AMUNDSEN Roal
Travel routes
1903-1906 - Arctic expedition on the ship "Joa". R. Amundsen was the first to pass the Northwest Passage from Greenland to Alaska and determined the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole at that time.
1910-1912 - Antarctic expedition aboard the ship "Fram".
On December 14, 1911, a Norwegian traveler with four companions on dog sleds reached the South Pole of the earth, ahead of the expedition of the Englishman Robert Scott by a month.
1918-1920 - on the "Mod" ship R. Amundsen sailed across the Arctic Ocean along the shores of Eurasia.
1926 - together with the American Lincoln Ellsworth and the Italian Umberto Nobile R. Amundsen made a flight on the Norway airship on the route Spitsbergen - North Pole - Alaska.
1928 - Amundsen was killed while searching for the expedition of U. Nobile that disappeared in the Barents Sea.
Name on the map
The name of the Norwegian traveler is the sea in the Pacific Ocean, a mountain in East Antarctica, a bay near the coast of Canada and a basin in the Arctic Ocean.
The US Antarctic Science Station is named after the pioneers: "Amundsen-Scott Pole".
Amundsen R. My life. - M .: Geografgiz, 1959 .-- 166 p .: ill. - (Travel; Adventure; Science Fiction).
Amundsen R. South Pole: Per. from norv. - M .: Armada, 2002 .-- 384 p .: ill. - (Green Series: Around the World).
Bouman-Larsen T. Amundsen: Trans. from norv. - M .: Mol. guard, 2005 .-- 520 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Y. Golovanov called the chapter dedicated to Amundsen “Travels gave me the happiness of friendship ...” (p. 12-16).
Davydov Yu.V. Captains are looking for a way: Tale. - M .: Det. lit., 1989 .-- 542 p .: ill.
Pasetskiy V.M., Blinov S.A. Roald Amundsen, 1872-1928. - M .: Nauka, 1997 .-- 201 p. - (Scientific-biogr. Ser.).
Treshnikov A.F. Roald Amundsen. - L .: Gidrometeoizdat, 1976 .-- 62 p .: ill.
Tsentkevich A., Tsentkevich Ch. The man who was called by the sea: The Tale of R. Amundsen: Per. with est. - Tallinn: Eesti raamat, 1988 .-- 244 p .: ill.
Yakovlev A.S. Through the Ice: A Tale of a Polar Explorer. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1967 .-- 191 p .: ill. - (Pioneer means first).
BELLINSHAUSEN Faddey Faddeevich
Travel routes
1803-1806 - FF Bellingshausen took part in the first Russian round-the-world voyage under the command of IF Kruzenshtern on the ship "Nadezhda". All the maps that were later included in the "Atlas for a voyage around the world of Captain Krusenstern" were compiled by him.
1819-1821 - F.F.Bellingshausen led a round-the-world expedition to the South Pole.
January 28, 1820 on the sloops "Vostok" (under the command of F.F.Bellingshausen) and "Mirny" (under the command of M.P. Lazarev) Russian sailors were the first to reach the shores of Antarctica.
Name on the map
In honor of F.F.Bellingshausen, the sea in the Pacific Ocean, a cape on South Sakhalin, an island in the Tuamotu archipelago, an ice shelf and a basin in Antarctica.
The name of the Russian navigator is the Russian Antarctic Scientific Station.
Moroz V. Antarctica: The History of Discovery / Art. E. Orlov. - Moscow: Bely Gorod, 2001 .-- 47 p .: ill. - (Russian history).
Fedorovsky E.P. Bellingshausen: East. novel. - M .: AST: Astrel, 2001 .-- 541 p .: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel).
BERING Vitus Ionassen
danish navigator and explorer in the Russian service
Travel routes
1725-1730 - V. Bering headed the 1st Kamchatka Expedition, the purpose of which was to search for a land isthmus between Asia and America (there was no exact information about the voyage of S. Dezhnev and F. Popov, who actually opened the strait between the continents in 1648). The expedition aboard the ship "St. Gabriel" rounded the shores of Kamchatka and Chukotka, discovered the island of St. Lawrence and the Strait (now Beringov).
1733-1741 - 2nd Kamchatka, or Great Northern Expedition. On the ship Saint Peter, Bering crossed the Pacific Ocean, reached Alaska, surveyed and mapped its shores. On the way back during wintering on one of the islands (now the Commander Islands), Bering, like many members of his team, died.
Name on the map
In addition to the strait between Eurasia and North America, islands, the sea in the Pacific Ocean, a promontory on the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and one of the largest glaciers in southern Alaska bear the name of Vitus Bering.
Konyaev N.M. Revision of Commander Bering. - M .: Terra-Kn. club, 2001 .-- 286 p. - (Fatherland).
Orlov O.P. To unknown shores: A story about Kamchatka expeditions undertaken by Russian sailors in the 18th century under the leadership of V. Bering / Fig. V. Yudin. - M .: Malysh, 1987 .-- 23 p .: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).
Pasetskiy V.M. Vitus Bering: 1681-1741. - M .: Nauka, 1982 .-- 174 p .: ill. - (Scientific-biogr. Ser.).
The last expedition of Vitus Bering: Sat. - M .: Progress: Pangea, 1992 .-- 188 p .: ill.
Sopotsko A.A. The history of V. Bering's voyage on the boat “St. Gabriel "to the Arctic Ocean. - Moscow: Nauka, 1983 .-- 247 p .: ill.
Chekurov M.V. Mysterious expeditions. - Ed. 2nd, revised, add. - M .: Nauka, 1991 .-- 152 p .: ill. - (Man and the environment).
Chukovsky N.K. Bering. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1961 .-- 127 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
VAMBERI Arminius (Herman)
hungarian orientalist
Travel routes
1863 - A. Vamberi's journey under the guise of a dervish across Central Asia from Tehran through the Turkmen desert along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea to Khiva, Mashhad, Herat, Samarkand and Bukhara.
Vambery A. Journey through Central Asia: Per. with him. - Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, 2003 .-- 320 p. - (Stories about the countries of the East).
Vamberi A. Bukhara, or History of Mavarounnahr: Excerpts from the book. - Tashkent: Publishing house lit. and Isk-va, 1990 .-- 91 p.
Tikhonov N.S. Vambery. - Ed. 14th. - M .: Mysl, 1974 .-- 45 p.: Ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
VANCOUVER George
english navigator
Travel routes
1772-1775, 1776-1780 - J. Vancouver as a cabin boy and midshipman participated in the second and third round-the-world voyages of J. Cook.
1790-1795 - A round-the-world expedition under the command of J. Vancouver explored the northwest coast of North America. It has been established that the proposed waterway connecting the Pacific Ocean and Hudson Bay does not exist.
Name on the map
Several hundred geographical objects are named in honor of J. Vancouver, including an island, a bay, a city, a river, a ridge (Canada), a lake, a cape, a mountain, a city (USA), and a bay (New Zealand).
Malakhovsky K.V. In the new Albion. - Moscow: Nauka, 1990 .-- 123 p .: ill. - (Stories about the countries of the East).
GAMA Vasco yes
portuguese sailor
Travel routes
1497-1499 - Vasco da Gama led an expedition that opened the sea route to India around the African continent for Europeans.
1502 - the second expedition to India.
1524 - Vasco da Gama's third expedition, already as Viceroy of India. He died during the expedition.
E.I. Vyazov Vasco da Gama: Discoverer of the sea route to India. - M .: Geografizdat, 1956 .-- 39 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Camões L., de. Sonnets; Lusiads: Per. from portug. - M .: EKSMO-Press, 1999 .-- 477 p .: ill. - (Home library of poetry).
Read the poem "Lusiada".
Kent L.E. They went with Vasco da Gama: A Story / Per. from English Z. Bobyr // Fingaret S.I. Great Benin; Kent L.E. They walked with Vasco da Gama; Zweig S. Feat of Magellan: East. story. - M .: TERRA: UNIKUM, 1999 .-- S. 194-412.
Kunin K.I. Vasco da Gama. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1947 .-- 322 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Khazanov A.M. The mystery of Vasco da Gama. - M .: Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2000. - 152 p .: ill.
Hart G. Sea route to India: A story about the voyages and exploits of Portuguese sailors, as well as about the life and time of Vasco da Gama, admiral, Viceroy of India and Count of Vidigueira: Per. from English - M .: Geografizdat, 1959 .-- 349 p .: ill.
GOLOVNIN Vasily Mikhailovich
russian navigator
Travel routes
1807-1811 - VM Golovnin directs the circumnavigation of the sloop "Diana".
1811 - V.M. Golovnin conducts research of the Kuril and Shantarskiy Islands, the Tatar Strait.
1817-1819 - circumnavigation on the sloop "Kamchatka", during which a description of a part of the Aleutian ridge and the Commander Islands was made.
Name on the map
Several bays, a strait and a seamount, as well as a city in Alaska and a volcano on Kunashir Island are named after the Russian navigator.
V.M. Golovnin Notes of the fleet of Captain Golovnin about his adventures in captivity with the Japanese in 1811, 1812 and 1813, with the addition of his remarks about the Japanese state and people. - Khabarovsk: Book. publishing house, 1972 .-- 525 p .: ill.
V.M. Golovnin A voyage around the world, made on the military sloop "Kamchatka" in 1817, 1818 and 1819 of the fleet by Captain Golovnin. - M .: Mysl, 1965 .-- 384 p .: ill.
V.M. Golovnin The journey on the sloop "Diana" from Kronstadt to Kamchatka, commanded by the fleet of Lieutenant Golovnin in 1807-1811. - M .: Geografizdat, 1961. - 480 p .: ill.
Golovanov Y. Etudes about scientists. - M .: Mol. guard, 1983 .-- 415 p .: ill.
The chapter dedicated to Golovnin is called "I feel a lot ..." (pp. 73-79).
Davydov Yu.V. Evenings in Kolmov: The Story of G. Uspensky; And before your gaze ...: The experience of the biography of a seaman seafarer: [About VM Golovnin]. - M .: Kniga, 1989. - 332 p .: ill. - (Writers about writers).
Davydov Yu.V. Golovnin. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1968 .-- 206 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Davydov Yu.V. Three admirals: [About DN Senyavin, VM Golovnin, P.S. Nakhimov]. - M .: Izvestia, 1996 .-- 446 p.: Ill.
Divin V.A. The story of a glorious navigator. - M .: Mysl, 1976 .-- 111 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Lebedenko A.G. The sails of the ships rustle: Roman. - Odessa: Mayak, 1989 .-- 229 p .: ill. - (Marine library).
Firsov I.I. Twice Captive: East. novel. - M .: AST: Astrel, 2002 .-- 469 p .: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel: Russian travelers).
GUMBOLDT Alexander, background
german natural scientist, geographer, traveler
Travel routes
1799-1804 - Expedition to Central and South America.
1829 - travel across Russia: Ural, Altai, Caspian Sea.
Name on the map
Ridges in Central Asia are named after Humboldt and North America, a mountain on the island of New Caledonia, a glacier in Greenland, a cold current in the Pacific Ocean, a river, a lake and a number of settlements in the United States.
A number of plants, minerals and even a crater on the moon are named after the German scientist.
The name of the brothers Alexander and Wilhelm Humboldt is the university in Berlin.
Zabelin I.M. Return to Descendants: A Novel Study of the Life and Work of A. Humboldt. - M .: Mysl, 1988 .-- 331 p .: ill.
Safonov V.A. Alexander Humboldt. - M .: Mol. guard, 1959 .-- 191 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Skurla G. Alexander Humboldt / Abbr. per. with him. G. Shevchenko. - M .: Mol. guard, 1985 .-- 239 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Dezhnev Semyon Ivanovich
(c. 1605-1673)
russian pathfinder, navigator
Travel routes
1638-1648 - SI Dezhnev took part in river and land campaigns in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Yana River, on Oymyakon and Kolyma.
1648 - a fishing expedition led by S.I.Dezhnev and F.A. Popov rounded the Chukotka Peninsula and reached the Anadyr Bay. So the strait between the two continents was discovered, which was later named the Bering Strait.
Name on the map
A cape on the northeastern tip of Asia, a ridge in Chukotka and a bay in the Bering Strait are named after Dezhnev.
Bakhrevsky V.A. Semyon Dezhnev / Fig. L. Khailova. - M .: Malysh, 1984 .-- 24 p .: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).
Bakhrevsky V.A. Walking to meet the sun: East. story. - Novosibirsk: Book. publishing house, 1986 .-- 190 p .: ill. - (Siberia related destinies).
Belov M. The feat of Semyon Dezhnev. - M .: Mysl, 1973 .-- 223 p .: ill.
Demin L.M. Semyon Dezhnev - pioneer: East. novel. - M .: AST: Astrel, 2002 .-- 444 p .: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel: Russian travelers).
Demin L.M. Semyon Dezhnev. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1990 .-- 334 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
V. N. Kedrov To the End of the World: East. story. - L .: Lenizdat, 1986 .-- 285 p.: Ill.
Markov S.N. Tamo-rus Maclay: Stories. - M .: Sov. writer, 1975 .-- 208 p .: ill.
Read the story "Dezhnev's Feat".
Nikitin N.I. Pathfinder Semyon Dezhnev and his time. - M .: Rosspen, 1999 .-- 190 p .: ill.
DRAKE Francis
english navigator and pirate
Travel routes
1567 - F. Drake took part in J. Hawkins' expedition to the West Indies.
Since 1570 - annual pirate raids in the Caribbean.
1577-1580 - F. Drake headed the second round the world voyage of Europeans after Magellan.
Name on the map
The widest strait on the globe connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans is named after the brave navigator.
Francis Drake / Retelling by D. Berkhin; Artist. L. Durasov. - M .: Bely Gorod, 1996 .-- 62 p .: ill. - (History of piracy).
Malakhovsky K.V. Round-the-world race "Golden Doe". - Moscow: Nauka, 1980 .-- 168 p .: ill. - (Countries and peoples).
The same story can be found in K. Malakhovsky's collection "Five Captains".
Mason F. van W. Gold Admiral: Roman: Trans. from English - M .: Armada, 1998 .-- 474 p \u200b\u200b.: ill. - (Great pirates in novels).
Mueller V.K. Queen Elizabeth's Pirate: Per. from English - SPb .: LENKO: Gangut, 1993 .-- 254 p .: ill.
DUMONT-DURVILLE Jules Sebastien Cesar
french navigator and oceanographer
Travel routes
1826-1828 - a circumnavigation of the world aboard the Astrolabe, which resulted in the mapping of part of the shores of New Zealand and New Guinea, and surveyed island groups in the Pacific Ocean. On the island of Vanikoro, Dumont-Durville discovered traces of the dead expedition of J. La Perouse.
1837-1840 - Antarctic expedition.
Name on the map
The sea in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Antarctica is named after the navigator.
The French scientific Antarctic station is named after Dumont-D'Urville.
Varshavsky A.S. Dumont-D'Urville's Journey. - M .: Mysl, 1977. - 59 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
The fifth part of the book is called “Captain Dumont Durville and his belated find” (pp. 483-504).
IBN BATTUTA Abu Abdallah Muhammad
ibn al-Lawati at-Tanji
arab traveler, itinerant merchant
Travel routes
1325-1349 - leaving Morocco on a hajj (pilgrimage), Ibn Battuta visited Egypt, Arabia, Iran, Syria, Crimea, reached the Volga and lived for some time in the Golden Horde. Then through Central Asia and Afghanistan he arrived in India, visited Indonesia and China.
1349-1352 - travel to Muslim Spain.
1352-1353 biennium - travel to Western and Central Sudan.
At the request of the ruler of Morocco, Ibn Battuta, together with a scientist named Juzai, wrote the book "Rihla", where he summarized the information about the Muslim world that he collected during his travels.
Ibragimov N. Ibn Battuta and his travels in Central Asia. - M .: Nauka, 1988 .-- 126 p .: ill.
Miloslavsky G. Ibn Battuta. - M .: Mysl, 1974 .-- 78 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Timofeev I. Ibn Battuta. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1983 .-- 230 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
COLUMBUS Christopher
portuguese and Spanish navigator
Travel routes
1492-1493 - H. Columbus headed the Spanish expedition, the purpose of which was to find the shortest sea route from Europe to India. During the voyage on three caravels "Santa Maria", "Pinta" and "Ninya", the Sargasso Sea, Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti were discovered.
October 12, 1492, when Columbus reached the island of Samana, is recognized as the official day of the discovery of America by Europeans.
During three subsequent expeditions across the Atlantic (1493-1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504), Columbus discovered the Greater Antilles, part of the Lesser Antilles, the coasts of South and Central America and the Caribbean Sea.
Until the end of his life, Columbus was confident that he had reached India.
Name on the map
The state in South America, mountains and plateaus in North America, a glacier in Alaska, a river in Canada and several cities in the United States bear the name of Christopher Columbus.
There is Columbia University in the United States of America.
Travels of Christopher Columbus: Diaries, letters, documents / Per. with Spanish and comments. I. Sveta. - M .: Geografizdat, 1961 .-- 515 p.: Ill.
Blasco Ibanez V. In Search of the Great Khan: Roman: Per. with Spanish - Kaliningrad: Book. publishing house, 1987 .-- 558 p .: ill. - (Sea romance).
Verlinden C. Christopher Columbus: Mirage and Perseverance: Per. with him. // Conquerors of America. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997 .-- S. 3-144.
Irving V. The history of the life and travels of Christopher Columbus: Per. from English // Irving V. Sobr. cit .: In 5 volumes: T. 3, 4. - M .: Terra - Book. club, 2002-2003.
Clients A.E. Christopher Columbus / Artist A. Chauzov. - Moscow: Bely Gorod, 2003 .-- 63 p .: ill. - (Historical novel).
Kovalevskaya O.T. The admiral's brilliant mistake: How Christopher Columbus, without knowing it, discovered New World, which was later called America / Lit. processing by T. Pesotskaya; Artist. N.Koshkin, G.Alexandrova, A.Skorikov. - M .: Interbook, 1997 .-- 18 p .: ill. - (The greatest travels).
Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narration. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000 .-- 415 p .: ill. - (Life of people notice: Biogr. Library F. Pavlenkov).
Cooper J.F. Mercedes from Castile, or Journey to Cathay: Per. from English - M .: Patriot, 1992 .-- 407 p .: ill.
Lange P.V. The Great Wanderer: The Life of Christopher Columbus: Per. with him. - M .: Mysl, 1984 .-- 224 p.: Ill.
Magidovich I.P. Christopher Columbus. - M .: Geografizdat, 1956 .-- 35 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Reifman L. From the harbor of hopes to the seas of anxiety: The Life and Times of Christopher Columbus: East. chronicles. - SPb .: Lyceum: Soyuzteatr, 1992 .-- 302 p .: ill.
Rzhonsnitsky V.B. Discovery of America by Columbus. - SPb .: Publishing house of Saint Petersburg. un-ta, 1994. - 92 p .: ill.
Sabatini R. Columbus: Novel: Per. from English - M .: Republic, 1992 .-- 286 p.
Light Ya.M. Columbus. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1973 .-- 368 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
V.A. Subbotin Great discoveries: Columbus; Vasco da Gama; Magellan. - M .: Publishing house of URAO, 1998. - 269 p .: ill.
Chronicles of the Discovery of America: New Spain: Book. 1: East. documents: Per. with Spanish - M .: Academic project, 2000. - 496 p .: ill. - (Bk Latin America).
Shishova Z.K. Great voyage: East. novel. - M .: Det. lit., 1972 .-- 336 p .: ill.
Edberg R. Letters to Columbus; Valley Spirit / Per. from the Swede. L. Zhdanova. - M .: Progress, 1986 .-- 361 p .: ill.
KRASHENINNIKOV Stepan Petrovich
russian naturalist, first explorer of Kamchatka
Travel routes
1733-1743 - S.P. Krasheninnikov took part in the 2nd Kamchatka expedition... First, under the guidance of Academicians G.F. Miller and I.G. Gmelin, he studied Altai and Transbaikalia. In October 1737 Krasheninnikov went to Kamchatka on his own, where until June 1741 he conducted research, on the basis of which he subsequently compiled the first "Description of the Land of Kamchatka" (vols. 1-2, ed. 1756).
Name on the map
An island near Kamchatka, a cape on the Karaginsky island and a mountain near Lake Kronotskoye are named after S.P. Krasheninnikov.
Krasheninnikov S.P. Description of the land of Kamchatka: In 2 volumes - Reprint. ed. - SPb .: Science; Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky: Kamshat, 1994.
Varshavsky A.S. Sons of the Fatherland. - M .: Det. lit., 1987 .-- 303 p .: ill.
Mikson I.L. The person who ...: East. story. - L .: Det. lit., 1989 .-- 208 p .: ill.
Fradkin N.G. S.P. Krasheninnikov. - M .: Mysl, 1974 .-- 60 p.: Ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Eidelman N. Ya. What is there beyond the sea-ocean ?: A story about the Russian scientist S.P. Krasheninnikov, the discoverer of Kamchatka. - M .: Malysh, 1984 .-- 28 p .: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).
Kruzenshtern Ivan Fyodorovich
russian navigator, admiral
Travel routes
1803-1806 - IF Kruzenshtern led the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva". I.F.Kruzenshtern - author of the "Atlas of the South Sea" (vols. 1-2, 1823-1826)
Name on the map
The name of IF Kruzenshtern is carried by a strait in the northern part of the Kuril Islands, two atolls in the Pacific Ocean and the southeastern passage of the Korea Strait.
Kruzenshtern I.F. Travel around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva". - Vladivostok: Far East. book publishing house, 1976. - 392 p .: ill. - (Far Eastern history library).
B.V. Zabolotskikh To the glory of the Russian flag: Stories about I.F.Kruzenshtern, who led the first trip of Russians around the world in 1803-1806, and O.E. Kotsebue, who made an unparalleled voyage on the brig "Rurik" in 1815-1818. - M .: Autopan, 1996 .-- 285 s: ill.
B.V. Zabolotskikh Petrovsky fleet: East. essays; To the Glory of the Russian Flag: A Story; The second journey of Kruzenshtern: A Tale. - M .: Klassika, 2002 .-- 367 p .: ill.
Pasetskiy V.M. Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern. - M .: Nauka, 1974 .-- 176 p.: Ill.
Firsov I.I. Russian Columbus: The History of the Expedition around the World by I. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky. - M .: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001 .-- 426 p .: ill. - (Great geographic discoveries).
Chukovsky N.K. Captain Kruzenshtern: A Story. - M .: Bustard, 2002 .-- 165 p .: ill. - (Honor and courage).
Steinberg E.L. Glorious sailors Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky. - M .: Detgiz, 1954 .-- 224 p .: ill.
COOK James
english navigator
Travel routes
1768-1771 - A round-the-world expedition on the frigate "Endeavor" under the command of J. Cook. The island position of New Zealand was determined, the Great Barrier Reef and the east coast of Australia were discovered.
1772-1775 - The goal of the second expedition led by Cook on the ship "Resolution" (to find and map the southern continent) was not achieved. As a result of searches, the South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Norfolk, South Georgia were discovered.
1776-1779 - Cook's third round-the-world expedition on the ships "Resolution" and "Discovery" aimed to find the Northwest Passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. No passage was found, but the Hawaiian Islands and parts of the Alaskan coast were discovered. On the way back J. Cook was killed on one of the islands by the aborigines.
Name on the map
The highest mountain in New Zealand, a bay in the Pacific Ocean, islands in Polynesia and the strait between the North and South Islands of New Zealand are named after the English navigator.
James Cook's first circumnavigation of the world: Voyage on the ship "Endeavor" in 1768-1771. / J. Cook. - M .: Geografizdat, 1960. - 504 p .: ill.
James Cook's Second Round the World Voyage: Voyage to the South Pole and Around the World in 1772-1775. / J. Cook. - M .: Mysl, 1964 .-- 624 p .: ill. - (Geogr. Ser.).
James Cook's Third Round the World Voyage: Swimming in the Pacific Ocean 1776-1780 / J. Cook. - M .: Mysl, 1971. - 636 p .: ill.
Vladimirov V.I. Cook. - M .: Iskra of revolution, 1933 .-- 168 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Maclean A. Captain Cook: A History of Geogr. discoveries of the great navigator: Per. from English - M .: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001 .-- 155 p .: ill. - (Great geographic discoveries).
Middleton H. Captain Cook: The famous navigator: Per. from English / Ill. A. Marx. - M .: ASKON, 1998 .-- 31 p .: ill. - (Great names).
Light Ya.M. James Cook. - M .: Mysl, 1979 .-- 110 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Chukovsky N.K. Frigate Drivers: A Book of Great Navigators. - M .: ROSMEN, 2001 .-- 509 p. - (Golden Triangle).
The first part of the book is titled "Captain James Cook and His Three Voyages around the World" (p. 7-111).
LAZAREV Mikhail Petrovich
russian naval commander and navigator
Travel routes
1813-1816 - round-the-world voyage on the ship "Suvorov" from Kronstadt to the shores of Alaska and back.
1819-1821 - commanding the sloop "Mirny", MP Lazarev participated in a round-the-world expedition led by FF Bellingshausen.
1822-1824 - MP Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition on the frigate "Cruiser".
Name on the map
A sea in the Atlantic Ocean, an ice shelf and an underwater trench in East Antarctica, a village on the Black Sea coast are named after M.P. Lazarev.
The Russian Antarctic research station also bears the name of M.P. Lazarev.
Ostrovsky B.G. Lazarev. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1966 .-- 176 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Firsov I.I. Half a century under sail. - M .: Mysl, 1988 .-- 238 p.: Ill.
Firsov I.I. Antarctica and Navarin: A Novel. - M .: Armada, 1998 .-- 417 p .: ill. - (Russian generals).
LIVINGSTON David
english African explorer
Travel routes
Since 1841 - numerous travels in the interior regions of South and Central Africa.
1849-1851 - exploration of the Ngami Lake area.
1851-1856 - exploration of the Zambezi River. D. Livingston discovered Victoria Falls and was the first European to cross the African continent.
1858-1864 - exploration of the Zambezi River, Chilva and Nyasa lakes.
1866-1873 - several expeditions in search of the sources of the Nile.
Name on the map
Waterfalls on the Congo River and a city on the Zambezi River are named after the English traveler.
Livingston D. Travels in South Africa: Per. from English / Ill. the author. - M .: EKSMO-Press, 2002 .-- 475 p .: ill. - (Wind rose: Ages; Continents; Events; Seas; Discoveries).
Livingston D., Livingston C. Journey through the Zambezi, 1858-1864: Per. from English - M .: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001 .-- 460 p .: ill.
Adamovich M.P. Livingston. - M .: Mol. guard, 1938 .-- 376 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Votte G. David Livingston: The Life of an African Explorer: Per. with him. - M .: Mysl ', 1984 .-- 271 p .: ill.
Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narration. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000 .-- 415 p .: ill. - (Life of people notice: Biogr. Library F. Pavlenkov).
MAGELLAN Fernand
(c. 1480-1521)
portuguese sailor
Travel routes
1519-1521 - F. Magellan led the first round-the-world voyage in the history of mankind. Magellan's expedition discovered the coast of South America south of La Plata, circled the continent, overcame the strait, later named after the navigator, then crossed the Pacific Ocean and reached the Philippine Islands. In one of them, Magellan was killed. After his death, the expedition was led by JS Elcano, thanks to which the only one of the ships ("Victoria") and the last eighteen sailors (of the two hundred and sixty-five crew members) were able to reach the coast of Spain.
Name on the map
The Strait of Magellan is located between the continent of South America and the Tierra del Fuego archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Boytsov M.A. Magellan's Way / Art. S. Boyko. - M .: Malysh, 1991 .-- 19 p.: Ill.
Kunin K.I. Magellan. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1940 .-- 304 p .: ill. - (People will notice life).
Lange P.V. Like the sun: The life of F. Magellan and the first voyage around the world: Per. with him. - M .: Progress, 1988 .-- 237 p .: ill.
Pigafetta A. The Journey of Magellan: Per. with it .; Mitchell M. El Cano - the first navigator around the world: Per. from English - M .: Mysl ', 2000 .-- 302 p.: Ill. - (Travel and Travelers).
V.A. Subbotin Great discoveries: Columbus; Vasco da Gama; Magellan. - M .: Publishing house of URAO, 1998. - 269 p .: ill.
Travinsky V.M. Navigator's Star: Magellan: East. story. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1969 .-- 191 p .: ill.
Khvilevitskaya E.M. How the earth turned out to be a ball / Art. A. Ostromentsky. - M .: Interbook, 1997 .-- 18 p .: ill. - (The greatest travels).
Zweig S. Magellan; Amerigo: Per. with him. - M .: AST, 2001 .-- 317 p .: ill. - (World classics).
MIKLUKHO-MAKLAY Nikolay Nikolaevich
russian scientist, explorer of Oceania and New Guinea
Travel routes
1866-1867 - travel to the Canary Islands and Morocco.
1871-1886 - study of the indigenous people of Southeast Asia, Australia and Oceania, including the Papuans of the North-East coast of New Guinea.
Name on the map
The Miklouho-Maclay Coast is located in New Guinea.
The Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology is also named after Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay Russian academy sciences.
The Man from the Moon: Diaries, Articles, Letters of N.N. Miklukho-Maclay. - M .: Mol. guard, 1982 .-- 336 p .: ill. - (Arrow).
Balandin R.K. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay: Book. for students / Fig. the author. - M .: Education, 1985. - 96 p .: ill. - (People of Science).
Golovanov Y. Etudes about scientists. - M .: Mol. guard, 1983 .-- 415 p .: ill.
The chapter dedicated to Miklouho-Maclay is titled "I foresee no end to my travels ..." (p. 233-236).
Grinop F.S. About the one who wandered alone: \u200b\u200bPer. from English - M .: Nauka, 1986 .-- 260 p.: Ill.
Kolesnikov M.S. Miklukho Maclay. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1965 .-- 272 p .: ill. - (People will notice the life).
Markov S.N. Tamo - rus Maclay: Stories. - M .: Sov. writer, 1975 .-- 208 p .: ill.
Orlov O.P. Come back to us, Maclay !: Story. - M .: Det. lit., 1987 .-- 48 p .: ill.
Putilov B.N. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay: Traveler, scientist, humanist. - M .: Progress, 1985 .-- 280 p .: ill.
Tynyanova L.N. A Friend from Far Away: A Story. - M .: Det. lit., 1976 .-- 332 p .: ill.
NANSEN Fridtjof
norwegian polar explorer
Travel routes
1888 - F. Nansen made the first ever ski crossing through Greenland.
1893-1896 - Nansen on the ship "Fram" carried out a drift across the Arctic Ocean from the New Siberian Islands to the Spitsbergen archipelago. As a result of the expedition, an extensive oceanographic and meteorological material was collected, but Nansen failed to reach the North Pole.
1900 - an expedition to study the currents of the Arctic Ocean.
Name on the map
A submarine basin and a submarine ridge in the Arctic Ocean, as well as a number of geographical objects in the Arctic and Antarctic, are named after Nansen.
Nansen F. To the country of the future: The Great Northern Route from Europe to Siberia through the Kara Sea / Author. per. from norv. A. and P. Hansen. - Krasnoyarsk: Book. publishing house, 1982 .-- 335 p .: ill.
Nansen F. Through the eyes of a friend: Chapters from the book "Through the Caucasus to the Volga": Per. with him. - Makhachkala: Dagestan book. publishing house, 1981. - 54 p .: ill.
Nansen F. "Fram" in the polar sea: In 2 hours: Per. from norv. - M .: Geografizdat, 1956.
Kublitsky G.I. Fridtjof Nansen: His Life and Extraordinary Adventures. - M .: Det. lit., 1981 .-- 287 p .: ill.
Nansen-Heyer L. Book about the father: Per. from norv. - L .: Gidrometeoizdat, 1986 .-- 512 p .: ill.
Pasetskiy V.M. Fridtjof Nansen, 1861-1930. - Moscow: Nauka, 1986 .-- 335 p .: ill. - (Scientific-biogr. Ser.).
Sannes T.B. "Fram": The Adventures of Polar Expeditions: Per. with him. - L .: Shipbuilding, 1991 .-- 271 p .: ill. - (See the ships).
Talanov A. Nansen. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1960 .-- 304 p .: ill. - (People will notice the life).
Holt K. Competition: [On the expeditions of R. F. Scott and R. Amundsen]; Wandering: [About the expedition of F. Nansen and J. Johansen] / Transl. from norv. L. Zhdanova. - M .: Physical culture and sport, 1987. - 301 p .: ill. - (Extraordinary travel).
Please note that this book (attached) contains an essay by the famous traveler Thor Heyerdahl "Fridtjof Nansen: A Hot Heart in a Cold World."
Tsentkevich A., Tsentkevich Ch. Who will you become, Fridtjof: [The Stories of F. Nansen and R. Amundsen]. - Kiev: Dnipro, 1982 .-- 502 p .: ill.
Shackleton E. Fridtjof Nansen - researcher: Per. from English - M .: Progress, 1986 .-- 206 p .: ill.
NIKITIN Afanasy
(? - 1472 or 1473)
russian merchant, traveler in Asia
Travel routes
1466-1472 - A. Nikitin's journey across the countries of the Middle East and India. On the way back, stopping at a Cafe (Feodosia), Afanasy Nikitin composed a description of his travels and adventures - "Walking across the three seas".
Nikitin A. Voyage across the Three Seas Afanasy Nikitin. - L .: Nauka, 1986 .-- 212 p.: Ill. - (Lit. monuments).
Nikitin A. Voyage across the Three Seas: 1466-1472. - Kaliningrad: Amber Skaz, 2004 .-- 118 p .: ill.
Varzhapetyan V.V. The tale of a merchant, a piebald horse and a talking bird / Fig. N. Nepomnyashchy. - M .: Det. lit., 1990 .-- 95 p .: ill.
Vitashevskaya M.N. The wanderings of Afanasy Nikitin. - M .: Mysl, 1972 .-- 118 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
All peoples have one essence: [Sat]. - M .: Sirin, B.g. - 466 p .: ill. - (History of the Fatherland in novels, stories, documents).
The collection includes the story of V. Pribytkov "The Tver Guest" and the book of Afanasy Nikitin himself "Walking over the Three Seas".
Grimberg F.I. Seven songs of a Russian stranger: Nikitin: East. novel. - M .: AST: Astrel, 2003 .-- 424 p .: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel: Russian travelers).
Kachaev Yu.G. Beyond the Lands / Fig. M. Romadina. - M .: Malysh, 1982 .-- 24 p .: ill.
Kunin K.I. Over the Three Seas: The Journey of the Tver Merchant Afanasy Nikitin: East. story. - Kaliningrad: Amber Skaz, 2002 .-- 199 p .: ill. - (Treasured Pages).
Murashova K. Afanasy Nikitin: The Tale of the Tver Merchant / Art. A. Chauzov. - M .: Bely Gorod, 2005 .-- 63 p .: ill. - (Historical novel).
Semenov L.S. Journey of Afanasy Nikitin. - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- 145 p .: ill. - (History of Science and Technology).
A.P. Soloviev Walking the Three Seas: A Novel. - M .: Terra, 1999 .-- 477 p. - (Fatherland).
Tager E.M. The Story of Afanasy Nikitin. - L .: Det. lit., 1966 .-- 104 p .: ill.
PIRI Robert Edwin
american polar explorer
Travel routes
1892 and 1895 - two trips through Greenland.
From 1902 to 1905 - several unsuccessful attempts to conquer the North Pole.
Finally, R. Peary announced that he had reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909. However, seventy years after the traveler's death, when, according to his will, the expedition's diaries were declassified, it turned out that Piri could not actually reach the Pole, he stopped at 89˚55΄ N.
Name on the map
The peninsula in the far north of Greenland is called Piri Land.
Piri R. North Pole; Amundsen R. South Pole. - M .: Mysl, 1981 .-- 599 p .: ill.
Pay attention to the article by F. Treshnikov "Robert Peary and the Conquest of the North Pole" (p. 225-242).
Piri R. North Pole / Transl. from English L. Petkevichyute. - Vilnius: Vituris, 1988 .-- 239 p .: ill. - (World of discoveries).
Karpov G.V. Robert Peary. - M .: Geografizdat, 1956 .-- 39 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
POLO Marco
(about 1254-1324)
venetian merchant, traveler
Travel routes
1271-1295 - M. Polo's journey through the countries of Central and East Asia.
The Venetian's recollections of his wanderings in the East made up the famous Book of Marco Polo (1298), which for almost 600 years remained for the West the most important source of information about China and other Asian countries.
Polo M. Book about the diversity of the world / Per. with the old man. I.P. Minaeva; Preface H.L. Borges. - SPb .: Amphora, 1999 .-- 381 p .: ill. - (Personal library of Borges).
Polo M. Book of Miracles: Excerpt from the "Book of Wonders of the World" from Nat. libraries of France: Per. with fr. - Moscow: Bely Gorod, 2003 .-- 223 p.: Ill.
Davidson E., Davis G. Son of the Sky: The Wanderings of Marco Polo / Transl. from English M. Kondratyev. - SPb .: ABC: Terra - Book. club, 1997 .-- 397 p. - (New Earth: Fantasy).
A fantasy novel about the wanderings of a Venetian merchant.
Meink V. The Amazing Adventures of Marco Polo: [East. story] / Abbr. per. with him. L. Lungina. - SPb .: Brask: Epoch, 1993 .-- 303 p .: ill. - (Version).
Pesotskaya T.E. The Treasures of a Venetian Merchant: How Marco Polo Wandered the East a quarter of a century ago and wrote a famous book about various miracles that no one wanted to believe / Art. I. Oleinikov. - M .: Interbook, 1997 .-- 18 p .: ill. - (The greatest travels).
Pronin V. The Life of the Great Venetian Traveler Messer Marco Polo / Artist. Y.Saevich. - M .: Kron-Press, 1993 .-- 159 p .: ill.
Tolstikov A.Ya. Marco Polo: The Venetian Wanderer / Artist A. Chauzov. - M .: Bely Gorod, 2004 .-- 63 p .: ill. - (Historical novel).
Hart G. Venetian Marco Polo: Per. from English - M .: TERRA-Kn. club, 1999 .-- 303 p. - (Portraits).
Shklovsky V.B. Land scout - Marco Polo: East. story. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1969 .-- 223 p .: ill. - (Pioneer means first).
Ayrs J. Marco Polo: Trans. with fr. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998 .-- 348 p .: ill. - (Mark on history).
PRZHEVALSKY Nikolay Mikhailovich
russian geographer, explorer of Central Asia
Travel routes
1867-1868 - research expeditions across the Amur region and the Ussuri region.
1870-1885 - 4 expeditions to Central Asia.
N.M. Przhevalsky presented the scientific results of the expeditions in a number of books that give a detailed description of the relief, climate, flora and fauna of the studied territories.
Name on the map
The name of the Russian geographer is a ridge in Central Asia and a city in the southeastern part of the Issyk-Kul region (Kyrgyzstan).
The wild horse, first described by the scientist, is called the Przewalski's horse.
Przhevalsky N.M. Travel to the Ussuriysk Territory, 1867-1869 - Vladivostok: Far East. book publishing house, 1990. - 328 p .: ill.
Przhevalsky N.M. Travels in Asia. - M .: Armada-press, 2001 .-- 343 p .: ill. - (Green Series: Around the World).
Gavrilenkov V.M. Russian traveler N.M. Przhevalsky. - Smolensk: Mosk. worker: Smolenskoe department, 1989. - 143 p .: ill.
Golovanov Y. Etudes about scientists. - M .: Mol. guard, 1983 .-- 415 p .: ill.
The chapter dedicated to Przhevalsky is called "The exclusive good is freedom ..." (p. 272-275).
Grimailo Ya.V. Great Pathfinder: A Tale. - Ed. 2nd, rev. and add. - Kiev: Molod, 1989. - 314 p .: ill.
Kozlov I.V. Great traveler: Life and work of N.M. Przhevalsky, the first researcher of the nature of Central Asia. - M .: Mysl, 1985. - 144 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narration. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000 .-- 415 p .: ill. - (Life of people notice: Biogr. Library F. Pavlenkov).
Acceleration L.E. "Ascetics are needed like the sun ..." // Dispersal of L.E. Seven lives. - M .: Det. lit., 1992 .-- S. 35-72.
Repin L.B. "And again I come back ...": Przhevalsky: Pages of life. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1983 .-- 175 p .: ill. - (Pioneer means first).
Khmelnitsky S.I. Przhevalsky. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1950 .-- 175 p .: ill. - (People will notice the life).
B.V. Yusov N.M. Przhevalsky: Book. for students. - M .: Education, 1985 .-- 95 p .: ill. - (People of Science).
PRONCHISHCHEV Vasily Vasilievich
russian navigator
Travel routes
1735-1736 - V.V. Pronchishchev took part in the 2nd Kamchatka expedition. The detachment under his command surveyed the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Lena to Cape Faddey (Taimyr).
Name on the map
Part of the eastern coast of the Taimyr Peninsula, a ridge (elevation) in the north-west of Yakutia and a bay in the Laptev Sea bear the name of V.V. Pronchishchev.
Golubev G.N. "To the descendants for the news ...": Ist.-doc. story. - M .: Det. lit., 1986 .-- 255 p .: ill.
Krutogorov Yu.A. Where Neptune Leads: East. story. - M .: Det. lit., 1990 .-- 270 p .: ill.
SEMENOV-TYAN-SHANSKY Petr Petrovich
(until 1906 - Semenov)
russian scientist, researcher of Asia
Travel routes
1856-1857 - expedition to the Tien Shan.
1888 - an expedition to Turkestan and the Trans-Caspian region.
Name on the map
A ridge in Nanshan, a glacier and a peak in the Tien Shan, mountains in Alaska and Spitsbergen are named after Semenov-Tyan-Shansk.
Semenov-Tyan-Shansky P.P. Travel to the Tien Shan: 1856-1857. - M .: Geografgiz, 1958 .-- 277 p .: ill.
Aldan-Semenov A.I. For you, Russia: Stories. - Moscow: Sovremennik, 1983 .-- 320 p .: ill.
Aldan-Semenov A.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1965 .-- 304 p .: ill. - (People will notice the life).
Antoshko Y., Soloviev A. At the origins of Yaxart. - M .: Mysl ', 1977. - 128 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Dyadyuchenko L.B. The Pearl in the Wall of the Barracks: A Novel Chronicle. - Frunze: Mektep, 1986 .-- 218 p .: ill.
Kozlov I.V. Petr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. - M .: Education, 1983 .-- 96 p .: ill. - (People of Science).
I.V. Kozlov, A.V. Kozlova Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky: 1827-1914. - M .: Nauka, 1991 .-- 267 p .: ill. - (Scientific-biogr. Ser.).
Acceleration L.E. Tyan-Shansky // Acceleration of L.E. Seven lives. - M .: Det. lit., 1992 .-- S. 9-34.
SCOTT Robert Falcon
english explorer of Antarctica
Travel routes
1901-1904 - Antarctic expedition aboard the ship "Discovery". As a result of this expedition, King Edward VII Land, the Transantarctic Mountains, the Ross Ice Shelf were discovered, and Victoria Land was explored.
1910-1912 - R. Scott's expedition to Antarctica aboard the Terra-Nova spacecraft.
On January 18, 1912 (33 days later than R. Amundsen) Scott and four of his companions reached the South Pole. On the way back, all the travelers were killed.
Name on the map
An island and two glaciers off the coast of Antarctica, part of the western coast of Victoria Land (Scott Coast) and mountains in Enderby Land are named after Robert Scott.
The US Antarctic Research Station is named after the first conquerors of the South Pole - "Amundsen-Scott Pole".
The New Zealand Science Station on the Ross Sea in Antarctica and the Polar Research Institute in Cambridge are also named after the polar explorer.
The last expedition of R. Scott: Personal diaries Captain R. Scott, which he led during the expedition to the South Pole. - M .: Geografizdat, 1955 .-- 408 p.: Ill.
Golovanov Y. Etudes about scientists. - M .: Mol. guard, 1983 .-- 415 p .: ill.
The chapter dedicated to Scott is called "Fight to the last crust ..." (pp. 290-293).
Ladlem G. Captain Scott: Per. from English - Ed. 2nd, rev. - L .: Gidrometeoizdat, 1989 .-- 287 p .: ill.
Priestley R. Antarctic Odyssey: Northern Party of R. Scott's Expedition: Trans. from English - L .: Gidrometeoizdat, 1985 .-- 360 p .: ill.
Holt K. Contest; Wandering: Per. from norv. - M .: Physical culture and sport, 1987. - 301 p .: ill. - (Extraordinary travel).
Cherry-Garrard E. The most horrible journey: Per. from English - L .: Gidrometeoizdat, 1991 .-- 551 p .: ill.
STANLEY (STANLEY) Henry Morton
(real name and surname - John Rowlend s)
journalist, African explorer
Travel routes
1871-1872 - GM Stanley, as a correspondent for the New York Herald, took part in the search for the missing D. Livingston. The expedition was successful: the great explorer of Africa was found near Lake Tanganyika.
1874-1877 - G.M. Stanley crosses the African continent twice. Explores Lake Victoria, the Congo River, searches for the source of the Nile.
1887-1889 - G.M. Stanley leads an English expedition that crosses Africa from West to East, and explores the Aruvimi River.
Name on the map
In honor of G.M. Stanley, waterfalls in the upper reaches of the Congo River are named.
Stanley G.M. In the wilds of Africa: Per. from English - M .: Geografizdat, 1958 .-- 446 p.: Ill.
G.V. Karpov Henry Stanley. - M .: Geografgiz, 1958 .-- 56 p .: ill. - (Note geographers and travelers).
Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narration. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000 .-- 415 p .: ill. - (Life of people notice: Biogr. Library F. Pavlenkov).
KHABAROV Erofei Pavlovich
(c. 1603, according to other data, c. 1610 - after 1667, according to other data, after 1671)
russian pathfinder and navigator, explorer of the Amur region
Travel routes
1649-1653 - E.P. Khabarov made a number of campaigns in the Amur region, made a "Drawing for the Amur River".
Name on the map
The city and the region on Far East, as well as the Erofei Pavlovich railway station on the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Leontieva G.A. Pathfinder Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov: Book. for students. - M .: Education, 1991 .-- 143 p.: Ill.
Romanenko D.I. Erofey Khabarov: A novel. - Khabarovsk: Book. publishing house, 1990 .-- 301 p .: ill. - (Far East library).
Safronov F.G. Erofey Khabarov. - Khabarovsk: Book. publishing house, 1983 .-- 32 p.
SHMIDT Otto Yulievich
russian mathematician, geophysicist, Arctic explorer
Travel routes
1929-1930 - O.Yu. Schmidt equipped and headed the expedition on the ship "Georgiy Sedov" to Severnaya Zemlya.
1932 - the expedition led by O.Yu. Schmidt on the Sibiryakov icebreaker managed for the first time to pass from Arkhangelsk to Kamchatka in one navigation.
1933-1934 - O.Yu.Schmidt was in charge of the northern expedition on the steamer "Chelyuskin". The ship captured by ice was crushed by ice and sank. The members of the expedition, who had been drifting on ice floes for several months, were rescued by pilots.
Name on the map
An island in the Kara Sea, a cape on the coast of the Chukchi Sea, the Novaya Zemlya peninsula, one of the peaks and a pass in the Pamirs, a plain in Antarctica bear the name of O.Yu. Schmidt.
Voskoboinikov V.M. On an ice hike. - M .: Malysh, 1989 .-- 39 p .: ill. - (Legendary heroes).
Voskoboinikov V.M. Call of the Arctic: Heroic. Chronicle: Academician Schmidt. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1975 .-- 192 p .: ill. - (Pioneer means first).
Duel I.I. Life line: Docum. story. - M .: Politizdat, 1977 .-- 128 p .: ill. - (Heroes of the Soviet Motherland).
Nikitenko N.F. O.Yu. Schmidt: Book. for students. - M .: Education, 1992 .-- 158 p .: ill. - (People of Science).
Otto Yulievich Schmidt: Life and Activity: Sat. - M .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1959 .-- 470 p .: ill.
L.V. Matveeva Otto Yulievich Schmidt: 1891-1956. - Moscow: Nauka, 1993 .-- 202 p .: ill. - (Scientific-biogr. Ser.).
They are always attracted by the horizon line, an endless strip stretching into the distance. Their faithful friends are the ribbons of the roads leading to the unknown, mysterious and mysterious. They were the first to push the boundaries, opening up new lands and amazing beauty of metrics to humanity. These people are the most famous travelers.
Travelers who made the most important discoveries
Christopher Columbus. He was a red-haired guy with a strong build and slightly above average height. From childhood he was smart, practical, very proud. He had a dream - to go on a journey and find a treasure of gold coins. And he made his dreams come true. He found a treasure - a huge mainland - America.Three-quarters of Columbus's life was spent sailing. He traveled on Portuguese ships, managed to live in Lisbon and the British Isles. Stopping for a short while in a foreign land, he constantly drew geographical maps, made new travel plans.
It still remains a mystery how he managed to plan the shortest route from Europe to India. His calculations were based on the discoveries of the 15th century and on the fact that the Earth is shaped like a ball.
Gathering 90 people of volunteers in 1492-1493, on three ships, he went on a voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. He became the discoverer of the central part of the Bahamas archipelago, the Greater and Lesser Antilles. He owns the discovery of the northeastern coast of Cuba.
The second expedition, which lasted from 1493 to 1496, already consisted of 17 ships and 2.5 thousand people. He discovered the islands of Dominica, the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico. After 40 days of sailing, arriving in Castile, he notified the government of the opening of a new route to Asia.
After 3 years, having collected 6 ships, he led an expedition across the Atlantic. In Haiti, because of the denunciation of an envious person about his successes, Columbus was arrested and shackled. He was liberated, but he kept the chains all his life, as a symbol of betrayal.
He was the discoverer of America. Until the end of his life, he mistakenly believed that it was connected with Asia by a thin isthmus. He believed that the sea route to India was opened by him, although history later showed the fallacy of his delusions.
Vasco da Gama. He was lucky to live in the era of the Great geographical discoveries... Perhaps that is why he dreamed of travel and dreamed of becoming the discoverer of uncharted lands.
He was a nobleman. The family was not the most noble, but it had ancient roots. As a young man, he became interested in mathematics, navigation and astronomy. Since childhood, he hated secular society, playing the piano and French, which noble nobles tried to "show off".
Determination and organizational skills made Vasco da Gama close to Emperor Charles VIII, who, having conceived to create an expedition to open a sea route to India, appointed him as chief.
At his disposal were given 4 new ships specially built for the trip. Vasco da Gama was equipped with the latest navigation instruments and naval artillery.
A year later, the expedition reached the shores of India, stopping in the first city of Calicut (Kozhikode). Despite the cold meeting of the natives and even military clashes, the goal was achieved. Vasco da Gama became the discoverer of the sea route to India.
They discovered the mountainous and desert regions of Asia, made bold expeditions to the Far North, they "wrote" history, glorifying the Russian land.
Great Russian travelers
Miklouho-Maclay was born into a noble family, but experienced poverty at the age of 11 when his father died. He has always been a rebel. At the age of 15 he was arrested for participating in a student demonstration and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress for three days. For participation in student unrest, he was expelled from the gymnasium with a further ban on admission to any higher institution. Having left for Germany, he was educated there. 
The famous naturalist Ernst Haeckel became interested in the 19-year-old boy, inviting him to his expedition to study the marine fauna.
In 1869, returning to St. Petersburg, he enlisted the support of the Russian Geographical Society, went to study New Guinea. It took a year to prepare the expedition. He sailed to the shores of the Coral Sea, and having set foot on the ground did not even know that the descendants of this place would call him by his name.
After living for over a year in New Guinea, he not only discovered new lands, but also taught the natives to grow corn, pumpkins, beans and fruit trees. He studied the life of the natives on the island of Java, Louisiades and the Solomon Islands. He spent 3 years in Australia.
He died at 42. Doctors diagnosed him with severe deterioration of the body.
Afanasy Nikitin is the first Russian traveler to visit India and Persia. Returning back, he visited Somalia, Turkey and Muscat. His notes "Walking the Three Seas" became valuable historical and literary aids. He simply and truthfully described medieval India in his notes.
Coming from a peasant family, he proved that even a poor person can travel to India. The main thing is to set a goal.
The world has not revealed all its secrets to man. There are still people who dream of opening the veil of unknown worlds.
Famous modern travelers
He is 60, but his soul is still full of thirst for new adventures. At the age of 58, he climbed the summit of Everest, conquered the 7 greatest peaks with climbers. He is fearless, purposeful, open to the unknown. His name is Fedor Konyukhov.And let the era of great discoveries are long over. It doesn't matter that the Earth has been photographed thousands of times from space. Let all places of the globe be open to travelers and discoverers. He, like a child, believes that there is still a lot of unknown things in the world.
On account of his 40 expeditions and ascents. He crossed the seas and oceans, was at the North and South Poles, made 4 circumnavigationcrossed the Atlantic 15 times. Of these, once on a rowing boat. He made most of his travels alone.
Everyone knows his name. His programs had an audience of millions of TV viewers. He is the one great person, who gave this world the unusual beauty of nature, hidden from view in the bottomless depths. Fedor Konyukhov visited different places on our planet, including the hottest place in Russia, which is located in Kalmykia. The site site has Jacques-Yves Cousteau, perhaps the most famous traveler in the world
Even during the war, he continued his experiments and studies of the underwater world. He decided to devote the first film to sunken ships. And the Germans who occupied France allowed him to engage in research activities and shoot.
He dreamed of a ship that would be equipped with modern technology for filming and observation. He was helped by a complete stranger who gave Cousteau a small military minesweeper. After renovation work, it turned into the famous ship "Callipso".
Researchers became the crew of the ship: journalist, navigator, geologist, volcanologist. His wife was his assistant and companion. Later, 2 of his sons took part in all expeditions.
Cousteau is recognized as the best specialist in underwater research. He received an offer to head the famous Oceanographic Museum in Monaco. He not only studied the underwater world, but also was engaged in activities for the protection of marine and oceanic habitats.
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Economic and social geography of the world as a science. Economic and social geography is fundamental
cell of social geography - the totality of all geographical disciplines involved in the study of social phenomena.
Economic and social geography of the world is a social and geographical science, the subject of which is general patterns development and placement of the population and economy on the globe, as well as in certain regions and countries. The most important goals of her research are the search for rational settlement and location of the economy and the optimization of relations between the development of society and nature.
Basic methods of economic and social geography and its connections. In his research, economic and social geography Uses the following basic methods: cartographic, statistical, comparative geographical, historical (Scheme 1).
The cartographic method involves the compilation and analysis of thematic maps of the world, individual regions and countries.
The statistical (mathematical) method consists in analyzing digital data and building on their basis the most graphs, diagrams, maps for a comprehensive analysis of the current state and determination of trends in the development of socio-economic processes and phenomena.
To make forecasts Relatively effective placement of new industries and enterprises in a certain territory, the comparative-geographical method is used, which involves comparing DIFFERENT regions, countries, cities, etc.
All modern economic and geographical processes are the result of long historical development. Therefore, studying the formation of territories of states, their settlement and economic development, they use the historical method. Outstanding economic geographers of the world and modern concepts development of economic geography. Significant contribution in the formation and development of economic geography were made by scientists Konstantin Arsentiev (1789-1865 pp.), Peter Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914 pp.), Ivan Alexandrov (1875-1936 pp.), Nikolai Kolosovsky (1891-1954 pp.) ), Nikolai Baronsky (1881-1963 pp.) And others.
Throughout the 20th century, the theory of regional development was actively developed. In particular, Russian scientists Innokenty Gerasimov and Yulian Saushkin considered the doctrine of regions (their formation, development, prospects, practical significance) to be the core of all geographical sciences, including economic and social geography. On the basis of the theory of regionalism, regional economics, regional politics, regional demography, regional ecology, etc. emerged.
In the 60-70s of the XX century, the concept of problematic country studies was developed. One of its founders was Jan Mayibits, who proposed the Problem Approach in the economic and geographical geography of the foreign world. Jan Mashbits developed a new scheme for the complex characteristics of countries, the thematic blocks of which included the originality of the territory, geographical location, historical and geographical stages of formation, nature and nature management, population and culture, settlement, society, economy, regions, the state of the environment, development prospects.
In the XX century, the concept of "growth poles" emerged, formulated by the French economist François Perroux. According to this concept, the development in DIFFERENT sectors of the economy is uneven. Allocate Dynamic industries that stimulate economic growth and are a kind of "development poles". Basically, such a pole is a city, sometimes an area, which, as a result of concentration, has a favorable economic impact on the surrounding area. This concept in DIFFERENT versions was used as the basis for plans and programs of regional policy in many countries of the world.
OCH E R K 10
AGAINST THE DARKNESS
Linguistic centers for the translation of Arabic literature
Among the main historical and cultural events that have had a direct or indirect impact on the development of geographical knowledge in Western Europe during the XIII and first half of the XIV century, the opening of new universities and the creation of centers for the transfer to latin language Arabic-language scientific literature.
The first translation center was established in Toledo on the initiative of the Toledo Archbishop Raimund (after the liberation of the city from the Arabs by King Alfonso VI in 1085), the second was established in Palermo by the order of the German Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen (who became King of Sicily and Naples in 1197 ), a big fan of science. In these centers, philosophical and natural science, including astronomical and geographical, works of many ancient Greek thinkers and Arab scientists are translated from Arabic into Latin. New universities - Cambridge, Padua, Neapolitan, Salamanca, Prague and Krakow - are becoming important centers of science, freeing itself from church oppression. They study the works of ancient classics and Arabic-speaking thinkers, as well as comment on their works.
Somewhat earlier, in 1140, Plato from Tivoli translated from Arabic into Latin the "Astronomical Tables" of the scientist al-Battani (c. 852-929), thanks to which the name Albategnius became widely known in the cities of Western Europe. These tables are preceded by an extensive introduction (of 60 chapters), in the sixth chapter of which geographic description The land in general and especially the detail of the seas. According to I. Yu. Krachkovsky (1957), all Western European ideas about the Indian Ocean (before the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries) are based on this work of Albategnius, which in turn goes back to Ptolemy's "Geography" in the Greco-Syrian version. At the beginning of his description of the Earth, al-Battani writes that "the Earth is round, its center is the center of the Heaven sphere" and that air surrounds the Earth from all sides. Further, he reports that the "Dome of the World" is distinguished on Earth - the intersection of the equator and the main meridian, dividing the Earth to the east and west. Thus, al-Battani contributed to the spread of the theory of the "Dome of the World", the first information about which was brought, as mentioned earlier, by Adelard from Bath. In Toledo, as already mentioned, Gerard (or Gerard, as he was called in France, where he lived for a long time), originally from the Italian city of Cremona, back in 1174 translated the astronomical work of Ptolemy, called in Arabic "Almagest". He also owns the translation of Aristotle's works "Physics", "On the Sky", "On the origin and destruction" and the first three books of "Meteorology". Gerard translated into Latin the "Commentaries" of the scientist from Cordoba al-Zarkali (1029 - 1037) (in Western Europe he was known as Arzakhel) to the astronomical "Toled tables", in the compilation of which he took an active part, using al-Khorezmi's data on longitudes and latitudes. These "Toled tables" provided big influence for the works of the future king of Castile and Leon, Alphonse X the Wise. Served to determine the position of the planets in the sky, later they became known as "Alfonsian tables".
Gerard also owned the first translation of the "Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina, commissioned by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa 11.
In Toledo, Mikhail Scott (1180-1235) also began his translation career, who until 1220 translated 19 Aristotle's books "On Animals" as revised by Ibn-Sina, as well as the Aristotelian work "On Heaven" and the treatise "On the Soul" with commentary Ibn Rushdah. Having moved to Sicily, to Palermo, to the court of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, Mikhail Scott translated the abbreviation of Aristotle's "History of Animals" made by Ibn-Sina.
In Toledo and Palermo, many works of Plato, Plotinus, Diogenes Laertius, Galen and other ancient scholars were translated from Arabic into Latin. From here, translations are distributed to universities in Western Europe, primarily to Paris (philosophical works) and Oxford (natural science works) - away from papal supervision. All this contributed to the development of elements of materialistic natural science, including geography.
Here we will do small digression and take a brief look at the state of science in the Arab Muslim world. Arising on vast territory the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and Southern Spain, the Arab language culture synthesized in itself the successes of various cultures: the Arab, ancient Babylonian, Central Asian and others, but the most important source and main component of this Arab-speaking culture was the heritage of scientists of Ancient Greece (natural science and philosophical), widespread in Asia Minor and North Africa even before the Arab conquest. MM Khairullaev (1984) figuratively called this era "the era of the Eastern Renaissance." Its most important feature was the restoration of scientific traditions Ancient Greece, the heritage of its outstanding representatives: Plato and Socrates - in philosophy, Galen and Hippocrates - in medicine, Euclid - in geometry, Ptolemy - in astronomy and geography, and most of all - Aristotle, an encyclopedic scientist. Starting from the second half of the VIII and up to the X century. in Arabic literature, a period has begun that is often called the period of translation.
Under the Baghdad Caliph Harun-ar-Rashid, who ruled from 786 to 809 (his image is idealized in the tales of The Thousand and One Nights), Euclid's Principles and the astronomical work of Ptolemy Almagest appeared in Arabic. However, translation activity, as well as the development of mathematics, astronomy and geodesy, reached the greatest flourishing under the son of Harun-ar-Rashid, Caliph al-Mamun (reigned from 813 to 833). At the same time, the Caliph founded the "House of Wisdom" (in Arabic "Bayt al-Khikme") - an institution that served as the modern academies of sciences. Under him a rich library of ancient manuscripts was created and an astronomical observatory was opened. At the time of al-Mamun, the great Uzbek scientist-mathematician and astronomer al-Khwarizmi (787 - c. 850) worked. There is evidence that al-Khwarizmi took part in measuring the meridian arc of one degree in order to calculate the circumference of the Earth and was the author of the first Arabic geographical composition "The Book of the Picture of the Earth" (based on the revision of Ptolemy's "Geography"). This work had a strong influence on the further development of geography in the countries of both the East and the West.
Translation of the works of Aristotle into Arabic, the role of Al-Kindi
The House of Wisdom spent a lot of money on translations of the works of the ancient Greek classics, primarily Aristotle. These writings were translated into arabic language from Greek and Syriac and commented on. Among the scholarly commentators on the works of Aristotle, both philosophical and natural, al-Kindi (800-879) should be called a native of Basra. Al-Kindi is called the founder of Arab philosophy, although he was also involved in other branches of scientific knowledge. He tried to explain the phenomena of nature and society, proceeding from the laws inherent in them. He owns the classification of scientific knowledge, which he divided into sensory and reasonable, which was opposed to faith. Al-Kindi contributed a lot to acquaint his compatriots with the works of ancient thinkers. Knowing the Greek language, al-Kindi edited the Arabic translations of Aristotle's Metaphysics and Ptolemy's Almagest. In his original works, the tendencies of natural science against the dogmatic constructions of orthodox religion and philosophy of "Kalam" - the mystical theology of Islam 12 were reflected. Al-Kindi had a very strong influence on the development of the philosophy of the peoples of the Near and Middle East, as well as Western Europe, where his treatises, translated into Latin, were widespread. Al-Kindi's works were translated by famous scholars of the 10th-11th centuries. Herbert (who later became Pope Sylvester II). Many Western European thinkers learned from them, among them the great Roger Bacon.
The largest Uzbek scientist al-Farabi (870-950) became the successor of al-Kindi's work. He received his education in Baghdad, but at different periods lived in Damascus, Harran and Aleppo, where he got acquainted with the Syrian translations and commentaries on the works of Aristotle. He wrote about 100 papers on all branches of knowledge of that time, but a significant part of his works was devoted to the study of the philosophy of Aristotle. Many of his works were very famous in the Middle Ages.
The follower of al-Farabi was the great scientist-encyclopedist Abu-Ali Ibn-Sina (980-1037). He lived in an era when the center of philosophical and natural science knowledge in the East moved to the states of Central Asia and Iran. This was due to the collapse of the Arab Caliphate and the emergence of the Samanid state, where cities such as Bukhara. Samarkand, Arv, Isfahan, Rey, Hamadan and others have become not only centers of trade with the Caucasus, India and China, but also centers of science and culture.
The natural science and philosophical views of Ibn Sina will be characterized later, but here we note that the scientist owns more than 200 works, many of which have survived to our time 13. The most important work of Ibn Sina - "The Canon of Medicine" (or "The Canon of Medicine") - includes a huge amount of medical knowledge of that time. His other work - "The Book of Healing" (in 18 volumes) - is an encyclopedia of philosophical sciences. (B.A. Rozenfeld, M.M. Rozhanskaya and Z. K. Sokolovskaya in the book about Biruni (1973) write that Biruni, who met with Ibn-Sina in 997-998 and in 1003-1004, borrowed he has a lot of information about minerals and rocks contained in the "Canon" and "Book of Healing".)
The researchers emphasize that the philosophical legacy of Ibn Sina had a huge impact on the development of philosophy and natural science in the Muslim East and West and in the Christian West, in other words, in Western Europe. It is interesting to note that the great poet and thinker Omar Khayyam was the followers of Ibn Sina in the East, Ibn Tufayl (1110-1185) in the West, and Roger Bacon (1214-1292) in Western Europe. However, let us remember that Arabic-language science developed not only in the Near and Middle East. There was its "western center", which is often called the Muslim West in books on the history of philosophy 14. This region occupied North-West Africa (the so-called Maghreb, literally in Arabic "west") and included the territory of the modern states of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco with Mauritania (Western Sahara), as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula. It was conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century. and was called Andalusia (the name of the country of the Vandals changed by the Arabs - Vandalusia, without pronouncing the first sound "in").
The civilization of Muslim Spain, like the Arab civilization in the East, was the result of the interaction of several cultures. It developed as a result of the assimilation by the Arabs and Berbers of the Iranian, Central Asian and Byzantine cultures, as well as the culture of the indigenous people of Spain, conquered by the Arabs. If in the VIII century. the Arabs (and Berbers), who conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula, in their cultural level were no higher than the local Spanish-Roman population, then already in the IX-X centuries. their possessions on the Iberian Peninsula became a center of culture not only for the Muslim East, but also for the Christian world of Western Europe. Since the XI century. in Andalusia began to translate the works of ancient Greek authors from Arabic into Latin, which for the first time allowed Western Europeans to get a more or less complete picture of ancient philosophers and scientists - researchers of nature.
Cultural development in the Cordoba Caliphate
Like the Baghdad Caliphate in the east of the Muslim world, Spain (in the west of the Muslim world) has the most high level the development of culture reached in the Cordoba Caliphate.
The largest centers here were cities such as Cordoba, Seville, Grenada (Granada), as well as Toledo (the ancient capital of the Visigoths, which became one of the brilliant centers of Spanish-Arab culture; in 1085 it came under the rule of the Castilian king Alfonso VI and forever became Christian city). I. Yu. Krachkovsky in a number of his works emphasizes that the Arabic-speaking culture in Spain went to Christian medieval Europe in two ways: book, through translations of mainly scientific works, and oral - through poetry and music 15. If the center of the first route was the city of Toledo, then the second center was Seville (conquered by the Spaniards in 1248), in which poetry reached its peak under King Alfonso X the Wise (1224-1284). But even before that, in the XII century, Ibn Rushd, who knew both cities well, wrote: “If a scientist dies in Seville, his books are taken to sell to Cordoba; if a musician dies in Cordoba, his instruments are taken to be sold to Seville ”(Krachkovsky, 1937, p. 23).
It is interesting to note that the plot of "The Tale of the Golden Cockerel" by A. Pushkin (written in 1832) has its roots in the Arab fairy tale about the Astrologer, which has long been known in Seville and Grenada (Akhmatova, 1974).
The largest representatives of the Arabic-speaking culture of Spain who influenced the development of science in medieval Western Europe were Ibn-Badja, Ibn-Tufayl and Ibn-Rushd. In the XII century. due to the accelerating disintegration of the Baghdad Caliphate, the center of Arabic-speaking philosophical and natural science thought moved from the East to the West. The progressive Arabic-speaking thinkers of Spain assimilated and developed those materialistic elements that were contained in the works of their predecessors - representatives of the so-called "Eastern Peripatetism", that is, the direction that developed the teachings of Aristotle. The works of the great Central Asian scholars - Farabi and Ibn-Sina had a strong influence on the scholars of the Muslim world of Spain.
Ibn Badja (end of the 11th century - 1138), originally from the Spanish city of Saragossa, lived for a long time in Seville, held high positions in Grenada, Morocco and Fez (North-West Africa). He is considered the first Arab-Spanish thinker who deeply assimilated and developed further the philosophical teachings of Farabi. He penned comments on the works of Aristotle - "Physics", "On the origin and destruction", "Meteorology". His own work "On the Soul" was very famous. His younger contemporary Ibn Tufayl (1110-1185), a native of Grenada, spent his mature years as a doctor in Grenada, and then was secretary to the Emir of the city of Tangier, Ibn Said. According to Ibn-Rushd, Ibn-Tufayl wrote a treatise "On the inhabited and uninhabited regions of the Earth", in other words, a work of geographic regional geographic content. He had original views on "the structure and movement of heavenly bodies", which, according to Ibn-Rushd, "from the views of Ptolemy."
Ibn Rushd (1126-1198) was from the city of Cordoba. Under the guidance of his father, who served as a judge, young Ibn Rushd studied theology and Muslim law, Arabic literature, and later - medicine, mathematics and philosophy. Researchers draw attention to the fact that in some of Ibn Rushd's works there is a date - 1153, when he was in Morocco (in connection with the project of creating there educational institutions modeled on those that existed at that time in Andalusia). During this trip, he observed the star Canopus and checked on it the sphericity of the Earth and its magnitude. Ibn Rushd wrote many works, including commentaries on the works of Aristotle, Plato, Ptolemy, Farabi, Ibn Sina and other authors, which is why he received the nickname Commentator.
Of his philosophical works, the most widespread was the work "Refutation of Refutation", directed against the mystical philosophy of Abu-Hamid Gazelle. His comments on the works of Aristotle "Meteorology" and "Metaphysics" were also very famous in the scientific world. In order to better understand the significance of these writings for the development of medieval geography, let us briefly consider them.
"Meteorology" ("Meteorology"), according to researchers, was written by Aristotle in the period 365-340. BC e. It consists of four parts (books), including 41 chapters. At the very beginning of the first book (chapters 2-3), Aristotle, based on his concept of two types of vapor from the Earth - wet and dry, explains the existence of such cosmic objects as comets and Milky Way... In chapters 9-14, he writes about the cycle of moisture in nature, about atmospheric precipitation caused by the evaporation and cooling of moisture (rain, dew, fog, snow, hail, clouds). Aristotle connects the formation of rivers with the same cycle of moisture; among them, in his opinion, the largest originate on the highest mountains and create the most extensive areas of land in their lower reaches. He is interested in the nature of the rivers feeding, their regime and other questions of hydrography and hydrology.
Aristotle's Works on Geography
Apparently, using one of the maps of the ecumene that existed at that time, more precisely, a drawing (the so-called pinax, without a degree grid, unknown at that time), Aristotle gives a general orographic overview of the ecumene, naming the largest and highest mountain systems: the Pyrenees and the Ripean mountains in Europe, Taurus and Parapamis in Asia, Atlas and Silver Mountains in Africa ... He marks their spread in relation to the points of sunrise and sunset above the horizon on the days of the solstices and equinoxes. Here Aristotle expounds his theory of the "constant struggle" between sea and land, that is, he deals with issues of geomorphology and historical geology.
In the second book (chapters 1-3), Aristotle discusses the seas: whether they exist forever or arise periodically. He is also interested in the origin of the salinity of sea water (which, unlike some ancient natural philosophers, he considers saline in nature). Aristotle expresses very curious thoughts about the sea currents that exist between the inland seas (from Meotida, i.e. the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, through the Pontus (Black Sea), then to the Aegean, Egyptian, Sicilian, Sardinian and Tyrrhenian seas). He explains the origin of the system of currents by the increase in the depths of these seas. It must be said that this theory, which was popular in ancient times, was further developed by Aristotle's student Straton, then by the Alexandrian scholar Eratosthenes and other scholars of the Hellenistic era, and during the Roman Empire by Strabo.
Following this, Aristotle proceeds to consider the winds, the origin of which he explains from the standpoint of his concept of two kinds of evaporation and connects their distribution within the ecumene with the thermal belts of the Earth (that is, he raises the question of different atmospheric pressure at different latitudes). It is important to emphasize that Aristotle was one of the first ancient scientists who argued that in the temperate zone of the southern hemisphere there should be a populated land similar to the ecumene of the northern hemisphere. Then he gives a description of the 12-ray wind rose and gives a drawing in which each wind has its own name and is linked to the point on the horizon from which it blows: these points indicate the places of sunrise and sunset on the days of equinoxes and solstices. This 12-pointed wind rose was assimilated by the Roman scholars Vitruvius and Pliny and survived into the early Middle Ages thanks to the writings of Isidore and Beda the Venerable 16.
Chapters 7 and 8 of "Meteorology" talk about earthquakes, find out their causes and understand the views of various thinkers of Ancient Greece (Thales, Anaxagoras, Democritus) on this issue. Chapter 9 of the second book and chapter 1 of the third book are devoted to elucidating the origin of such phenomena as thunder, lightning, hurricanes, in the subsequent chapters of the third book are considered optical phenomena halos, false suns and the theory of the rainbow is given.
One can agree with A. G. Isachenko (1971), who called this work of Aristotle "the principles of general physical geography (general geography)", which were distinguished by Aristotle from the undivided ancient Greek natural philosophy. We can agree with I. D. Rozhansky (1981) that this work of the great thinker can be considered the first attempt in the history of European science to “rationalize the world around us” from the point of view of a single theoretical concept.
Aristotle's treatise "On Heaven", also translated in medieval Europe from Arabic into Latin, was devoted to the structure of the Universe (space) as a whole, and especially its upper, "supra-lunar" world, as well as the consideration of four traditional "elements" of nature: earth, water, fire, air. Aristotle's cosmos was limited in space, but infinite in time. Aristotle considers his geocentric system in more detail in the works "Physics" and "Metaphysics".
Geographic information supplementing the data of Meteorology is concentrated in the last two (13 and 14) chapters of the second book of the treatise On Heaven. In them, Aristotle gives an overview of the opinions of his predecessors (Thales, Anaxagoras, Anaximenes, etc.) about the figure of the Earth and its dimensions, after which he expounds his views on the shape, size and position of the Earth in the center of the Universe. According to Aristotle, the circumference of the Earth is 400 thousand stages (i.e. about 74 thousand km). He borrows this data, apparently, from Eudoxus of Cnidus. Aristotle writes that “observations of stars clearly prove not only that the Earth is round, but also that it is small. As soon as we move a little to the south or north, the horizon clearly becomes different: the picture of the starry sky overhead changes significantly even when we move north or south, where not the same stars are visible ... ”(1983. Lines 293a 15 - 298 to 21).
Then Aristotle writes about the length of the ecumene from west to east and shows that the shores of India (occupying, according to his views, the eastern outskirts of the ecumene) lie not very far from the western shores of Africa, which (in his opinion) is confirmed by the presence of elephants in Africa and in India ... Let us emphasize that this famous passage from the treatise "On Heaven" about the proximity of the shores of India and Africa was adopted by Roger Bacon, it was borrowed from him at the beginning of the 15th century. French thinker Peter Alliak (Pierre d "Eyy), and in the latter's book" Image of the World "(" Face of the Earth ") was read by Christopher Columbus, serving him as one of the compelling proofs of the possibility of reaching the shores of East Asia when sailing from Europe to the west.
Further, Aristotle writes about the heat zones of the Earth, referring to the uninhabited hot zone, bounded by the tropics, and two cold zones, which he bounded by the line of "constantly visible stars" in the northern hemisphere and similar to it - in the southern hemisphere. Between the uninhabited belts, there were temperate inhabited belts: one in the northern hemisphere, the other in the southern hemisphere.
As we will see below, the acquaintance of Western European scientists with the works of Aristotle "Meteorology" and "On the Sky" translated from Arabic enriched them in many ways. geographic information and at the same time contributed to the development of a natural-scientific approach to natural phenomena and undermined the influence of Christian theology on science.
Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd 17 in their commentaries on the works of Aristotle and in their own writings further developed the ancient natural science ideas about the continuous change of the face of the Earth by internal and external forces and about the structure of matter.
Ibn Sina considers earthquakes to be the internal forces of the Earth, and flowing waters, which, in his opinion, are produced by intermountain depressions and river valleys 18 to external forces. Ibn Sina enriches with his observations the ancient theory of the "primary sea", supposedly once covering the entire surface of the Earth, but then partially evaporated under the influence of sunlight. He denies divine participation in natural phenomena and seeks to explain them in a natural way. He owns the doctrine of the formation of new rocks from the products of destruction of mountains and the formation of new minerals. One of the Soviet researchers of the geological views of Ibn-Sina, DI Gordeev (1967), believes that it was Ibn-Sina who for the first time in the scientific literature expressed the law of the historical sequence of occurrence of sedimentary rocks. Other researchers of the scientific work of Ibn Sina note that many of his deep natural science ideas did not find a response among medieval scientists - Arabic-speaking and Western European, as they were ahead of their time. But the most important thing (and we must emphasize this especially), the natural science concepts of Ibn Sina left no room for divine intervention in natural phenomena and processes.
Ibn Rushd taught about the beginninglessness of the material world, about its infinity in time, about the eternal movement of matter and the cognizability of the world around us. He denied astrology and further developed the doctrine of the great ancient Greek materialist Democritus (who lived in the 5th-4th centuries BC) about atoms, considering them not “building blocks” of forming matter, but arising only when something new is formed, and embodying it is new in the process of the formation of the potency from which this new emerges. According to the teachings of Ibn Rushd, the world around us is not accidental, as the idealistic Arab teleology and Western European scholasticism recognized it, but is based on the laws inherent in nature itself 19.
Geographers Alexander Neckam and Robert Grossetest, their work and role in history
Bright representatives of natural science of the XIII century. in Western Europe there were English philosophers Alexander Neckam and Robert Grossetest, French thinker, professor at the University of Paris Siger Brabantsky, Polish physicist, native of Silesia Celek Vitello, as well as the great English encyclopedic scientist, student of Grossetest - Roger (Roger) Bacon.
Alexander Nekkam (died in 1217) wrote a large treatise entitled "On the Nature of Things" in the late 12th - early 13th centuries. Giving a high assessment to Aristotle as a thinker, he wrote: "I consider it unnecessary to praise Aristotle's talent, because it was in vain to help the Sun with the light of a torch" (cited from: Zubov, 1963, p. 236). It is interesting to note that in this work he writes of the compass as "a magnetized needle pointing north." This was almost the first mention of the compass in Western European literature. V.I. Vernadsky (1981) explained that Neckam knew only the so-called floating compass, which in 1258 Roger Bacon showed the Florentine Brunetto Latani. The arrow, fixed on a straw floating in a vessel with water, constantly pointed in one direction, "being attracted to the North Star." Nekkam considered this device useful for seafarers.
In addition to the message of V. I. Vernadsky, let us say that R. Bacon was familiar with an interesting work of the era, the treatise "The Epistle on the Magnet", written in 1269 by the French physicist Pierre de Maricourt, nicknamed Pelegrin, that is, the pilgrim, so how he made the pilgrimage to Palestine. In this treatise, the author for the first time among European scientists drew attention to the problem of magnetism and advocated the experimental method in science. Historians of science believe that by promoting this method, Maricourt had a great influence on the scientific views of Roger Bacon. Pierre Maricourt, experimenting with a spherical magnet, deduced a number of regularities in the theory of magnetism, in particular, he showed that like poles of a magnet repel, and opposite poles attract.
VP Zubov, author of a book about Aristotle, translator into Russian and commentator of Pierre de Maricourt's Epistle on a Magnet 20, emphasized that this treatise differs sharply from the scholastic works of that time, since in it the author emphasized the importance of manual labor or manual dexterity, opposing the scientific experiment to "fruitless thinking". R. Bacon wrote in the "Third composition" that "the roots of the experiment ... none of the Latins can understand, except for one, namely Master Peter." In the "Big Essay", which proves the necessity of applying mathematics in every science, Bacon recalls Pierre de Maricourt, but already as the author of the essay "On the Making of an Astrolabe" 21.
Robert Grossetest (1175-1253) played an outstanding role in the development and dissemination of natural science knowledge in Western Europe. Master, then Chancellor of the University of Oxford, and in 1235 also Bishop of Lincoln, he was a great expert in Greek, Arabic and Hebrew. He was the first to translate the natural sciences of Aristotle into Latin, not from Arabic, but from the original language. In particular, he was responsible for the translation of the composition "On Heaven" with commentaries by the Greek philosopher of the 6th century. Simplicia. Grossetest himself compiled a commentary on Aristotle's Physics and Second Analytics.
Research interests of Robert Grossetest were in the field of optics, geometry and astronomy. He was the author of On Light, or the Beginning of Forms, where he developed the idea that light is a very subtle matter identified with form. In his opinion, light is a universal substance with an internal ability to "self-growth and self-propagation." According to this concept, God first created a certain luminous point, which, instantly expanding, gave rise to a huge sphere, where the principles of matter and form are merged. Modern historians of science believe that the significance of this natural-philosophical concept of Grossetest in the spirit of future deism lies in the fact that it diminished the creative role of God.
The general cosmology of Grossetest essentially did not contain anything new in comparison with the Arab cosmological constructions, but it expressed an important idea about the geometric laws of the propagation of light, which constitute the laws of the universe.
Robert Grossetest was the founder of the Oxford School of Philosophers, who began to pay most attention to the issues of natural science and experience. Historians of philosophy emphasize the importance of Robert Grossetest as an intermediary link between Arabic-speaking thinkers and Roger Bacon.
A follower of Grossetest was a Polish physicist, a native of Silesia Celek Vitello (c. 1230-1275). In 1270 he wrote a large work "Perspective", in which he gave a mathematical-dynamic picture of the world associated with the light-metaphysical theory of the Neoplatonic type. For Vitello, light is the beginning of all beginnings, all natural phenomena are explained by the laws of optics, ultimately by the laws of geometry. Vitello's extensive work enjoyed great popularity for a long time, not only in the era of late scholasticism, but also later. Johannes Kepler, one of the founders of modern astronomy, wrote a special work based on the teachings of Vitello. Vitello's special merit was also the introduction of Arabic numerals and the counting board (borrowed by Arab scholars in India) into Western European science.
Seeger of Brabant (1240-1280) was a professor at the Faculty of Arts at the University of Paris. He owned a great work entitled "On the eternity of the world", the content of which spoke of his "Averroist" orientation. Seeger was the head of the French followers of Ibn Rushd, who fought for the independence of scientific and philosophical knowledge from the control of theology, that is, theology.
In 1270 catholic Church condemned Seeger's 13 theses, which were influenced by the works of Ibn Rushd, and in 1277 the Bishop of Paris Tampier, together with the council of masters of the theological faculty of the University of Paris, condemned 219 theses of averroism. Seeger was excommunicated and forced to flee Paris in secret. He was soon assassinated in Rome by his secretary, as historians believe, at the instigation of the Roman curia.
Seeger's excommunication and his death put an end to Averroism in Paris, although individual disciples of Seeger remained there: it is known that the poet Dante, while in Paris, attended lectures by the Averroists. He immortalized the name of Seeger, placing it in the "Paradise" of his poem among other major thinkers.
The views and role of Roger Bacon
The most prominent scientist of the late scholastic era was, of course, Roger Bacon, the author of the Great Essay, which is a veritable encyclopedia of scientific knowledge of the time. For his natural-scientific (materialistic) views, Bacon spent many years in prison 24.
For Roger Bacon, Aristotle is the ruler of philosophy, the highest of philosophers, but at the same time Bacon was far from blind admiration for the authority of the ancient Greek thinker. He wrote that Aristotle destroyed the delusions of the philosophers that preceded him and enriched philosophy, although in the future he would also be supplemented and corrected, for nothing is perfect in human inventions ... Bacon put forward the requirement for translations scientific papers from other languages \u200b\u200binto Latin (the language of science of that time): the translation must be correct, for which the translator requires knowledge of the language from which he translates (1), knowledge of the language into which he translates (2), and knowledge of that science that he wants to translate (3).
Bacon borrowed from Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd the idea of \u200b\u200bthe eternity of the material world and other provisions of philosophy, and he himself put forward the thesis about experience as the basis of knowledge. Refuting speculative teleological scholasticism, Bacon opposed it with his program of the practical significance of scientific knowledge. He advocated the development of mathematics and astronomy.
In the fourth part of the Great Composition, where Bacon discusses the importance of studying mathematics and the need to correct the calendar, Bacon also includes a treatise on geography. Following Aristotle, the Roman encyclopedic scientist Pliny the Elder (23-79), the author of Natural History in 37 books, as well as the Arab-speaking scientist, he considers it unconditional that the Earth has a spherical shape. This does not allow us to agree with O V. Trachten-berg (1957), who, characterizing the geographical knowledge of his era, cites an excerpt from the description of the Ebsdorf map of 1284, where the Earth is compared in shape with a wheel surrounded on all sides by the ocean, but does not specify that such ideas were alien to Bacon.
Following the ancient thinkers, Bacon recognizes five heat zones, of which three zones ("hot" and two "cold") are uninhabited. Following Pliny, he considers Europe to be the largest part of the world, which, according to him, occupies 5/12 of the entire surface of the globe; the territory of India is 1/3 of the entire inhabited land and, stretching far to the east, approaches Europe and Africa with its shores in the west.
Bacon used digital data on the size of the globe, obtained by the Arab astronomers of the Damascus Observatory in 827, when measuring the meridian arc of one degree 25.
Finally, Bacon introduced the Western European science of his time (based on the works of Aristotle and Seneca) with the ancient idea of \u200b\u200bthe relative proximity of the eastern shores of Asia and the western shores of Europe and Africa.
These two ideas - the reduced size of the globe and the proximity of the Asian shores to Europe and Africa - were assimilated by the French scientist Peter Alliak (1350-1420), also known as Pierre d "Eyy, and set out in his work" The Image of the World. " known to Christopher Columbus and served as one of the proofs of the possible reaching of the Indies by the western sea route.
In the geographical part of his work, Bacon talks about Arima's "Dome of the World", the summit of the world, equidistant from the North and South Poles and from the western and eastern borders of the land. We remember that this idea, borrowed from Arab astronomy, was brought to Europe by the English traveler Adelard from Bath. The famous translator of Arabic and ancient works Gerard from Cremona took the idea from him and presented it in the treatise "Theory of the Planets". The "Dome of the World" is located in the Indian Ocean at the equator, somewhere between India and Africa. Probably from Gerard, this idea became known to Bacon, but unlike his predecessors, Bacon believed that the length of the inhabited world was more than half the circumference of the globe. Bacon also believed that the Dome of the World was exactly 90 degrees from the eastern border of the oecumene.
Bacon's description of the surface of the inhabited land mainly follows Pliny's "Natural History": he describes India, Arabia, Ethiopia and Egypt and some other countries, following Pliny, but often supplements the old information with reports of travelers. So, for example, Bacon found a lot of new things in the description of the trip to Central Asia by Guillaume Rubruc, with whom he met in Paris. In the "Big Essay" Bacon included significant extracts from the work of Rubruk, in particular, he describes in detail the life of the Tatars who live in tents and own large herds. For Bacon, the Caspian Sea is not a gulf of the Northern Ocean, as Pliny believed it, but an independent sea into which many rivers flow from both the north and south. Beyond the Tanais River, Bacon argued, lies the vast country of "Russia", covered with forests and rich in rivers. The Russian people inhabiting it are Christians, but they observe not Catholic, but Greek church rites, although they do not speak Greek, but Slavic. Tatars are pagans, but their clergy have knowledge of astronomy, predict eclipses of the Sun and Moon well and know many foreign countries; they are very warlike, and many nations have been conquered by them.
There is evidence that Bacon drew a map of the world known at that time on a large sheet of parchment. On it, he placed the Alanian (Caucasian?) Mountains, the Caspian Sea and the Iron Gate - the passage through which Rubruk passed, returning from his journey to Central Asia. Bacon's map has not survived, but probably the Asian part of it was more detailed and, most importantly, more truthful than the large map decorating the cathedral in the city of Hereford and created by Heldingem in 1260 for Bacon. Dealing with optics, Bacon logically moved on to astronomy. True, in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge he was not very original, since he stood on the position of the geocentric system of Claudius Ptolemy. According to him, the Universe is spatially limited by a solid "sphere of fixed stars" (that is, they do not independently move relative to each other, unlike planets), and the Milky Way is a huge cluster of stars. On the other hand, Bacon's attempts to calculate the sizes of the Sun, the Moon and other planets, as well as to find out the relationship between oceanic tides and the movements of the Moon around the Earth and its phases, are of undoubted interest.
Considering astronomy a very important science, Bacon insisted on the reform of the Julian calendar in force at that time. But this idea came true only 300 years later, when Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 introduced a new, revised calendar, called the Gregorian.
Albert Bolyptedtsky
Among scholastic scholars of the XIII century. a special place is occupied by the German polymath Albert Bolyptedtsky (1193-1280), nicknamed the Great during his lifetime 26. He went down in the history of science as an extremely controversial figure. On the one hand, Albert Bolstedtsky contributed to the development of branches of natural science, on the other hand, he opposed the Averroists. He came from a noble family, studied at the University of Padua, then taught for many years at the University of Cologne, and in 1245 he became a master of the theological faculty of the University of Paris. The basis of Albert's philosophical teaching was the teaching of Aristotle, but adapted (and therefore distorted) to the Christian religion.
He was the author of a large number of works, dealt with issues not only of philosophy, but also of natural science (mineralogy, botany, zoology), relying on similar works of Aristotle. Undoubtedly adhering to the view of the sphericity of the Earth, Albert, unlike Aristotle, did not recognize the presence of a hot uninhabited belt between the tropics, proving its suitability for habitation by the example of Ethiopia and India. He also considered it a "stupid common delusion" to believe that "the antipodes may fall." He wrote that in the southern hemisphere there must be inhabited land, possessing the same "climates" that exist in the ecumene of the northern hemisphere known to us. It is important to emphasize that this is quite consistent with what is said about this in a remarkable monument of Norwegian writing of the 13th century. - "Royal Mirror". Its author has not been established, although some researchers are inclined to attribute authorship to the priest Ivar Bedda, tutor of King Haakon the Old 27. Written in the form of a dialogue between father and son, this work amazes with sober physical and geographical observations concerning the movement of the (visible) Sun around the spherical Earth and the location of heat zones. Only in one case the author of the "Royal Mirror" disagrees with Albert Bolytedtsky about the hot belt - he considers it, following Aristotle, Seneca and Bacon, unfit for habitation.
It is known that Albertus Magnus took part in the discussion about the motion of the Earth and, like Bacon, argued that the Milky Way is a cluster of small stars. Under the influence of some ancient ideas dating back to Hippocrates, Albert (like Bacon) was inclined to explain certain features of human life by natural conditions.
Along with factual data, various biblical legends and fantastic information about some animals and plants occupied a significant place in Albert's writings.
Thomas Aquinas
The younger contemporary of Albert was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), or Thomas Aquinas, as Western European historians of philosophy and theologians often call him. He was the largest ideologue of Western European feudalism, representing the second, religious-mystical line, which the Averroists opposed. Together with his teacher Albert the Great, Thomas accused Siger of Brabant and his followers of adherence to the ideas of Ibn Rushd, in other words, materialism. Both of them - Albert and Thomas - continued to defend the teleological system of the universe (including nature).
The geocentric system of Claudius Ptolemy, which became known to scientists of this era, with its epicyclicals turned into a church dogma: the Earth is the center of the entire Universe, around which the planets "attached" to special spheres revolve. The boundary of the Universe is considered to be the sphere of "fixed stars" that rotate daily together with the sky. The world is a kind of hierarchical ladder: below is the Earth and all bodily things, consisting of four elements - fire, water, air and earth. Above this inorganic world (in modern terminology) are the kingdoms of plants and animals and, finally, man, who occupies an intermediate position between the physical and spiritual worlds.
Dante Alighieri's role in geography
The younger contemporary of Raymund Lull, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas was the great Italian poet and thinker Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). The author of The Divine Comedy lived at the same time as Marco Polo and, perhaps, even met with him during his wanderings in Northern Italy in the summer of 1306, when Marco Polo published his Book. He studied at the University of Bologna, later lived in Paris, where he attended classes at the Faculty of Arts, on rue Soloma. There he had the opportunity to listen to lectures by the Averroists, followers of Seager of Brabant. Dante was aware of political events, as well as the ideological struggle that took place between the Averroists and the followers of Thomas Aquinas. And although the dependence of Dante's theology on the views of Thomas is not in doubt, but at the same time, his sympathy for the followers of Sieger of Brabant is beyond doubt.
In the first part of "The Divine Comedy" ("Hell") Dante during his journey with Virgil (the author epic poem "Aene") meets on the "first circle", in the so-called Limbe, that is, on the threshold of hell, on a green meadow of "unbaptized righteous" - the famous sages, heroes and poets of antiquity. Among them, an honorable place is occupied by Aristotle - "the teacher of those who know"; he is surrounded by thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Democritus (Hell, Canto IV, lines 131-136). In the same part of Limba, Dante saw the astronomer Ptolemy and the physician Hippocrates, as well as the Arabic-speaking thinkers Avicenna and Averroes (ibid., Lines 142-144). But Sieger of Brabant, who formulated the doctrine of the Averroists convicted in 1270, Dante placed in Paradise, in the circle of philosophers, next to his ideological opponent Thomas Aquinas, as a sign of their reconciliation.
Thomas addressed Dante with these words:
Poisoned by thought with bitter poison
Seeger's eternal light that he read
In Straw Lane in Summer Ony
And he taught objectionable truths
(Paradise, Canto X, lines 135-138).
Interesting lines in Dante's poem, revealing the breadth of his astronomical concepts. The poet writes:
I to the right, to the bone, raised my eyes,
And he was captivated by four stars,
Whose gleam first illuminated people.
The firmament seemed to rejoice with their lights;
O northern gray country!
Where their sparkle does not burn above us!
Leaving the windows these flames
I turned to the awn of midnight
Where the Chariot was not visible!
(Purgatory, Canto I, lines 22-30).
Usually commentators of these lines see in the "four stars" symbols of the basic virtues of the ancient world (wisdom, justice, patience and moderation). However, in the last century, the famous German scientist, geographer and naturalist A. Humboldt, drawing attention to the lines about the Chariot, that is, the constellation Ursa Major, made an attempt to attribute the first lines of the verse to the constellation of the Southern Cross, a bright constellation of the southern hemisphere. The fact is that the Southern Cross is not visible in the northern hemisphere when viewed north of 30 ° N. sh., that is, it is impossible to see it from Italy. Dante himself from Italy to southern countries did not leave. Where did he get information about this constellation? Assumptions of a different nature were voiced, the essence of which is that Dante could learn about these bright stars (having a declination of 56 to 63 ° S.) Only from someone who himself saw these stars and noticed that when observing them you cannot see the Big Dipper at the same time. The poet writes: "I turned to the awn of midnight (ie, to the northern hemisphere. - AD), where the Chariot was not visible" (since it disappeared beyond the horizon. - AD). Dante could have received this information from Arab travelers who sailed in low latitudes and visited Italy. He might have heard of this from Adana, who had traveled to parts of East Africa south of the equator, or from some of the Catholic leaders, such as Montecorvino, who had visited the Sunda Islands or India. Or maybe Marco Polo shared his impressions with him, who, being in Sumatra, saw the stars of the southern hemisphere?
But Dante's "four stars" were not called the Southern Cross in his time. Even later, in the middle of the 15th century, Kalamosto, who sailed in the low latitudes of the northern hemisphere off the western coast of Africa, and Amerigo Vespucci, who visited the southern hemisphere at the end of the same century, saw these stars forming a bright constellation, but they did not call him the Cross ( Vespucci wrote about him as about Rhombus). Researchers of this issue believe that for the first time the name of the Southern Cross was cited in a letter from the scientist João, the Leibmedic of the Portuguese king Manuel the Great, which he sent from Brazil on September 22, 1500. It should be emphasized that of all the constellations of the firmament, only one - the Southern Cross a name associated with the Christian religion.
The geography of Ukraine was studied and developed by many domestic and foreign scientists and travelers. The territory of our country and the settlement of Ukrainians, its natural resources, population and its occupations, economic activity, spiritual life - everything interested inquisitive geographers and historians, statesmen, merchants and ministers of the church. Travelers and scholars left behind a rich literature. We will name only two works. These are “Scythia” by the Greek Herodotus (V century BC) and “Description of Ukraine” by the Frenchman G. L. Boplan (XVII century). They, like many others, have a common feature: the authors are amazed at the natural treasures of Ukraine, generosity, hard work, spiritual wealth of Ukrainians.Outstanding Ukrainian scientists have done a lot to study the socio-economic geography of Ukraine - Pavlo Chubinsky, Stepan Rudnitsky, Konstantin Vobly, Vladimir Kubiyovich, Alexey Dibrova, Maxim Palamarchuk, Fyodor Zastavny, Mykola Pistun, etc.
In Ukrainian socio-economic geography, there are two directions - anthropogeographic and economic. Anthropogeographic direction focuses on human geography and its conditionality by environmental factors. The geography of the economy is considered here as a certain side, a property of human geography.
Representatives of this trend in Ukrainian geography were, first of all, S. Rudnitskiy and V. Kubiyovich, partly A. Dibrova.The economic direction focuses on the geography of the economy, and a person acts as an important factor in its development and location (labor resources, consumers). Two approaches are distinguished - the industrial-statistical and the complex-territorial. The first studies the economy and its location in separate, loosely connected industries, the second - in the form of territorial combinations and systems. The first was expressed by K. Voblyi, the second was represented by the names of M. Palamarchuk, F. Zastavny, N. Pistun.
Pavlo Chubinsky (1839-1884) was a folklorist, ethnographer, and was engaged in statistics (this is how economic geography was called in the 19th century). He is the author of the national and state anthem “Ukraine has not died yet”. He received his legal education at St. Petersburg University. While in exile, he studied ethnography and economic geography of the North of the Russian Empire. At the turn of the 60-70s
Figure: 2. Pavlo Chubinsky
dov of the last century led an expedition to South-West Ukraine, the result of which was a seven-volume study "Proceedings of an ethnographic and statistical expedition to the West Russian Territory", which shows the peculiarities of the geography of the population, settlement, economic activity in the territories of the west of the sub-Russian Ukraine, especially Podolia , Volyn and Polissya, Belarus, Moldova.
P. Chubinsky - one of the founders of the Ukrainian geographic society (1873), banned by tsarism in 1876. He was awarded gold medals of the Geographical Society. Buried in Borispol near Kiev.
Stepan Rudnitsky (1877-1937) - the founder of Ukrainian scientific geography and geography of Ukraine, including socio-economic and political. Graduated from Lviv University, until 1919 worked here as an assistant professor, one of the founders of the Ukrainian Free University in Vienna (1921). Ukrainian Institute of Geography and Cartography in Kharkov (1927). Academician of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, full member of the Scientific Society named after Shevchenko in Lviv. A prisoner of the Bolshevik GULAG, where he died in 1937 (Solovki).
The first great work on the socio-economic geography of Ukraine was published by S. Rudnitskiy in 1914. It was “A Brief Geography of Ukraine. Anthropogeography ". During and after the First World War, S. Rudnitsky wrote many works on the political geography of Ukraine, in which he showed that Ukrainians are a state nation and
Figure: 4. Konstantin Vobly
must create their own state within the ethnic boundaries of their settlement. S. Rudnitsky advocated the creation of an independent Catholic Ukrainian state from the Carpathians to the Caucasus. He substantiated the position of Ukraine on the political map of the world. The most significant work of S. Rudnitsky was the book "Fundamentals of Geography of Ukraine. Anthropogeography ”(1926), published when the scientist was living in exile in Prague. The scientist did a lot for the development of school geography (he wrote several school textbooks), local history. He is the founder of Ukrainian cartography. S. Rudnitsky adhered to the anthropogeographic direction in socio-economic geography. Has published over 150 scientific papers.
Konstantin Voblyi (1876-1947) - Ukrainian economic-myco-geographer and economist. Graduated from the Kiev Theological Academy and Warsaw University. First, he studied the population and economy of Poland, which was then part of the Russian Empire. In 1919 he published the book "Economic Geography of Ukraine", written from the standpoint of the branch-statistical direction. Later K. Voblyi studied natural resources Ukraine, the development and placement of industry, especially metallurgy, textile and sugar, as well as trade. In addition, he carried out the economic zoning of our state, studied the problems of the "great Dnieper", individual regions - Crimea, Transcarpathia, Galicia. He worked in the commission that established the borders of Western Ukraine.
During and after the war, under the leadership and with the participation of K. Vobly, books on the economic geography of Ukraine were published, in which the western regions were also considered.
K. Voblyi was elected an academician of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (1919). He worked at the Kiev Institute of National Economy and Kiev University. He has published over 200 scientific papers. Vladimir Kubiyovich (1900-1985) - Ukrainian geographer, demographer and cartographer, author of many works on social
Figure: 6. Alexey Dibrova
Figure: 5. Vladimir Kubiyovich
but economic geography of Ukraine within its ethnic boundaries. Born in the west of the Lemkiv region, near Krakow (Poland). He graduated from the University of Krakow and until 1939 worked here as an assistant professor. After the war (since 1952) he permanently lived in Sarcelles near Paris. Buried there.
At the beginning scientific activities V. Kubiyovich studied economic life in the Carpathians, in particular, shepherding. In the 30s, he paid a lot of attention to studying the population of Ukraine, including the placement of Ukrainians within their ethnic territory. He paid special attention to the ethnogeography of Galichina, Transcarpathia, Volhynia, Podlasie. The works "Atlas of Ukraine and Adjacent Lands" (1937) and the book "Geography of Ukrainian and Adjacent Lands" (1938), published under the editorship and with the participation of V. Kubiyovych, became fundamental.
In the post-war period, while living in France, he headed the Scientific Society. T. Shevchenko and organized the publication of the "Encyclopedia of Ukrainian Studies" (13 volumes) in Ukrainian and four in english... He published a number of maps of Ukraine and its historical and geographical lands.
Oleksiy Dibrova (1904-1973) is a famous Ukrainian geographer, author of many books, including school textbooks on geography of Ukraine, founder of the scientific school of Ukrainian economic geographers. He graduated from the Kiev Cooperative Institute and graduated from the Ukrainian Institute of Geography and Cartography, which was headed by S. Rudnitsky. Worked in
Kiev Pedagogical Institute and University, where he headed the Department of Economic Geography.
A. Dibrova is the author of textbooks on the geography of Ukraine, including socio-economic ones, which were reprinted many times. Carried out the economic and geographical zoning of Ukraine (identified six regions), explored its individual regions - Donbass, Transcarpathia, Kiev region. He took part in the preparation and publication of geographical maps and atlases.
After the war, social and economic geography in Ukraine was developed by M. Palamarchuk, F. Zastavny, N. Pistun, L. Koretsky, J. Zhupansky, M. Ignatenko, Y. Pityurenko, V. Popovkin and many other scientists. In their writings, Ukraine was considered as component THE USSR. This held back scientific thought. But the main contribution of these scientists is the study of the territorial organization of the productive forces of Ukraine on an integrated basis.