bond can be different, depending on what the further division into classes is carried out.
Bow explosives imply the removal of an obstacle with a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out: [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [t], [t '], [d], [d' ], [k], [k '], [z], [z'].
In occlusive affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not open sharply, but only slightly open, forming a slit for air outlet: [c], [h ’].
The nasal concavities do not require breaking the bow at all. Due to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely leaves through the nasal cavity: [m], [m ’], [n], [n’].
When occlusive lateral [l] and [l '] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the obstacle, bypassing it along its trajectory - between the lowered lateral part of the tongue and the cheeks.
In some textbooks, nasal and lateral sounds are described as occlusive-passing.
The tremors are characterized by periodic closure and opening of the speech organs, that is, by their vibration: [p], [p ’].
Sometimes tremors are considered not as a kind of stop, but as a separate, third type of consonants along with stop and slit.
Phonetic alternations of consonants by place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound
The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.Before the anteropalatine noisy teeth are replaced by anteropalatine ones. There is a positional assimilation in the place of formation: [s] playing with a game - [w w] slaughter with a fur coat (ie [s] // [w] in front of the anterior palatine), [s] playing with a game - [w: 'h' ] championship with the championship (ie [s] // [w: '] before the anterior palatine).
Explosive consonants in front of slit and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with sounds closer in articulation. Assimilation is carried out according to the method of education: o [t] play to win back - o [cs] to sprinkle (ie [t] // [c] in front of the slot).
In many cases, several signs of consonants undergo positional change at once. So, in the above example with the championship, the comparison affected not only the sign of the place of education, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of [d] playing under the game - by [h 'w:'] under the cheek ([d] // [h '] in front of the deaf, soft, anterior palatal, slit [w:']) there was an assimilation in all four signs - deafness, softness, place and method of education.
In the examples, le [g] ok is light - le [x'k '] ith light, me´ [g] ok is soft - me´ [x'k'] ith soft, where [r] alternates with [x '], and not with [k '] before [k'], the dissimilation of sounds according to the method of formation is noted. At the same time, assimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with assimilation (assimilation) in deafness and softness.
In addition to the phenomena described above, phonetic alternation of consonants with zero sound can be recorded in Russian speech.
Usually not pronounced [t] / [t '] and [d] / [d'] between teeth, between [p] and [h '], between [p] and [c], also [l] before [ nts]. So, consonant loss is presented in the following combinations:
Stl: happy [t ’] th happiness - happy happy, i.e. [t '] //;
Stn: més [t] about places - local local, i.e. [t] //;
Zdn: uez [d] and county - uezny uezdny, ie [d] //;
Zdc: uz [d] á bridle - under the knots´ under the bridle, i.e. [d] //; dutch [d '] ets dutch - dutch dutch, i.e. [d '] //;
Rdc: heart [d’] échko heart - heart heart, i.e. [d '] //;
Rdch: ser [d ’] échko heart - sérchishko heart, i.e. [d '] //;
Лнц: só [l] nyshko sun - the sun is the sun, i.e. [l] //.
Loss [j] is akin to the indicated phenomenon. It occurs when iota is preceded by a vowel, followed by [and] or [b]: mo my - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] //.
Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the assimilation of consonants by place / method of formation or with the fact of their replacement with a zero sound is indicated in the letter. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian spelling, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the check. Example [w] with a fur coat is written as with a fur coat, since is [with] play with play. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically reconstructed on the basis of test happy [t '] th happiness, etc.
Syllable
A syllable can consist of one or more sounds. In each syllable, only one syllable sound is distinguished, which makes up the core, the top of the syllable. Other sounds are adjacent to it - non-syllable.The types of syllables are characterized by their initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:
1) covered - starting with a non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,
2) naked - starting with a syllable sound: [á-ist] stork.
According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllable: [ball-kón] balcony;
2) open - ending in a syllable sound: [ва-зъ] vase.
In modern linguistics, there are several definitions of the syllable. The definition of a syllable is widespread as a combination of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The most sonorous is the syllable sound; it represents the top of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is built according to the law of ascending sonority.
This law predetermines the following features of syllabus division.
1. Non-finite syllables strive for openness. Most open syllables are: [na-ý-kъ] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] was late.
2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:
1) at the end of a word: [pl-tok] scarf, [rash: ’ót] calculation;
2) at the junction of the sonorant and noisy in the non-initial syllable. The sonorous one goes to the previous syllable, the noisy one - to the next one: [zam-shy] suede, [bal-kon] balcony;
3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant to the next one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.
When learning to divide words into syllables, it should be remembered that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, meaningful primarily within the framework of a specific theory.
In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of hyphenation in writing.
Let's compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic division Word hyphenation
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-glá-sn] co-voice-n-a co-voice-on / co-la-sleep
Dean of the Faculty of Philology
_________ prof. T.A. Demeshkina
"__" ___________ 2010
PHONETICS OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
(OZO)
Educational-methodical kit
Specialty 021700 - PHILOLOGY
Discipline status:
Federal component of the direction
APPROVEDdepartment of General, Slavic-Russian Linguistics and Classical Philology.
Head department, professor ___________ Z.I. Rezanova
Chairman of the Commission Associate Professor __________ T.Bankova
Working programm for the course "Phonetics of the modern Russian language" compiled on the basis of the requirements of the State educational standard higher professional education in the specialty 021700 - PHILOLOGY, approved on March 10, 2000
The total volume of the course is 104 hours. Of these: lectures - 12 hours, seminars - 12 hours, independent work students - 80 hours. Examination in the second semester.
compiled by:
Dmitry Anatolyevich Katunin- Candidate of Philology, Senior Lecturer at the Department of General, Slavic-Russian Linguistics and Classical Philology.
reviewer: Tubalova I.V.
Review of the educational and methodological complex "Phonetics of the modern Russian language (OZO)"
The educational-methodical complex is intended for correspondence students.
The proposed teaching material reflects the basic methodological principles implemented in the course - consistency, sequence of presentation of material from simple to complex, competence-based and communicative approach to the study of the material and is compiled in accordance with the State educational standard of higher professional education on the specialty 032900 "Russian language and literature".
UMK includes methodological materialcontaining 5 sections: 1. "Organizational and methodological section"; 2. "Course content"; 3. "Distribution of course hours by topics and types of work"; 4. "Forms of final control"; 5. "Teaching and methodological support of the course."
Control and measuring materials are: tests, control works, assignments for control works (reflected in the methodological instructions).
As a handout, tables are offered (classifications of vowels, consonants, reduction of consonants, combinatorial and positional changes), tasks to identify phonetic processes, tasks to determine phonetic processes.
The teaching materials define the key knowledge, skills and abilities that a specialist - philologist, trained as part of the course for the perception and comprehension of the fundamental problems of modern linguistics, must possess.
The control questions are formulated on the basis of an almost complete list of topics of the discipline, include not only questions of a concretized form, but also of a problem-generalized nature, cover a variety of aspects of the formation and development of the discipline's problems.
The peer-reviewed EMC contributes to the full educational and methodological support of the educational process, and most importantly, the training of highly professional personnel in the specialty.
Conclusion: the EMC was compiled taking into account all the relevant requirements of the State educational standard for the specialty, the relevant provisions curriculum and can be used in the educational process.
Reviewed by
Ph.D., associate professor of the department
General, Slavic-Russian linguistics and classical philology of TSU I.V. Tubalova
I. ORGANIZATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL SECTION
Purpose of the course - the formation of students' general theoretical understanding of the peculiarities of the phonetic level of modern Russian literary language, as well as the skills of its analysis.
Objective of the course "Phonetics of the modern Russian language" - acquaintance of students with the specific features of the units of the phonetic level of the Russian language and the laws of their functioning, the formation of different-aspect ideas about the considered level of the language. The course also contributes to the solution of the methodological problem of the formation of linguistic thinking of a student of philology, which is due to the originality of the phonetic level of the language - a special degree of rigid logical structuring of its elements.
Course location
The theoretical course "Phonetics of the Modern Russian Language" is included in the block of disciplines "Modern Russian Language". The course examines the phonetic level in acoustic, articulatory and communicative aspects. The views of various scientific schools on the unsolved problems of phonetics and phonology are provided to the attention of students. Traditionally, this course includes theoretical information about the features of modern Russian graphics, spelling and orthoepy.
Requirements for the level of mastering the course
The student should know:
· Current state and development trends of the phonetic level of the Russian language;
· Laws of functioning of phonetic units and their place in the system of linguistic implementation;
· History, current state and prospects of development of phonetics and phonology as types of philological knowledge.
The student should be able to:
· Analyze the sound shell of the Russian language in its modern state, using the system of basic concepts and terms of general linguistics, as well as phonetic and phonological terms proper;
To navigate the main stages of the history of phonetic-phonological knowledge and discussion issues of its current state;
· Apply the basic methods of phonetic and phonological analysis;
· Apply statistical methods of processing phonetic information;
Introduction
Phonetics of the modern Russian language as a scientific discipline (place in the cycle of other linguistic disciplines). Aspects of studying phonetics (acoustic, articulatory, communicative). Methods for studying phonetics. The concept of transcription, its types.
The phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
State educational institution of higher professional education
Far Eastern State University
Modern Russian language
Phonetics
Study guide
Vladivostok
Far Eastern University Publishing House
Modern Russian language. Phonetics: Study guide / Comp. G.M. Krylov. - Vladivostok: Dalnevost Publishing House. un-ta, 2010. -
The methodological manual for the course "Phonetics", prepared in accordance with the curriculum at the Department of Modern Russian Language, includes the course program, a list of recommended educational literature and dictionaries, a test and methodological instructions to it with examples of implementation, a list of basic concepts and terms.
For 1st year students of the department distance learning Institute of Russian Language and Literature. Can be used by 1st year students of full-time education as an additional teaching aid.
© G. M. Krylova,
compilation, 2010
Introduction
Course program
Questions for the exam
Literature
Examination work number 2
Glossary
Introduction
Methodical instructions
Phonetics is part of the Modern Russian Language course. Phonetics studies the sound side of the language, the central place in phonetics is occupied by the doctrine of the sounds of speech, their articulatory, acoustic and functional characteristics. In addition, the sound structure of syllables and words, phonetic division of speech, stress and intonation are studied.
2) study the theoretical material on the textbooks, which are indicated in the list of basic literature, and on the proposed methodological guide, making the necessary notes and analyzing the examples available in the textbooks and manuals;
3) complete the test and submit it to the teacher for verification before the start of the examination session. If you have any difficulties, you can consult a teacher.
Certification for this course is in the form exam... Each exam ticket includes two theoretical questions, which are formulated in accordance with the proposed course program, and a text for phonetic analysis. During the analysis, the student must perform phonetic transcription and divide the text into syntagmatic segments, explain the positional changes of vowels and consonants reflected in the transcription in the speech stream; conduct a phonological analysis of one of the words of the text and establish its phonemic composition.
The admission to the exam is completed and passed test.
PROGRAM
Phonetics as a scientific and academic discipline
General phonetics, descriptive, historical, comparative. Acoustic-articulatory and functional aspects of phonetics. Methods for studying pronunciation.
The articulation aspect of the study of sound units
The device of the speech apparatus. Active and passive organs of pronunciation. Articulation concept.
Articulation classification of sounds in the Russian language. Vowels and consonants. Classification of vowel sounds according to the number and degree of elevation of the language, according to the presence or absence of labialization and other characteristics.
Classification of consonants by the level of noise, by the place and method of formation, by the presence or absence of palatalization and by other signs. Research methods of speech articulation.
The acoustic aspect of the study of sound units
Acoustic properties of sounds. Difference of sounds in pitch, strength, duration, timbre. Tones and noises. Acoustic classification of the sounds of the Russian language. Correspondences between articulatory and acoustic articulations. Research methods of the acoustic side of speech.
Segment and super-segment units
Phrase, speech tact, phonetic word, syllable, sound as segments of the speech stream. Syllabic qualities of sounds. Stress, intonation as super-segmental units.
Syllable from an acoustic and articulatory point of view. Various syllable theories. Types of syllables. The rules of the syllable section.
Stress, its main characteristics. The difference between stressed and unstressed syllables. Features of Russian stress: diversity and mobility. fusion of Russian pronunciation. Enclitics and proclitics.
Intonation. Intonation functions. The concept of intonation construction (IC). Types of IC in Russian. Sense-distinguishing and emotional functions of intonation.
Phonology
Speech sounds and language sounds. Phoneme concept. The main functions of the phoneme are: identifying and distinctive.
The concept of position in phonetics and phonology. Positions are strong and weak. Positional exchange of sounds. Positional and non-positional alternations. Parallel and overlapping rows of positional exchange of sounds.
Opposition to phonemes. Signs of phonemes and signs of sounds. Independent and positionally determined signs of sounds that realize a phoneme. differential signs of a phoneme as a condition for its performance of a distinctive function. Phoneme neutralization. The concept of a hyperphoneme.
Phoneme and morpheme. Phoneme structure. Syntagmatics and paradigmatics in the phonetic system of the Russian language. The phoneme and the set of allophones that realize it. The main representative and various modifications of the phoneme are 9 variations and variants).
Phonological schools: Moscow, St. Petersburg (Leningrad), Prague. Definition of a phoneme, its functions, strong and weak positions, the problem of phoneme neutralization in the concepts of various phonological schools.
The phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language
Positional change of vowel sounds depending on the proximity of hard and soft consonants and on the position in relation to stress. Positional exchange of consonants according to deafness / voicedness, hardness / softness, place and method of formation.
The composition of vowel phonemes. Differential signs of vowel phonemes. Strong and weak positions of vowel phonemes. Realizations of vowel phonemes in strong and weak positions.
Composition of consonant phonemes. Differential signs of consonant phonemes. System of consonant phonemes. Strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes, opposed by voicelessness / voicedness, hardness / softness, by place and method of formation. Relative series of consonant phonemes, paired in voicelessness / voicedness and hardness / softness.
Orthoepy
Orthoepy subject. Orthoepic norms. Variants of orthoepic forms. Senior and junior norms. Territorially determined pronunciation variants of the Russian language. Pronunciation styles.
Spelling reference books.
Writing theory
Grapheme and letter. Composition of the modern Russian alphabet. The ratio of letters and sounds.
Phoneme writing
Spelling.
Sections of Russian spelling. Transmission by letters of the phonemic composition of morphemes and word forms.
Spelling. Types of spelling.
Spelling principles: phonetic, phonemic, traditional. The basic principle of Russian spelling from the point of view of the Moscow and Leningrad phonological schools. Analysis of the main rules of Russian spelling from the point of view of its basic principle. Differentiating spellings.
Major changes in Russian graphics and spelling in the 20th century. Reform of Russian writing in 1917-1918. Streamlining spelling in the 30-50s. Possibilities for improving Russian spelling. The question of the need new reform Russian letters.
Modern spelling dictionaries and reference books.
QUESTIONS TO THE EXAM
1. Phonetics as a science. The subject of phonetics. Methods for studying the sound system.
2. Classification of phonetic units. Segment and super-segment phonetic units.
3. Aspects of studying sound units. Acoustic and articulatory properties of speech sounds.
4. Articulation of vowel sounds. The difference between vowel articulation and consonant articulation. Articulation classification of vowel sounds.
5. Articulation of consonants. Articulation classification of consonants according to the place of formation. Articulation classification of consonants by the method of formation.
6. Syllable as a phonetic unit. Sonorous theory of the syllable. Types of syllables. The principles of slogan division.
7. Stress as a super-segmental phonetic unit. Features of the Russian accent. Verbal, phrasal, logical stress. Stress functions.
8. Intonation as a super-segmental phonetic unit. Intonation construction. Types of intonation structures. Intonation functions.
9. The concept of phonetic position. Basic laws of phonetic positions in the field of vowels, in the field of consonants.
10. The functional aspect of the study of sound units. Phoneme concept. Phoneme properties.
11. Positional alternations of sounds, their difference from non-positional ones.
12. Classification of positions. Perceptually strong and weak positions. The concept of the main type and variation of the phoneme.
13. Classification of positions. Significantly strong and weak positions. The concept of a variant phoneme. Phoneme neutralization. Hyperphoneme.
14. The composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language. Perceptually strong and weak vowel positions.
15. Realizations of vowel phonemes in unstressed syllables. Features of the implementation of vowel phonemes in the first pre-stressed syllable: "Akayaschaya", "Ekataya", "Hiccup" pronunciation systems.
16. Composition of consonant phonemes of the Russian language. The place of soft back-lingual in the system of consonant phonemes of the Russian language.
17. Paired consonant phonemes for deafness-voicedness. Strong and weak positions in deafness-voicedness. Strong and weak positions in the place of education.
18. Paired consonant phonemes by hardness-softness. Strong and weak positions in hardness-softness.
19. Unpaired consonant phonemes for voicelessness, hardness and softness. Their implementation.
20. Orthoepy. Basic orthoepic norms of the Russian language. Measurements of orthoepic norms. "Senior" and "junior" orthoepic norms.
21. Sections of the theory of writing. Graphic arts. Three principles of graphics. The phonemic principle as the leading one.
22. The composition of the Russian alphabet. Designation of Russian phonemes: designation of vowel phonemes, hard and soft, voiceless and voiced consonant phonemes. Phoneme designation / d /.
23. Sections of the theory of writing. Spelling. Three principles of Russian spelling. The phonemic principle as the leading principle of Russian spelling.
LITERATURE
Main
Kasatkin L.L. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling // Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P.A. Lecant. 3rd ed. M., 1996
Panov M.V. Modern Russian: Phonetics. M., 1979.
Panov M.V. Phonetics // Modern Russian language / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. 2nd ed. M., 1989.
Reformatsky A.A. From the history of Russian phonology: Essay. Reader. M., 1970.
Additional
R.I. Avanesov Russian literary pronunciation. 6th ed. M., 1984 (and other editions).
Bryzgunova E.A. Intonation // Russian grammar. T. I. M., 1980.
Ganiev Zh.V. Russian language. Phonetics and orthoepy. M., 1990.
Kasatkin L.L., Klobukov E.V., Lekant P.A. A short guide to the modern Russian language. 2nd ed. M., 1995.
Abstract in Russian
"Phonetic system of the Russian language"
Phonetics is the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).
Without pronouncing and listening to the sounds that make up the sound shell of words, speech communication is impossible. On the other hand, for verbal communication it is extremely important to distinguish the spoken word among others that are similar in sound.
Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.
1.Phonetic means of the Russian language
The phonetic means of the Russian language include:
Stress (verbal and phrasal)
Intonation.
1.1 The shortest, minimum, indivisible sound unit, which stands out during the sequential sound division of a word, is called sound of speech .
The sounds of speech have a different quality and therefore serve as a means for distinguishing words in the language. Often, words differ in just one sound, the presence of an extra sound in comparison with another word, the order of the sounds.
For example: jackdaw - pebble,
fight - howl,
mouth is a mole,
nose - sleep.
The traditional classification of speech sounds is to divide them into consonants and vowels.
- Consonant sounds differ from vowels by the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity when pronouncing.
The consonants differ:
2) at the place of noise generation,
3) by the method of generating noise,
4) by the absence or presence of softness.
Participation of noise and voice... According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorous consonants are called consonants formed with a voice and slight noise: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d"], [g], ["], [z ], [з "],,, formed by noise involving voice. Noisy voiceless consonants include: [n], [n "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s "] , [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], formed with only one noise, without the participation of a voice.
Place of noise generation... Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, the consonants can be labial [b], [n] [m] and labiodental [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Front-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [z], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-dental [h], [w], [g], [p] ; middle lingual - middle palatine; posterior lingual - posterior palatine [g], [k], [x].
Noise generation methods... Depending on the difference in the methods of generating noise, the consonants are divided into stopping [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], slotted [c], [f], [c], [z ], [w], [w], [x], affricates [c], [h], occlusive-anadromous: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrant) [ R].
Hardness and softness of consonants... The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (lat. Palatum - hard palate) is the result of the middle palatal articulation of the language, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds produced with this additional articulation are called soft, while those without it are called hard.
A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlated in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds is that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound.
For example: rose - dew and roses - grew [grew - grew].
This is how paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [z] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] appear in these positions - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants for voicelessness.
The correlative series of voiceless and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants differ in the presence of a voice (voiced) or in its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [p], [p"] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c], [h "] - unpaired deaf.
The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:
The composition of consonants, taking into account the deafness-voiced correlation, is shown in the following table
(["], ["] - long hissing, paired in deafness-voicedness; compare [draw "and], [" and]).
The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, and do not differ in others, which leads to the presence in the consonant system of a relative series of hard and soft sounds. So, before the vowel [o], [l] - [l "] differ (compare: lot - ice [lot - l" from], and before the sound [e], not only [l] - [l "], but also other paired hard-soft sounds (compare: [l "es], [c" es], [b "es], etc.).
Long and double consonants. In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language there are two long consonant sounds - soft hissing ["] and ["] (yeast, cabbage soup). These long hissing sounds are not opposed to the sounds [w], [w], which are unpaired solid. As a rule, long consonants in Russian are formed only at the junctions of morphemes and are a combination of sounds. For example, in the word rationality [рлудък], a long sound arose at the junction of the prefix times- and the root judgment-, cf .: [пΛ "elk], [yl], [l" ö "ik] (fake, sewn, pilot). in these cases, the sounds cannot be defined as long, since they are devoid of a distinctive function, not opposed to short sounds.In essence, such "long" sounds are not long, but double.
Cases of long consonants (quarrel, yeast, etc.) in the roots of Russian words are rare. Words with double consonants in the roots are usually foreign languages \u200b\u200b(telegram, gamma, antenna, etc.). Such words in a live pronunciation lose their vowel length, which is often reflected in modern spelling (literature, attack, corridor, etc.).
Sound laws in the field of consonants:
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word... A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as its corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goats - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are deafened: the load is sadness, the entrance is the entrance [пΛдjст], etc.
Stunning of the final ringing occurs under the following conditions:
1) before a pause: [pr "ishol pojst] (a train came); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with an initial not only voiceless, but also a vowel, sonorous, as well as [j] and [v]: [prf he ], [our sat], [slap jа], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your race.) Sonorous consonants are not stunned: litter, they say, lump, he.
2. Assimilation of consonants by voicing and voicelessness... Combinations of consonants, of which one is voiceless and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if in a word there are two consonants different in voicing, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.
By virtue of this law, voiced consonants in front of the deaf turn into paired deafs, and deaf ones in the same position - into voiced ones. Sounding of voiceless consonants is less common than stunning voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (arc - dushka), [in "no with" t "and - in" no with "t" and] (to carry - to lead), [php "lr" "eshku - fp" lr "iie m" eshku] (alternately - mixed).
Before the sonorous ones, as well as before [j] and [in], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λтjest] (departure), yours, yours.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [zbor] (collection); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [gd "elu] (to the case), [zd" elm] (with the case); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-th] (year-then), [get] (daughter would); 4) at the junction of significant words spoken without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (horn of a goat), [ras-p "at"] (five times).
3. Assimilation of consonants by softness... Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).
The composition of consonants, taking into account the relative range of hard and soft sounds, is presented in the following table:
Assimilation by softness has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants paired in hardness-softness soften and not all soft consonants cause softening of the previous sound.
All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b "ate], [c" eu], [m "ate], [c" ate] (bel, weight, chalk, sat), etc .; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [p" silt "and] (mil, drank).
Before unpaired [w], [w], [c] soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf. end - ring).
The most susceptible to softening are dental [s], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f]. They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], as well as [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "es]; compare [Λ" op]) and before the particle ([grew - l "and]; compare [rΛpl" and]) ( here is the forest, scrubbed, grew, grew).
The consonants [z] and [s] are softened before soft [t "], [q"], [s "], [n"], [l "]: [m" ês "t"], [in "ee z "d" e], [f-ka "b], [kaz" n "] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Softening [z], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions in tune with them before soft labial: [pz "d" iel "it"], [ps "t" ie nut "], [b" ez "- n "no v), [b" no s "-s" silt] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labial softening [h], [c], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes in -з, as well as in the prefix c- and in a preposition consonant with it: [with "m" ex], [z "in" êr "], [d" in "êr"], [t "in" êr "], [with" n "êt"], [with "-n" im], [is "-pêch"], [rΛz "d" êt "] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).
Labial before soft teeth do not soften: [Fri "ên" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).
These cases of assimilative softness of consonants show that the action of assimilation in the modern Russian literary language is not always distinguished by a strict sequence.
4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness... The assimilation of consonants in terms of hardness is carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix that begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretary, etc. Before the labial [b] assimilation by hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [prose "bb], [mllt" it "] - [mlld" ba] (ask - request, thresh - thresh), etc. Assimilation is not subject to [l "]: [floor" b] - [floor "nyj] (field, outside).
5.www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook107/01/.htm Assimilation of teeth before hissing... This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position in front of the hissing (anterior palatine) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing ...
Complete assimilation [h], [s] occurs: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [at "], [pΛat"] (compress, unclench); [yyt "], [rlyt"] (sew, embroider); ["from], [рΛ" from] (account, calculation); [okay "hik], [Izvo" hik] (peddler, cabman);
2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [arm], [arm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "year], [biear] (no heat, no ball).
The combination zzh inside the root, as well as the combination zzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [f "]: [by" b] (later), (I drive); [in "and], [draw" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [w] can be pronounced.
A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], as a result of which long ["],: [Λ" from] (report), (fkras] (in short) are obtained.
6. Simplifying consonant combinations... The consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in the combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vst, rdc, lnts: [sleepy], [pozn], [w "no sl" willow], [g "igansk" and], [h "ustv], [with" erdz], [sonc] (oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun).
7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants... When three identical consonants meet at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [raor "it"] (raz + quarrel), [ylk] (with a link), [kloy] ( column + n + th); [Λд "еки] (Odessa + sk + uy).
- Vowel sounds differ from consonants by the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.
The existing vowel classification takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels:
1) the degree of elevation of the tongue
2) the place of raising the tongue
3) participation or non-participation of the lips.
The most important of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, the state of which determines the quality of the vowel.
According to the degree of vertical ascent of the language, vowels of three degrees of ascent are distinguished: vowels of the upper ascent [and], [s], [y]; vowels of medium rise e [e], [o]; lower ascent vowel [a].
The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of vowels of three rows: vowels of the front row [and], e [e]; middle vowels [s], [a] and back vowels [y], [o].
The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized (unbroken) [a], e [e], [and], [s].
Table of vowels of the modern Russian literary language
Sound law in the field of vowel sounds.
Vowel reduction... The change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in the remaining unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in the weak position of the second degree are subject to more reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.
Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [b "no yes] (trouble), etc.
Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parlvos] (steam locomotive); [къръглнда] (Karaganda); [k'lkΛla] (bells); [n "ll" ie na] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [voice] (exclamation), etc.
1.2 The speech stream differs stress phrasal, bar and verbal.
Verbal stress is the emphasis on pronunciation of one of the syllables of a two-syllable or polysyllabic word. Word stress is one of the main external signs independent word. Verbal stress delimits words and word forms that are identical in sound composition (compare: clubs - clubs, holes - holes, hands - hands). Service words and particles usually do not have stress and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them: [under-mountain], [on-side], [just-those-times].
Power (dynamic) stress is characteristic of the Russian language, in which the stressed syllable stands out in comparison with the unstressed one with a greater tension of articulation, especially of the vowel sound. The stressed vowel is always longer than the corresponding unstressed sound. Russian stress is different: it can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit).
The multiplicity of stress is used in Russian to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and individual forms of various words (mine - mine), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of a word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done - well done). The mobility and immobility of stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress or remains on the same place of the word (vegetable garden, -a, -y, -th, -e, -y, -ov, etc. .), or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -y, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). Stress mobility provides grammatical distinction (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.).
In some cases, the difference in the place of the word stress loses all meaning
For example: cottage cheese and cottage cheese, otherwise and otherwise, butt and butt, etc.
Words can be unstressed and weakly struck. Service words and particles are usually deprived of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so that a preposition followed by an independent word has one stress: [for winter], [out of town], [evening].
Weakly struck can be two-syllable and three-syllable prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, the connectives be and become, some of the introductory words.
Some categories of words have, in addition to the main additional, secondary stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one - in the second, for example: Old Russian. These words include the words:
1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft construction),
2) complex abbreviations (gostelecenter),
3) words with prefixes after-, super-, arch-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlantic, post-October),
4) some foreign words (pôstscriptum, pôstfactum).
Clock stress is the emphasis in pronunciation of a more semantic word within a speech tact.
For example: Am I wandering | along the noisy streets, | I come in | to a crowded temple, | I'm sitting | between the mad young men, | I surrender | my dreams (P.)
Phrazov stress is the emphasis in pronunciation of the most important semantic word within the utterance (phrase); such stress is one of the bars. In the example above, the phrasal stress falls on the word dream. Phrasal stress distinguishes sentences by meaning with the same composition and word order (cf.: Snow is falling and Snow is falling).
Bar and phrasal stress is also called logical.
1.3 Intonation distinguishes between sentences with the same composition of words (with the same place of phrasal stress) (cf .: Does the snow melt and the snow melts?). The intonations of the message, question, urge, etc. differ.
Intonation has an objective linguistic meaning: regardless of the functional loading, intonation always combines words into phrases, and without intonation, phrases do not exist. Subjective differences in the intonation of a phrase have no linguistic significance.
Intonation is closely related to other levels of the language, and, above all, to phonology and syntax.
Intonation is related to phonology by the fact that it belongs to the sound side of the language and that it is functional; however, it differs from phonology by the fact that intonation units have semantic significance in and of themselves: for example, ascending intonation is mainly correlated with interrogation or incompleteness of the utterance. The relationship between intonation and sentence syntax is not always straightforward. In some cases, the grammatical patterns on which the utterance is built may have a typical intonation design. So, sentences with a particle http://fonetica.philol.msu.ru/intonac/m321.htm whether, represent a grammatical pattern for building an interrogative utterance.
Different syntactic structures can be formed with the same intonation, and the same syntactic structure can be formed with different intonations. The statements change accordingly. This indicates a certain autonomy of intonation in relation to syntax.
2. Phonetic units of the Russian language
From the rhythmic-intonation side, our speech is a speech stream, or a chain of sounds. This chain is divided into links, or phonetic units of speech: phrases, bars, phonetic words, syllables and sounds.
· Phrase - this is the largest phonetic unit, a complete statement in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other phrases by a pause.
· Speech beat (or syntagma) most often consists of several words, united by one stress.
The speech beat is divided into phonetic words, i.e. independent words together with adjoining unstressed service words and particles.
Words are divided into phonetic units proper - syllables, and the latter - on the sounds .
2.1 Syllables
From the point of view of education, from the physiological point of view, a syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced by one expiratory push.
From the point of view of sonority, from the acoustic side, a syllable is a sound segment of speech, in which one sound stands out with the greatest sonority in comparison with the neighboring ones - the previous and the next. Vowel sounds, as the most sonorous, are usually syllabic, and consonants are non-syllable, but sonorous (p, l, m, n), as the most sonorous of the consonants, can form a syllable. Syllables are divided into open and closed, depending on the position of the syllable sound in them.
A syllable ending in a syllable sound is called open: va-ta. Closed is a syllable ending with a non-syllable sound: there, barking.
Uncovered is a syllable that begins with a vowel sound: a -orta. Covered is a syllable that begins with a consonant: ba-tone.
The basic law of the syllable section in the Russian language.
The structure of a syllable in Russian obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that sounds in a syllable are ranked from least sonorous to most sonorous.
The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words given below, if sonority is conventionally designated by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorous consonants, 7 - noisy consonants. Water: 1-3 / 1-3; boat: 2-3 / 1-1-3; ma-layer: 2-3 / 1-2-3; wave-on: 1-3-2 / 2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of the syllable section is realized at the beginning of the non-initial syllable.
The initial and final syllables in Russian are built according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: le-that: 2-3 / 1-3; glass: 1-3 / 1-2-3.
The syllable section with a combination of significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase: us Turkey - us-Tur-tsi-i; nasturtiums (flowers) - na-stur-qi-i.
A particular regularity of the syllable section at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (different) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix, and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: Odessa [o / de / sit]; art [and / art]; to part [pa / become / sya]; from the wall [wall / ny], therefore, more often - [s / wall / ny].
2.2 Sounds
The sounds of speech, without having their own meaning, are a means for distinguishing words. The study of the distinctiveness of speech sounds is a special aspect of phonetic research and is called phonology.
The phonological, or functional, approach to speech sounds is at the forefront of language learning; the study of the acoustic properties of speech sounds (physical aspect) is closely related to phonology.
To designate a sound when it is viewed from the phonological side, use the term phoneme .
As a rule, the sound envelopes of words and their forms are different, if we exclude homonyms. Words that have the same sound composition can differ in the place of stress (flour - flour, flour - flour) or the order in which the same sounds follow (cat - tok). Words can also contain such smallest, further indivisible units of speech sound, which independently distinguish the sound envelopes of words and their forms, for example: tank, side, beech; in these words the sounds [a], [o], [y] distinguish the sound shells of these words and act as phonemes. The words cistern and cask differ in writing, but they are pronounced the same [bΛchok]: the sound shells of these words do not differ, because the sounds [a] and [o] in the given words appear in the first pre-stressed syllable and lose the distinctive role that they play in in words tank - side. Consequently, the phoneme serves to distinguish the sound shell of words and their forms. Phonemes differentiate not the meaning of words and forms, but only their sound shells, indicate differences in meaning, but do not reveal their nature.
The different quality of the sounds [a] and [o] in the words tank - bok and tank - barrel is explained by the different place that these sounds occupy in words in relation to the word stress. In addition, when pronouncing words, the influence of one sound on the quality of another is possible, and as a result, the qualitative nature of the sound turns out to be due to the position of the sound - the position after or in front of another sound, between other sounds. In particular, the position in relation to the stressed syllable is important for the quality of vowel sounds, and for consonants - the position at the end of the word. So, in the words horn - horns [rock] - [рΛga] the consonant sound [r] (at the end of the word) is stunned and pronounced as [k], and the vowel sound [o] (in the first pre-stressed syllable) sounds like a [Λ] ... Consequently, the quality of the sounds [o] and [r] in these words turns out to be more or less dependent on the position of these sounds in the word.
The concept of a phoneme assumes a distinction between independent and dependent signs of speech sounds. Independent and dependent signs of sounds do not correlate in the same way in different sounds and in different phonetic conditions. So, for example, the sound [z] in words created and the section is characterized by two independent features: the way of formation (slot sound) and the place of formation (tooth sound). Besides independent signs, the sound [з] in the word created [created] has one dependent feature - voicedness (before the voiced [d]), and in the word section [рΛз "д" el] - two dependent features due to the position of the sound: voicedness (before the voiced [ d]) and softness (in front of a soft tooth [d "]). Hence, it follows that in some phonetic conditions, the sounds are dominated by independent signs, and in others - dependent.
Taking into account independent and dependent features clarifies the concept of a phoneme. Independent qualities form independent phonemes, which are used in the same (identical) position and distinguish the sound shells of words. Dependent sound qualities exclude the possibility of using sound in an identical position and deprive sound of a distinctive role and therefore form not independent phonemes, but only varieties of the same phoneme. Consequently, the phoneme is called the shortest sound unit, independent in quality and therefore serving to distinguish between the sound envelopes of words and their forms.
The quality of the vowel sounds [a], [o], [y] in the words bak, bok, beech is not phonetically conditioned, does not depend on the position, and the use of these sounds is identical (between the same consonants, under stress). Therefore, the selected sounds have a distinctive function and, therefore, are phonemes.
In the words mother, mint, crush [ma t ", m" at, m "ät"] the percussive sound [a] differs in quality, since it is used not in the identical, but in different positions (before soft, after soft, between soft consonants). Therefore, the sound [a] in the words mother, mint, crush does not have a direct distinctive function and does not form independent phonemes, but only varieties of the same phoneme<а>.
The degree of various functions of phonemes is expressed in terms of strong phoneme and weak phoneme .
Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the largest number of sound units are distinguished, for example, vowels in the stressed position. This phonetic position is called a strong position; stressed vowels are strong phonemes, and their phonetic position is a strong position.
Weak phonemes appear in those positions in which fewer sound units are distinguished. This phonetic position is called a weak position. So, in the unstressed position, the vowels appear in a smaller number of sound units (compare the coincidence in the first pre-stressed syllable of the sounds [o] and [a]: shaft - [vΛly], ox - [vΛly]). Unstressed vowels are weak phonemes, and their phonetic position is a weak position.
Strong and weak phonemes have different distinctive abilities: the distinctive function of phonemes in strong positions has the greatest degree, in weak positions - less.
Basic kind of strong vowel phonemes... The main type of a strong vowel phoneme is the variety of this phoneme that is least dependent on phonetic conditions, i.e. under stress at the beginning of a word before a hard consonant sound (arch, smallpox, go, from afar, urn).
Varieties of strong vowel phonemes... Strong vowel phonemes, differing under stress, change their quality depending on the position before the consonant and after the consonant of this or that quality, at the absolute beginning and at the absolute end of the word and appear in their different varieties - more front or back, which are presented in the following table variations of vowel phonemes:
| At the beginning of a word | After hard consonants | After soft consonants | |||
| (I) not before soft | (Ii) before soft | (Iii) not before soft | (Iv) before soft | (V) not before soft | (Vi) before soft |
| [and] Oh | [and ] ah | [and] that so | [and ] mother | [ and] although they want | [ and ] crush |
| [about] Oh | [about ] axis | [about] then, current | [about ] salt | [ about] everything, with everything | [ about ] aunt |
| [e] ep | [e] er | - | - | [e] not no | [e] stranded |
| [and] them | [u] name | [s] we, soap | [s] dust | [and] sleep, sleep | [u] miles |
| [y] uh | [y] hive | [y] that, here | [y] way | [y] drink, drink | [y] pants |
Comparison of the variations of strong vowel phonemes (see table) shows that they differ only in the place of formation and that the place of formation of vowel phonemes (a series of vowels) is not a defining feature of a vowel phoneme.
The above scheme of variations of strong vowel phonemes should be supplemented with an indication of the pronunciation of stressed strong phonemes after back-lingual and hard sibilants.
1. After back-lingual (g, k, x), not before soft consonants, the same vowels are pronounced as in position I; moreover, before [e] and [and], the back-linguals appear in their soft varieties: [as], [com], [kum], [to "em], [to" it].
2. After the back-lingual, before the soft consonants, the same vowels are pronounced as in position II, and the back-lingual ones before [e] and [and] appear in their soft variations: [kam "n"], [ko s "t" ], [ku s "t" uk], [k "kp" u], [k "ûs" t "].
3. After hard sibilants (f, w), before hard and soft consonants, all vowel phonemes, except<е>, change in the same way as in positions III and IV, and the phoneme<е> performs in variation<э>.
Weak vowel phonemes (reduced vowels) of the first pre-stressed syllable... The quality of weak vowel phonemes turns out to be dependent, on the one hand, on the position in an unstressed syllable and, on the other hand, on the quality of neighboring consonants. When determining the phonetic positions for the vowel phonemes of the first pre-stressed syllable, only the quality of the preceding consonant is practically taken into account, which makes it possible to distinguish the following phonetic positions:
I - at the beginning of a word, II - after a paired solid consonant. III - after a soft consonant, IV - after a hard hissing (variants of vowel phonemes).
The system of weak vowel phonemes of the first pre-stressed syllable (varieties of weak phonemes) in comparison with the system of strong vowel phonemes is shown in the following table:
Phoneme variants<а>, <о>, <е> of the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants coincide with the variants of these phonemes at the absolute beginning of the word. These are the sounds [Λ], [se].
The exception is the phoneme<и>, which at the absolute beginning of the word is realized by the sound [and]: [Ivan], and in the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants - by the sound [s]: [s-yvanm].
Variants of vowel phonemes of the second pre-stressed syllable... In all pre-stressed syllables, except for the first, weak vowel phonemes are in a weak position of the second degree. This position has two varieties: I - after a paired hard consonant and II - after a soft consonant. After a solid consonant, the vowel phonemes are realized with the sounds [b], [s], [y]; after soft - sounds [b], [and], [y]. For example: [b] - [b'rΛban], [k'l'kΛla], [s] - [help out "], [y] - [murΛv" ê], [b] - [ptΛchok], [and] - [k "isllt] , [y] - [l "are good].
Vowel phoneme variants for stressed syllables... Weak vowel phonemes of post-stressed syllables differ in the degree of reduction: the weakest reduction is observed in the final open syllable. There are two positions of weak phonemes in post-stressed syllables: after hard consonants and after soft consonants.
The system of variants of vowel phonemes of post-stressed syllables is presented in the table.
As the table shows, after solid consonants, the vowels [s], [b], [y] are distinguished; and the sounds [y] and [b] are weakly opposed. After soft consonants, the vowels [and], [b], [b], [y] are distinguished; and the sounds [and] - [b], [b] - [b] differ by weak differentiation.
Mena of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms phonemic row... So, vowel phonemes, identical in place in the morpheme kos-, form a phonemic row<о> - <Λ> - <ъ>: [braids] - [кΛса] - [късΛр "and], and the consonant phoneme<в> morphemes becoming- starts a phonemic row<в> - <в"> - <ф> - <ф">: [statutes] - [statutes "it"] - [ustaf] - [ustaf "].
The phonemic row is an essential element of the structure of the language, since the identity of the morpheme is based on it. The composition of phonemes of one and the same morpheme always corresponds to a certain phoneme series. The instrumental inflections in the words window-ohm and sad-ohm [Λknom] - [sadm], water-oh and mod-oh [vΛdo] - [mod] are pronounced differently. However, these inflections ([-om] - [-ъм], [-o] - [b]) are one and the same morpheme, since phonemes change in their composition<о> and<ъ>included in the same phonemic row.
Conclusion
Thus, the phonetic system of the Russian language consists of significant units of speech:
Word forms
Phrases and sentences
to convey and distinguish, which are the phonetic means of the language:
Stress