- Further expansion of borders to the south and east
- Military conflicts in the far northeast of Asia
- Geographical discoveries and scientific achievements
- The Great Northern Expedition and the activities of Academician G.-F. Miller in Siberia
Further expansion of borders to the south and east
.
Among foreign policy tasks Russian Empire an important place was occupied by the issue of the defense of the Siberian borders. In the first decades of the XVIII century. Russian penetration into the Kazakh steppes and Altai intensified. After the Dzungarian Khan Galdan died in the fight against China, his nephew who took power Tsewang-Rabdan moved to the south a significant part yenisei Kirghiz, thus liberating the upper reaches of the Yenisei, which the Russians were quick to take advantage of. TO 1710 g. were built here Minusinsky, Abakansky and Sayan fortress. The advance to the sources of the Ob was marked by the appearance of the first Russian settlements and fortresses on the territory of the modern Novosibirsk region Umrevinsky prison(1703)
, Kolyvani (1713)
, Berdsk prison (1716)
and etc. Dzungars, of course, they did not want to put up with the Russian advance to the south and tried to prevent it: in 1709 g. besieged Kuznetskand in 1710 g. destroyed Bikatun fortress. However, Peter I persistently sought the transition of the steppes under the rule of Russia, especially after he received a message from the governor of Prince. M.P. Gagarinaabout the presence of rich gold placers in the Dzungarian possessions in yarkand city.
It was decided to send a detachment of the colonel for reconnaissance. I. D. Buchholznumber of almost 3 thousand people. In summer 1715 g. he moved from Tobolsk up the Irtysh and reached the lake. Yamysh where he laid Yamyshevskaya fortress. However, being besieged there by a large army of Dzungars, Bukhgolts was forced to leave the fortress and retreat down the Irtysh to the mouth of the river. Omi where in 1716 g. laid Omsk fortress. In the following years, a whole chain of Russian fortresses was built along the Irtysh, stretching to its upper reaches, including Semipalatinsk (1718)
... And in 1720 g. major I. M. Likharev from Tobolsk with a detachment of 440 people. reached the lake. Zaisan and on the way back built Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress... Thus, the entire right bank of the Irtysh was assigned to Russia. Dzungar Khanate, having lost the war with China in 1718-1723, was forced to make concessions. Russian embassy of the captain I. Unkovsky 1722 g.to Dzungaria and the return embassy of the Dzungars 1724 g. Petersburg contributed to the reconciliation of the parties, especially since China remained the main enemy of Dzungaria, and the Irtysh fortified line prevented the penetration of nomads into Russian lands.
It was also restless in the southwestern part of the Siberian border, where in the XVIII century. revolted several times bashkirs - in 1704-1711
and 1735-1740 At the same time, I had to fight off constant raids kazakhsto the border lands. Peter I was interested in the possibility of including Kazakhstan in the sphere of influence of Russia, speaking on this score in this way: "The Kyrgyz-Kaisak horde ... to all Asian countries and lands ... a key and a gate; for that reason, this de horde needs to be under Russian protection ...". Large political associations on the territory of Kazakhstan - zhuzes, in the 30s - 40s. XVIII century. one after the other they took Russian citizenship. Active fortification continued: from Irtysh to Tobol, Ishimskaya fortified line.
When, in the 50s. Dzungaria was finally defeated by China, there was a danger of a direct military clash with a new powerful enemy. The Manchus even managed to achieve the adoption of Chinese citizenship (albeit purely nominally) by the population of East Kazakhstan. A new one is being built in the steppes Presnogorkovskaya line of fortifications, and to protect Altai, a Kolyvano-Kuznetskaya a fortified line running from the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress to Biysk. In addition, Gorny Altai has long been mastered by Russian settlers - first of all, fugitive soldiers, peasants, workers of Siberian factories. The Russian government turned a blind eye to this unauthorized settlement, since there were not enough people in Siberia, as before, and in 1792 g.the settlers agreed with officials authorized by Catherine II to accept Russian citizenship in exchange for exemption from government duties. It turned out to be not difficult to agree, since to replenish the garrisons of the Siberian fortresses, for example, at this time they actively resorted to the services of even fugitive schismatics (Old Believers), without interfering with their faith. Some of the Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks were also resettled here. In a word, even elements strongly negatively disposed towards the imperial government contributed to the development and defense of Russian possessions in southern Siberia.
Developed in a peculiar way throughout the 18th century. relations with China. After the Manchus captured northern Mongolia and came close to the borders of the Russian possessions in Transbaikalia, the government of Peter I tried to agree on the establishment of a clear border between the two states. This was done after the death of the first Russian emperor, when in 1727 g. the count's embassy S. L. Vladislavich-Raguzinsky managed to conclude Kyakhta Treaty. He established the border line from the Sayan to the Amur and determined the terms of the Russian-Chinese trade, which soon developed in the same Kyakhta. However, this treaty did not solve all the problems, since there was a constant flight of the Mongols from under the Manchu domination to Russia. Plundering raids by Mongol gangs were not uncommon, as well as smuggling trade bypassing border posts, which was very willingly engaged by the population on both sides. Finally, Russia still did not abandon the idea of \u200b\u200bextending its power to the Amur, in order to use this route for communication with Kamchatka and other northeastern lands.
Back in the first half of the century, research parties were sent to the Amur, who found out that there were no Manchus on the adjacent lands, and the local residents did not obey anyone. And in the 50s. an attempt was made to organize the navigation of Russian ships along the Amur - a secret Nerchinsk expedition under the leadership of the former Vice-President of the Admiralty Board F.I.Soimonova began to study the fairway. Naturally, all this, having become famous in Beijing, did nothing to improve relations with Russia. To the official request of the Russian government to allow sailing along the Amur, China responded with a categorical refusal. And when, after the defeat of the Dzungar Khanate, the armies of the Manchus reached the borders of the Russian possessions in Western Siberia, the parties were on the brink of war. However, in the future, the government of Catherine II decided to abandon the confrontation due to the obvious numerical superiority of the enemy. In addition, with Turkey as its main adversary, the Russian Empire could not afford to wage war on several fronts at once, so the Amur region was forgotten again, returning to this issue only in the 19th century. Nevertheless, measures were taken to strengthen the Trans-Baikal border - 7 more fortresses were built there, and then, according to the project of the Irkutsk governor, a separate Trans-Baikal Cossack army was established.
So things went on southern borders Russian possessions in Siberia. As we see, the advance to new lands took place in the 18th century. much slower than in the previous century, but still it went on. And the progressive weakening of China and the precarious position of the small Central Asian states gave hope for an increase in Russian holdings at their expense in the future.
Military conflicts in the far northeast of Asia
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In the northeast of Siberia, it would seem, things should have developed much more successfully, because here the Russians faced not civilized peoples that had their own statehood, but with "wild" aborigines who were at the lowest stages of social development - Itelmen, Koryaks and Chukchi, the conquest of which could not be difficult. However, in reality, everything turned out just the opposite: it was here that the Russian colonialists met the fiercest resistance, and it was here that the Russian armed forces were defeated in a full-scale war with the natives: the only case in siberian history.
Hike Atlasovato Kamchatka at the very end of the 17th century. could not, of course, lead to the automatic subordination of this territory. When the Cossack detachments rushed in his tracks, itelmens (Kamchadals) tried to give them an armed rebuff. The Cossacks had to build fortified fortresses here, but even so the aborigines repeatedly raised uprisings - in the first half of the 18th century. there were at least five of them. These uprisings were suppressed with great difficulty and by the actual extermination of the disobedient. For some half a century, the number of Itelmens as a result decreased from 13 to 6 thousand people. The peculiar system of social and family relations, which then existed among the aborigines of the northeast of Siberia, also played a role in this. So, the hostage-taking system did not work at all here ( amanats), since the life of even the closest relatives among the Chukchi, Koryaks and Itelmens was not at all valued higher than the life of a stranger. Therefore, they refused to bring in yasak for the sake of preserving the life of their captive relatives. And having suffered defeat in battle, the men of the tribe first killed their wives and children, after which they themselves committed suicide. Of course, such a system of relations was perceived by the Russians as wild and inexplicable, although it, of course, had its own foundations, formed in the process of the centuries-old development of the social system of these peoples and associated both with the specifics of their way of life and with those natural and geographical conditions in which they were forced to exist.
Kamchatka was eventually pacified, after which the Russian government drew attention to koryakovthat lived to the north of the peninsula and along the shores of the Okhotsk and Bering seas. Most of them stubbornly refused to recognize the Russian government and pay yasak, and also often attacked the Cossack detachments passing through their lands, thus creating a threat to overland communication with Kamchatka from Yakutsk. By the 20s. XVIII century. managed to subdue part of the Koryak tribal groups, but others continued to resist. And here the Russians had to first build several fortresses and even send regular army units to help the Cossacks before launching a decisive offensive. Since the 30s. began a systematic offensive of Russian detachments on the Koryak lands, which was eventually crowned with success. By the 60s. XVIII century. the resistance of the Koryaks was broken. In addition to the irreparable losses suffered by the aborigines (the number of Koryaks decreased from almost 13 thousand to only 5 thousand people), this was greatly facilitated by intergeneric strife, since some of the Koryaks helped the Russians in defeating other hostile groups. Finally, the Chukchi also made their contribution, almost annually making raids on the Koryak camps and driving away their reindeer herds. But even under these conditions it took almost 30 years to subdue the Koryaks to Russian rule.
But the most stubborn resistance to the Russians was chukchi - a people capable of exhibiting no more than 2 thousand soldiers. Clashes with them, which began in the second half of the 17th century, continued at the beginning of the 18th century. The Chukchi robbed their neighbors - Yukaghirs and Yasak Koryaks. They appealed to the Russian authorities, but the Cossack detachments that set off on retaliatory campaigns usually suffered defeat from the Chukchi. Moreover, the latter are expanding the territory under their control, appearing in the immediate vicinity of Anadyr prison - the extreme stronghold of the Russians in the north-east of Siberia. Therefore in 1727 g. the Russian government decided on the need for the complete defeat and conquest of the Chukchi by military force, for which a military expedition of 400 soldiers was sent there, led by a Yakut Cossack head A.F.Shestakov and captain of the Tobolsk dragoon regiment D.I. Pavlutsky. Shestakov in the spring 1730 g. with a detachment of 150 people, in which there were only 20 Cossacks, the rest were allied Yakuts, Tungus, Lamuts and Koryaks - very unreliable allies, he moved against almost 2 thousand Chukchi soldiers. The battle took place on March 14 and ended with the complete defeat of Shestakov's detachment, and the commander himself died in battle. Captain Pavlutsky led a campaign against the Chukchi, which took place in 1731 g.
215 Russian servicemen, as well as more than 200 allied Koryaks and Yukaghirs, went on the campaign. During the campaign, Pavlutsky inflicted several heavy defeats on the Chukchi: their losses in each battle numbered hundreds of killed. His detachment returned in the fall of the same year, without suffering any special losses. However, Chukotka made a depressing impression on Pavlutsky, and in his report to the Tobolsk provincial chancellery, he spoke directly: "It is impossible to bring the Chukchee into citizenship ...". In addition, he, being an army officer, was hardly capable of calling the Chukchi into a yasak payment "with kindness and greetings", preferring to rely on military force. And ordinary participants in the campaigns strove, first of all, to obtain military booty by robbing the aborigines. It is clear that in such conditions there was no way to force the Chukchi to recognize the Russian power and pay yasak, since they preferred to die rather than obey the conquerors. The development of these trends has led, in the end, to the fact that in 1742 g. the government issued a decree ordering "to eradicate the non-peaceful Chukchi altogether," that is, the official stake was placed on war and the total extermination of the rebellious people.
However, this decree was not implemented. Despite the undertaken in 1744
and 1746 punitive campaigns, it was not possible to completely destroy the Chukchi, and March 14, 1747 the commander of the Anadyr party, Pavlutsky, who had already become a major by that time, died in battle. This made a sobering impression on the Russian authorities, making it clear that the Chukchi cannot be won by force of arms. Therefore, since the beginning of the 50s. the government tried to strike up peace negotiations with the enemy. They lasted more than 20 years and were very difficult. To achieve success, I had to go to liquidation in 1771 g. Anadyr prison and the withdrawal from Chukotka of all Russian armed forces. Finally, in 1778 g. the main Chukchi toyon A. Khergyntov and Russian captain T. I. Shmalev signed a peace treaty. The following year, Catherine II officially announced the acceptance of the Chukchi into Russian citizenship, which, however, was of a purely formal nature: they did not recognize the Russian administration, they paid yasak only of their own free will and often in exchange for gifts of even greater value. This situation, by the way, remained until the first half of the XX century. Only due to the fact that the Chukchi were gradually drawn into trade with the Russians, it was possible to maintain more or less permanent ties with them. Thus ended the longest armed conflict on the territory of Siberia, which can rightfully be called a war, which the Russians eventually lost - an exceptional case, but for the 18th century, when the glory of Russian weapons resounded throughout the world, especially.
Geographical discoveries and scientific achievements
.
Along with attempts to establish themselves in the extreme northeast, they actively went in the XVIII century. and marine research. The ships russian fleet reached the shores of North America, discovered Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. Already from the middle of the century, a large-scale fur trade began there. Well, by the end of the century, G.I.Shelikhov,whose name is associated with the Russian colonization of Alaska and the emergence of the so-called Russian America. It is worth dwelling especially on the life and work of this man, whom his contemporaries called only the Russian Columbus. Coming from the poor merchants of the Kursk province, Shelikhov in his youth made acquaintance with the famous I. I. Golikov - also a merchant who wrote a 12-volume history of the reign of Peter I. Under his patronage of the Shelikhs in the 70s. ended up in Irkutsk, where he launched his own entrepreneurial activity, and from there - to Okhotsk, where he himself began to equip expeditions for fur. Over time, the idea came to him to organize permanent bases on the Aleutian Islands and on the American coast. And in 1784 g. on three ships, he went to about. Kodiak, where he managed to convince the natives of his friendship and peaceful intentions, after which he laid a fortress and a village there. Returning to Russia, Shelikhov achieved an audience with Catherine II, convincing her of the need to create a monopoly trading company and the active settlement of North America by Russians. The Empress, being an opponent of the trade monopolies, did not support his idea, but did not reject it either, giving him the opportunity to act on her own initiative. Shelikhov took advantage of this, and by the end of the century there were already 6 Russian settlements on the islands and in Alaska.
Shelikhov died in 1795,however, his business did not disappear and continued to develop. IN 1796 g. on about. Sitkathe capital of Russian America was built Novoarkhangelsk, and in 1799 g. by the decree of Emperor Paul I Russian-American company, which united all Siberian merchants who traded in the North Pacific Ocean and received monopoly rights to trade services for Russian possessions in North America and the colonization of new territories. Under the wing of the company, the production of furs and sea animals expanded, trade with the Indians and with the colonies of other European powers developed, their own fleet was established, etc. Russian merchants in Siberia exchanged furs obtained in the Pacific for Chinese tea, which was then sent for sale to central Russia and Europe. A.A. Baranov, who managed the Russian settlements in America after Shelikhov, persistently expanded the company's holdings to the south, even reaching the northern part of modern California, where in 1812 g. Fort Ross was founded.
But not only the new successes of colonization and the further expansion of the Russian borders are remarkable in the history of Siberia in the 18th century. It also became the time for organizing large-scale scientific expeditions with the aim of the most thorough study of the Siberian lands that have remained largely "unknown and unknown" until now. It is no coincidence that contemporaries called this century the era of "the second discovery of Siberia". Of course, in the 17th century. a lot of useful information could be found in the unsubscriptions and tales of Russian explorers, in the article lists of embassies, etc., but all of them, settling in the Siberian order, became the property of the archives and were almost never used. By the beginning of the XVIII century. even Dezhnev's voyage was forgotten. The first work intended for use in the daily affairs of public administration was "Drawing book of Siberia"1701, compiled by the boyar's son Tobolsk S. U. Remezov and included plans for almost all Siberian cities with counties. And during the reign of Peter I, the study of Siberia was elevated to the rank of the most important state event, so that a fundamental change in views took place. russian government to the eastern half of the empire.
The main question that occupied Peter I personally was, "Did Asia converge with America?" To resolve it, first in 1711-1721 the forces of several expeditionary teams studied Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, for the first time accurately plotted on a geographical map. And at the very beginning 1725 g., already before his death, Peter instructed V. Bering, a Danish captain in Russian service, to finally find out the answer to this question. During The first Kamchatka expedition of 1725-1730 Bering opened about. St. Lawrence, passed through the strait, which was later named after him, and entered the Arctic Ocean, thus confirming the news of Dezhnev that Asia was separated from America by the strait. Two of the members of this expedition in 1732, sailing from Kamchatka, reached the shores of northwestern Alaska. Bering himself continued to remain in Eastern Siberia in order to soon lead the Second Kamchatka Expedition.
At the same time, a survey of the interior regions of Siberia began. IN 1719 g. doctor was sent here under a contract for 7 years D. G. Messerschmidt,who studied the geography and natural resources of the region, its history, the life of Siberian peoples, etc. The huge natural-historical and ethnographic collections he collected in 1727 g. were transferred to the disposal of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Captive Swedish officer trapped in Siberian exile Stralenberg also collected a lot of information on the history and ethnography of Siberia, and after returning to his homeland, he published it in the book "Northern and Eastern Europe and Asia" in German. But the main event of Siberian history was the first half of the XVIII century has become, of course, Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1743, consisted of one land "academic" detachment (which included several independent groups) and six naval detachments. The land detachment was entrusted with the task of exploring, as far as possible, the entire territory of Russian possessions beyond the Urals, while sea expeditions were supposed to look for lands to the east and south of Kamchatka, and also to find out whether there was a sea route from the northern shores of Siberia to India and South America.
The Great Northern Expedition and the activities of Academician G.-F. Miller in Siberia
.
The "academic" detachment consisted of European scientists who entered the Russian service. Among them were professors G. F. Miller (historian and philologist) and I. G. Gmelin (naturalist), academician Delisle de la Croyer (geographer and astronomer), associates of the St. Petersburg Academy I. E. Fischer and G. W. Steller, Senate translator J. Lindenau. They were supervised by Russian students, surveyors, artists, translators. Having traveled over almost the entire territory of Siberia, they collected a gigantic material on the branches of knowledge that interested each of them: they compiled huge collections of samples of minerals, flora and fauna, recorded observations and conclusions regarding the history and ethnography of both the aborigines and the Russian population of Siberia in expeditionary diaries, and astronomical survey of many localities, etc. Even more important was the fact that most of these materials were published, making up, without exaggeration, the golden fund of European science in the 18th century. Gmelin, upon his return, published a multivolume work "Flora of Siberia" S.P. Krasheninnikov, who participated in the expedition as a student, published in 1755 g. "Description of the land of Kamchatka". But the main figure in the expedition was, of course, GF Miller, who is called, like Herodotus, "the father of Siberian history."
Miller was born in 1705 g. in Westphalia, and at the age of 20, after graduating from the University of Leipzig, he moved to Russia. IN 1731 g. he became a professor at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, then went to Siberia, and upon his return received a 1747 g. the official position of historiographer. FROM 1766 g. and until his death in 1783 g. headed the archive of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. Him scientific activity was extremely diverse: he published historical monuments, edited magazines, wrote research articles. The crown of his research activity was the fundamental work "History of Siberia", in which he collected and summarized the unique materials he received in Siberia - a whole collection of historical, ethnographic and geographic information... In addition, during his trip to Siberia, Miller examined the local archives, and the documents he removed from there subsequently made up the contents of significant funds of the central state archives in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Without referring to these funds, it is impossible to study the history of Siberia in the 17th-18th centuries. even today.
Miller not only personally studied archival documents in Siberian cities, but also conducted special polls of the provincial offices, sending their bosses his questionnaires with the requirement to give written answers to the questions formulated there. As the scientist himself later wrote, "I reasoned for the good that in order to receive detailed and reliable statements about the true state of each city ... it is necessary to demand them from the offices in each city." First of all, Miller was interested in the history of the founding of cities and settlements: it was required to indicate when, according to what decrees and by whom the city or settlement was founded, and to do this according to extracts from original documents and ancient files. Then there were questions about current state the city - its buildings, the state of affairs in the office, the composition of its servants, the preservation of archival affairs. Miller requested information about the population according to the categories he allocated: serviceman, Russian tax-paying and aboriginal yasak. He was also interested in the volumes of annual taxes and customs duties, income and expenses of the local treasury. Already from this listing, one can conclude how valuable the information collected by Miller turned out to be for subsequent generations of scientists, because most of the documents of the Siberian archives of the 17th-18th centuries. did not reach us - they died from fires, rotted, decayed, etc. However, their content can be found in the extracts made by Miller, as well as in his diaries and travel descriptions.
Less successful were the actions of the naval units of the Great Northern Expedition. It was not possible to pass along the coast of the Arctic Ocean from Arkhangelsk to Chukotka - in the 18th century. there was a sharp cooling of the Siberian climate, so that the sea routes, which the Russians freely used in the previous century, were now impassable. Second Kamchatka expedition Commander Bering and A. I. Chirikova, working in the North Pacific in 1741-1742 again went to the shores of America. Bering was unable to get there, having crashed off an uninhabited island, where many of the crew members, led by the commander, died of hunger. Chirikov reached the American coast, but could not land there, after which he undertook a voyage to the Aleutian Islands. IN 1743 g. by government decree, the activities of the Great Northern Expedition were terminated. Thanks to the results it achieved, the government and educated circles of Russia got an idea of \u200b\u200ba huge part of the empire, previously practically unknown, domestic and European science was enriched by the remarkable results of research conducted by its participants, and the discoveries they made are rightfully on a par with the great world geographical discoveries XVI-XVII centuries
Russian Asia in the XVII-XVIII centuries
In contact with
Classmates
Nikolay Lysenko
Cossacks in the construction of linear fortresses. Nikolay Karazin, 1891
The eastern marginal lands of Russian Asia were inhabited and developed by representatives of different peoples and social groups of Moscow Russia, and then the Russian Empire. However, undoubtedly, the primary contribution to this development was made numerically by a very small, but extremely mobile in the social and military-political aspect, the Cossack people, which from ancient times formed on the territory of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, Don and Yaitsk troops.
Cossack colonization of Transbaikalia and Priamurye
The first information about the Cossacks in Transbaikalia and the Amur Region dates back to the 30s of the 17th century. During this period, several Cossack military expeditions to the east of Eurasia took place. A large role in the advancement of the Cossacks to Eastern Siberia and the Far East was played by the Yakutsk prison, created in 1632 and very soon the center of the spread of Cossack colonization in the region.
It was from the Yakutsk prison in 1643 that the expedition of Vasily Poyarkov went to the Amur. The purpose of the expedition was to check the information received from the Cossacks who had already visited the south of the Far East and claimed that there was a mighty river flowing through the fertile land, rich in fur animals, forest and silver. It was about Cupid. In 1644, Poyarkov, descending the Zeya, went to the Amur and reached its mouth. Returning in 1646, he compiled the first description of the Amur and the peoples inhabiting it. As the most important conclusion, it was reported that the population of the Amur is independent of any of the neighboring states.
Almost simultaneously with the appearance in the Amur region, the Cossacks came to Transbaikalia. The first raids of the Cossacks in this region began in the mid 40s of the 17th century, and its eastern part was conquered in the late 40s and 50s. On the eastern coast of Lake Baikal, detachments of the ataman Vasily Kolesnikov, the Cossacks Ivan and Yakov Pokhabovs, and the ataman Ivan Galkin appeared. In 1648, Ataman Galkin reached the mouth of the Barguzin River and founded the prison of the same name. The following year, he also founded the most important in terms of its strategic importance Verkhneudinsky prison.
In the same period, a successful military expedition took place in Transbaikalia, which was undertaken by the Don Cossack Maxim Perfiliev, who managed to reach the famous Bauntovsky Lake. It is important to emphasize that those Cossacks who in the official history of the development of Siberia are called Yenisei, Tobolsk, Yakut and others, in their absolute majority were descendants of the Don, Zaporozhye and Yaik Cossacks. These Cossacks received their new name in the official documents of Muscovy by the geographical location of their new residence or service.
The history of the Perfilievs' Don Cossack clan is indicative in this regard. In the first decades of the 17th century in Western Siberia - in Surgut and Pelym - many Perfilievs served, they all had a common ancestor - Stepan Perfiliev, who came to Siberia from the Don with the ataman Ermak. One of the clan, Ilya Perfiliev, left a memory of himself by marching along the Lena River to the Arctic Ocean, by the discovery of the Yana River in 1634 and the construction of the Verkhoyansk winter hut (later, Onufry Stepanov took over the Crepmurje. He sailed along the Sungari River, and in 1655 undertook a military expedition along the Ussuri, where the local population was successfully “explained.” It is possible that during this period the Cossacks reached Lake Beloye (now Lake Khanka).
"Explaining the average Kyrgyz-Kaisak horde". Nikolay Karazin, 1891
Explaining the middle Kyrgyz-Kaisak horde. Nikolay Karazin, 1891
In the first half of the 17th century, Cossack settlements appeared in Transbaikalia. In 1653, Peter Beketov founded the Irgensky prison here. Apparently, the construction of the Ingodinsky winter hut by the Cossacks at the mouth of the Chita River, which laid the foundation for the future city, dates back to this time.
The Tsarist administration of Muscovy moved eastward following the ethnic expansion of the Cossacks. Initially, the new territories, which were presented to the Moscow tsar at the edge of the Cossack saber, were ruled from the Yakutsk and Yenisei forts. However, already in 1653, a nobleman Dmitry Zinoviev arrived on Zeya from Moscow, who actually received the powers of a local voivode. The official Daurian voivodeship was created in 1655. The very next year, a new voivode was appointed in the Amur region - Alexander Pashkov - an energetic talented person who founded the new capital of Eastern Siberia - the city of Nerchinsk. From that time on, Nerchinsk became the administrative center of the Nerchinsk (Daursky) Voivodeship, the territory of which covered the Baikal region, Transbaikalia and the Amur region.
The Nerchinsk conspiracy and the collapse of the resettlement policy of the first Romanovs
The Cossack ethnic expansion in Transbaikalia and the Amur Territory provoked acute discontent with the Qing Empire of China. Having suffered a military disaster at Albazin, the Qing diplomats decided to win the war with the Cossacks at the table of diplomatic negotiations with Muscovy. Caught by surprise, Muscovy, which for decades did nothing for the effective and rapid development of the lands of Eastern Siberia, agreed to these negotiations.
As a result of the signing on August 27, 1689 by boyar Fyodor Golovin of the Nerchinsk Treaty (which is probably more correct to call the Nerchinsk Agreement), Moscow Russia in favor of the Qing Empire from the entire Amur basin.
The Nerchinsk conspiracy meant de facto a genuine geopolitical catastrophe. Agriculture and industries in the Amur River basin, which the Cossack and Russian population had been creating for almost a century, were completely destroyed. The most important fortresses and forts were torn down or transferred to Qing China. strategic importance... For example, Albazin. The rupture of the most convenient waterway along the Amur made it difficult for the Russian state to further develop the Okhotsk coast, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Russian America.
For almost two hundred years - from the end of the 17th century to the second half of the 19th century - the possibilities of socio-economic development of the east of Eurasia by the Cossack and Russian populations were forcibly limited, in essence, to Transbaikalia alone.
Administratively, at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century, the regions east of Lake Baikal were included in the Irkutsk, Yakutsk and Nerchinsk voivodeships. All of them were subordinate to a higher administrative authority - the Yenisei category.
In the future, the administrative division of Eastern Siberia was continuously and for the most part ill-considered changes. In many cases, the administrative grid was cut absolutely voluntarily - in accordance with the personal wishes of the next administrative temporary worker sent from Moscow or St. Petersburg.
So, for example, in 1724 Western Transbaikalia was separated from the Irkutsk Voivodeship into an independent one - Selenga. Why this was done is completely incomprehensible, since the newly formed voivodeship did not receive any separate funding or even a separate administrative apparatus. In 1782-1783, voivodeships as the names of administrative divisions were finally abolished - the Russian Empire really wanted to appear as a European power, and the term "voivodeship" smelled too Slavic.
Despite the successful cutting of a window to Europe, and perhaps precisely thanks to this process, the development of Eastern Siberia in the 18th century continued to remain, for the most part, the lot of the local Cossack population. It was those Cossacks who managed to migrate to the new Asian Ukraine before the era of Peter the Great that demographically formed the basis of the Russian-speaking population of Eastern Siberia. It is important to note that the Cossack resettlement to the Asian East with the onset of the continuous wars of Peter I and subsequent monarchs sharply declined - all the forces of the Cossack people went to pay the “blood tax” as part of the regular troops of the empire. The Great Russian population, crushed during the reign of Peter I by the hardest yoke of serfdom, and even more so did not have either the opportunity or the desire to resettle in the Asian Palestine.
A mockery of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of Siberian territories looks like the decision of the imperial authorities to predominantly settle in Siberia by convict criminals. A number of decrees of Peter I, Catherine I, Elizabeth and even Catherine II are known about the sending of convicts to the Siberian region, sentenced to exile and eternal settlement.
It would seem that it was easier - to stop levying "blood tax" from the Cossack people, but at the same time to oblige the military chieftains of the Don, Ural and Orenburg Cossack troops on the obligatory annual resettlement of the established parties of Cossacks to Siberia and the Far East. Instead, the imperial government continued with enviable regularity to churn out favorable decrees that were supposed to encourage the Russian landowners to organize the settlement of Siberia by their serfs. Similar decrees were issued, for example, on December 13, 1760 and March 15, 1761 - the result of their action was practically zero. And why did the Russian landowners, according to simple logic, send their serfs to Siberian exile, receiving for this action a set-off for the supply of recruits to the troops in a ratio of 1: 1?
Cossack with a Cossack woman, late 19th century. Source: pohodd.ru
The Russian government, despite the obvious ineffectiveness of similar previous decrees, nevertheless continued to follow the same vicious path. In 1799, the administration of Paul I adopted another benevolent decree "On the settlement of the lands lying between Lake Baikal, the Upper Angara River, Nerchinsk and Kyakhta, retired soldiers, exiled and landlord serfs, who are being counted as recruits." In pursuance of this decree, it was supposed to send immigrants to Transbaikalia from a number of provinces of the center of Russia, in total about 10 thousand male souls with families. The resettlement began in 1801, but until the end of 1805, only 610 souls were resettled beyond Lake Baikal, and this scanty, ridiculous number of migrants in comparison with the colossal scale of Siberian territories, apparently, also included women and children.
Cossack freemen in the east of Siberia did not work
Against the background of the collapse of the government policy to resettle the Great Russian peasants to Siberia, the total number of ethnic Cossacks, whose ancestors arrived on Siberian land from the Don, Zaporozhye and Yaik, continued to steadily increase.
From the second half of the 17th century to 1851, the total number of the Cossack population in eastern Siberia increased by 8.8 times. According to the optimistic calculations of some researchers, the increase in the Cossack population in the East Siberian territories was even more significant. For example, the well-known historian of Siberia and the Far East OI Sergeev believes that for the specified period "if we take 1852 as the final boundary (the first year of the existence of the Trans-Baikal Cossack army), then the increase will be even more significant - 21 times."
We can agree with Sergeev's opinion, since in the year of the formation of the Trans-Baikal Cossack army, several tens of thousands of Buryats were officially registered as "Cossacks", which in the ethnic aspect, of course, have nothing to do with the historically formed Slavic people of the Cossacks.
Nevertheless, it is indisputable that even minus the semi-official foreign-ethnic subscripts, the Cossack population of Eastern Siberia has grown very much in the years since the Treaty of Nerchinsk. In Transbaikalia, for example, the number of ethnic Cossacks in just 50 years (from 1801 to 1851) increased 5.6 times.
The socio-political life of the Cossack people in the Asian part of the Russian Empire was significantly different from that in Zaporozhye, on the Don and even on the Yaik. In Asiatic Russia, after isolated attempts, a special ethnically integral Cossack world, essentially different in its main features from the Great Russian model, did not develop. In the east, there were only sporadic attempts to revive in new conditions the social structure and truly Cossack life of Zaporozhye and the Don. In all cases, these attempts were successfully suppressed by the central Russian government, which assessed the restoration of ethnopolitical self-government among ethnic Cossacks as the most formidable danger for itself.
The most striking, in its own way successful attempt to revive the traditions of Zaporozhye and the Don Army in Asian Russia, should be recognized the activities of the atamans Mikhail Sorokin and Nikifor of Chernigov in the period from 1676 to 1683. These outstanding Cossack leaders, who raised a successful uprising against the tyranny of the Muscovite administration in Siberia, managed to recreate in Dauria, on the Amur, in fact, a full-fledged, in socio-political terms, Cossack republic. In the Daurian Republic of the Cossacks, all administrative posts were elective, the supreme ataman was elected by the decision of the all-Caucasian Rada, there was a military treasury and even passing symbols of the supreme power of the ataman - bunchuk and kleinody.
Only with the help of a long-term policy of "gunpowder strangulation" - it was forbidden to supply gunpowder and lead to the Daurian republic of Cossacks under the threat of death - the Ataman Nikifor of Chernigov and the Cossack foreman managed to persuade them to a compromise agreement with Muscovy. Not the least role in the "humility" of the Cossack republicans was played by the churchmen of the Moscow Patriarchate, always attracted hand in hand with the official power.
“Based on many evidences, I conclude that nature reigns extensively and richly in the northern bowels of the earth” (fossils), - and here Mikhailo Lomonosov bitterly noted: “There is no one to search for these treasures ...”.
The all-round and amazingly energetic activity of this empress is known to more or less every more or less literate person. Therefore, for now, we will not dwell on those manifestations of this activity that concerned national interests, but we will touch on its brief, but unexpected activity in the vast Siberian territory.
Having ascended the throne in 1762, Catherine already in the next 1763 published a manifesto regarding the census of foreigners in Siberia, and throughout the manifesto runs a red thread her ardent desire to take this part of the population of a remote country under her direct patronage.
Commanding all loyal subjects " treat the yasachs (foreigners) affectionately, showing them any kindness and not inflicting on them not only any harassment, insults, extortion, but below the slightest losses ", the manifesto, at the same time, threatens with the strictest punishment all those who" dare to the peoples of plunder and ruin».
In this, of course, the direction was published by Catherine all her further legal provisions concerning Siberian foreigners. But, not confining herself to concern for the safety of the life of foreigners, the empress tried to introduce into the management of Siberia such ideas that would contribute to their moral revival.
So, according to the research of the well-known expert in Siberia, N.M. Yadrintsev, Catherine saw in Siberia a vast foreign colony and decided to give it the rights of an unruly kingdom.
Catherine's perspicacity boggles the imagination, she clearly imagined that Siberia for Russia, in the future will serve as a "bone of contention" for the right to possess it.
It takes measures to improve the foreigners, promises the Bukharians to create a special trade council for the whole of Siberia, with office work in the Bukhara language, destroys state monopolies and, finally, calls Siberia a "kingdom".
Gives him a special coat of arms, with two sables and mints a special Siberian coin. In Tobolsk the symbol royal power, under whose patronage this foreign kingdom is considered, a throne was placed on which the Siberian governor received a certificate of allegiance from the khan of the middle Kyrgyz horde and the Ostyak princes.
“Of course, it was strange to see,” writes Yadrintsev, “that the land, more and more inhabited by Russians, was suddenly, as it were, back called an alien kingdom, with the provision of special patronage
and even autonomy for foreigners. "
In this case, she was rather trying to create here a kind of separate and local government, like the colonial European governments! A Russian protectorate, which would legitimize, under international law, the possession of the territory of Siberia within those boundaries to which its power would extend.
Nevertheless, the concerns of Empress Catherine were extended not only to foreigners, but also to the Russian population of Siberia. These concerns affected all aspects of local public life and were expressed in the reform of government, in the improvement of the people's life, in the regulation of trade, in the improvement of the situation of the exiles, in the legal provisions on public health, in the dissemination of public education, etc.
While there is no need to enter into the analysis of the empress's legislative activity in this direction - those who wish can get acquainted in detail with this subject, guided by the "Chronological list of the most important data from the history of Siberia" by IP Shcheglov, and, from the complete collection of legalizations of the Russian Empire.
But we, nevertheless, cannot fail to notice that the whole series of legislative works of the wise queen concerning the Siberian population was imbued with the spirit of high justice and humanity, and it was not her fault, if not all her plans were carried out in the same way as she wished.
In this circle, the unscrupulous executors of her will are to blame, the main protection of whose lawlessness was the remoteness of the region and the lack of good ways of communication, which for a long time and after her death hindered the correct development of the mental, moral and economic life of the Siberian and Central Asian population.
This plan was not finally carried out and was not completed, and a fragment of it remained in Siberia "extensive governor power, already possessed by the first governor of Siberia, instead of standing on the steps of the throne established in Tobolsk and resembling the power of one monarch , climbed on top of it, and thus elevated himself, as it were, to a royal dignity, and it also happened in the matter of management. " (Yadrintsev).
Under Alexander I who worked on the "Orders" of CatherineII , Speransky was sent to restore order and control, from intrigues and slander, which accompanied their joint work on the improvement of Russia.
Before Speransky's appointment as Siberian governor-general, lawlessness and arbitrariness were eating away at public life of Siberia.
Driving to the destination, in Irkutsk, the first reformer of the Siberian administration, by the way, wrote: “The further I go down to the bottom of Siberia, the moreo i find evil more, and evil almost intolerable: rumors did not increase anything and deeds are even worse than rumors. "
In this stifling atmosphere of lawlessness, anti-social elements quickly and luxuriously developed, which could do their dark deeds with complete impunity.
Under such conditions, there is nothing tricky if the Siberian peasant's concept of law, as the main beginning of social life, is ugly distorted and confused. The natural fear of legal retribution disappeared and was replaced by a slavish fear of the authorities.
And to what extent this fear was great, is shown in the famous letter from Speransky (from Irkutsk) to Stolypin, in which he wrote: “the fear of the ten-year iron administration of the Irkutsk police chief Loskutov was such that at the first stations they did not dare to complain otherwise than by running out secretly on the road from the forests ".
Korf adds to this: “whenC p ep an c kiy ordered the arrest of Loskutov, then the peasants who were at the same time fell to their knees and, grabbing Speransky by the hands, exclaimed: “Father! Why, this is Loskutov!
Who has not yet allowed undertakings to come trueCatherine II , you can guess if you read the story of the Russian pioneer of the Far East, Nevelskoy.
Which proved the Amur's navigability, contrary to the established opinion that such a mighty river like the Amur cannot get lost in the sands of its mouth.
There must be a deep and convenient passage from it to the sea, this passage must be opened, explored and occupied by the Russians, then our predominance in the East will be consolidated.
At the end of the forties, Nevelskoy applied for service on the transport "Baikal", located in the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk, and at the same time petitioned the ministry to send him to explore the mouth of the Amur.
This petition met with strong opposition in the highest spheres, where they were firmly convinced that the Amur was unsuitable for navigation. But with the help of Muravyov and two ministers Menshikov and Perovsky, he managed to achieve his goal.
Arriving at his destination, he immediately began to fulfill his task - to survey the shores of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk, Sakhalin and the mouth of the Amur, moreover, his assumptions were brilliantly confirmed.
He discovered the strait separating Sakhalin from the mainland (Nevelskaya Strait), proved that it is possible to pass from the mouth of the Amur to the Sea of \u200b\u200bJapan, entered the mouth of the Amur and was convinced of its full suitability for the passage of sea vessels.
These important discoveries made a tremendous impression. Returning to St. Petersburg, Nevelskoy was received enthusiastically, treated kindly by the Emperor (1850), but did not receive an award for the discovery, because he began his expedition without waiting for instructions from St. Petersburg.
In the rank of Captain 1st Rank Nevelskoy, in the same year he went back to the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk with an order to establish a winter quarters there for the convenience of trade relations between the Russian-American Company with the Gilyaks, but with the strictest order - under no circumstances, and with the pretext not to touch the estuary R. Cupid.
Having completed the first part of the assignment, Nevelskoy could not resist and made his way to the Amur, arbitrarily founded several posts here and, among other things, Nikolaevsky, where on August 1, 1850, in the presence of a crowd of foreigners, solemnly, with volleys from guns, raised the Russian flag and announced all the Amur region and Sakhalin Island by Russian possessions.
The news of this, sent to Muravyov and received by the latter in St. Petersburg, where he was temporarily, was received differently: Muravyov and Perovsky approved the act of the unauthorized captain, Nesselrode, Menshikov and others were horrified by him as a clear violation of the Tsar's will. Nevelsky was threatened with disgrace and demotion.
When, at the end of this expedition, he appeared in St. Petersburg, the Emperor demanded him.
So, Nevelskoy, - the Sovereign met him, - You organize expeditions, change, at your discretion, the instructions approved by your Sovereign. What do you say to that?
Taking a paper from the table and pointing at it to Nevelsky, the Emperor continued:
And what's that? what do you think? .. No more, no less than demotion of you to sailor.
Then, turning to the map of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and marking the path traversed by Nevelskoy with his finger, the Emperor said:
- Yes, a sailor. But here you are already a midshipman, there - a lieutenant, here - a captain of the 1st rank, here - rear - hell ... (his finger was on Nikolaevsk). No, let's wait a little longer; you must be punished for disobedience.
And having risen, the Emperor tore up the demotion act, embracing, kissed Nevelskoy and put the order in his buttonhole.
Thank you, Nevelskoy, for your patriotic act, but continue to be careful ...
The act of the annexation of the Amur Territory was recognized by the Tsar, Nevelskoy, in the same rank, was appointed head of the expedition sent to the Amur to observe the region, but again, with the condition not to spread the Russian possessions further.
Under such conditions, the first organizer of the Amur region had to work.
The events of 1854-57, when the English fleet appeared in the waters of the Eastern Ocean and began the blockade of the ports of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk, fully confirmed the idea of \u200b\u200bNevelskoy about the importance of the Amur and its estuary, it was here that the Russian fleet took refuge from the enemy, who did not dare to pursue him beyond the Tatar Strait.
With the cessation of hostilities, the activities of Nevelskoy, naturally, had to stop;y item e and the device of the edge passed into other hands.
Nevelskoy was left out of work and went to Petersburg. Envy, as always, has created ill-wishers and enemies for him; his merits were not appreciated or recognized.
In St. Petersburg, some did not even hesitate to assert that Amur was not at all as deep and navigable as Nevelskoy had imagined him to be.
The latter had no choice but to leave the stage, and he retired to a new one, to his village, in the Smolensk lips.
In 1858, a final agreement was concluded with China, according to which the Amur Territory was already finally approved forPocc iey,
NN Muravyov, who was in charge of the negotiations, received the title of count and the name of "Amur", and Nevelskoy was only given a pension in 2000, despite the fact that the first merit of the annexation of the region and the first hardest works fell to his lot.
Even the foreign press admired and marveled at the courage and patriotism of Nevelskoy.
“So, thanks only to the courage of Nevelskoy, without a shot, the magnificent Primorsky region, with a coastline of 900 miles, went to Russia, and China with my own hand, with one handwriting of the pen (Peking treatise), forever closed its doors to the Sea of \u200b\u200bJapan "- wrote the Chinese newspaper"North China Herald ".
“Only an insensitive Russian, - exclaims, recalling Nevelskoy, the English magazine“Blackwood "s Edinburgh Magazine "- could suppress involuntary delight at the sight of such a wonderful property in the east, acquired thanks to the outstanding patriotism of Nevelskoy.
The mere fact that a country equal in size to France has been acquired would have stirred even the most motionless people on the globe and would have filled their hearts with gratitude for the humble culprit of this acquisition. And here, moreover, the Russians got not a skinny desert somewhere in the wilderness of Africa, not a swampy slums of cannibals in remote parts of the ocean, but a natural continuation of the metropolis itself, requiring only the arrangement of communication routes to merge into one whole with the whole empire. "
This was the lot true patriots fatherland.
From the book "Costumed Russia"
Traditionally it is believed that the "development" of Siberia by Europeans ("Russians") began under Ivan the Terrible. However, this "history" from the middle of the XVI to the beginning of the XIX century. sewn with white threads.
What does traditional history tell us, for example, about the annexation of Siberia to Muscovy? Until the middle of the XVI century. Muscovy, on the whole, coexisted peacefully with the Siberian Khanate. And then Khan Ediger, allegedly in 1555, voluntarily admitted his vassal dependence on Moscow, which was then broken off in 1572 by his successor Khan Kuchum. After the "conquest of Kazan" and the "annexation of Astrakhan", Ivan the Terrible allegedly gives the Stroganov merchants-industrialists "for their special merits" certificates of ownership of land along the river. Tobol. With their own money, the Stroganovs hire a gang of robbers (600, according to other sources, 840 “free Cossacks”), headed by Ermak Timofeevich, who in 1581 “penetrate” the Siberian Khanate and defeat Khan Kuchum, conquering its capital in 1582. Siberia (17 km. From the present Tobolsk), she Kashlyk (i.e. winter quarters, cf. also kishlakand, for example, English. castle). At the same time, Yermak himself heroically died in battle in 1585 (according to other sources, he drowned, crossing the Irtysh into iron shell). After the defeat, Kuchum "flees to the Nogai Horde", where he lives quietly, at least until 1598 (Siberia itself existed well in the 18th century, in particular, it was marked on the French academic map of 1706) ...
In the wake of a highly questionable story private expedition Ermak, any subsequent real expedition of civilian "pioneers" to Siberia in the 17th century. in official historiography, it is considered "the annexation of new lands to the Muscovite state," as if a person had never set foot there before. This is the "pillar of Siberian sites" of the 17th century. like two peas in a pod is similar to the "development" of America: the aborigines (whether Indians or the indigenous population of Siberia) are savages, therefore the appearance of a "white man" (pioneer, missionary) on their land is already act of accession. "Historical calendar for schoolchildren - ten centuries russian history"(Compiled by V. Alekseev and V. Stepanov, Donetsk, Stalker Investment Company, 1996) generally states that in 1633 (!) The whole of Siberia was annexed to Moscow up to Kamchatka. This is the "conquest of Siberia" in the 16th century. ends, and the next wave of its development begins at the end of the 17th century. - after the execution of Stepan Razin in 1671 and the annexation of Kamchatka in 1697 (this is the traditional date of the “annexation of Siberia”). Meanwhile, the famous Khabarov expedition to Transbaikalia, as it is believed, only founded the Albazinsky (1651) and Nerchinsky (1653) forts. The Albazin prison was then demolished "at the request chinese"Within the framework of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, however, the border between" Russia "and" China "remained" extremely uncertain "until 1858.
However, on the Russian map of Eurasia, most likely made in Siberia around 1710 (Petersburg is already shown on the map, but Moscow is still indicated as the capital), a clearly defined state border between Muscovy and Siberia takes about along the meridian Mezen - Penza.
And on the French map of 1706 (published by the French Academy of Sciences), the eastern border of Muscovy with Siberia runs from the White Sea along the river. Mezen, further south, crossing the Northern Uvaly and Volga at Nizhny Novgorod, further up the Oka to Kasimov (and not down the Volga to Astrakhan!), From Kasimov along the meridian south to Boguchar on the Don. To the left of Boguchar, up the Don, Muscovy bordered on the Cossack lands, that is, on Wild Field, and in the interval Tula - Kaluga with Vorotynyu... At the same time, it is known that neither Wild Field nor Vorotyn muscovy did not pay taxes and taxes, that is, they were independent.
Down the Don, to the confluence of the Seversky Donets, the border of Siberia and the Wild Field ran. The area between the Don and Volga and the North Caucasus was occupied by Cherkassia, and the area between the Don and the Dnieper belonged to the Crimean Khanate. Located to the east of the Mezen-Penza meridian, Cherkassia, the Astrakhan kingdom, the Bulgar principality, the Kazan kingdom, the principalities of Vyatka, Perm, Zyrianiya and Yugoria were officially part of the Siberian confederation, and not Muscovy. The entire territory beyond the Urals from the present Guryev to Verkhneuralsk and further east to the confluence of the Zeya and Amur was not dependent at all neither from Siberia, nor, moreover, from Muscovy. The capital of this Independent Tartary was Shed - the current Guryev, allegedly only founded in 1740. Above him on the river. Yaik was the location of the Cossack fortress Kosh-yaitsk (the so-called "Yaitsky town").
The well-known stormy reformatory and conquering activity of Peter I was not at all turned to the east - to Siberia. And the real state "The development of Siberia" begins no earlier than 1760, when Elizaveta Petrovna graciously allows the landowners to "exile the peasants to settle in Siberia as a recruitment set-off." This decree speaks directly about incentives colonization Siberia and is completely similar simultaneous with him to the order of the English king George III, concerning colonization India and Canada. At the same time, although the full title of Empress Elizabeth (as of 1752) appears as the “Queen of Siberia”, all of Siberia is still considered one (!) Province.
The very pronunciation of the titles "king" (fr. czaar), “Tsarina” is not Russian, but Jewish (instead of phonetic variants Kaisar, Kaiser, Caesar or Caesar) and means “governor” (see the article “Ancient and medieval population of Europe and its rulers”). That is why the Romanovs and introduced the concept of "king orthodox”, Having created his own church in Muscovy. Therefore, in the title of Elizabeth, as in the title of Peter I since 1722, the concept of "empress" (that is, the sovereign) referred to only to the territory of the original Muscovy of the Romanovs (ie, "All Russia"), and its viceroy, and by no means sovereign rights in Siberia, Kazan or Astrakhan, recognized by the Sultan, were designated as "Tsarina Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian".
And Catherine II in her "Notes" describing her accession in 1762, names among her 10 initial provinces the only Zakamsk - Siberian. The list of provinces of Catherine II in 1762 is of particular interest for another reason. Here is what she writes in 1791: “The entire empire was divided into the following provinces: Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, Belogorodskaya, Novgorodskaya, Arkhangelskaya, St. Petersburg, Liflyandskaya, Vyborgskaya, Kievskaya; Little Russia, ie Novgorod Seversky and Chernigov was in charge of the Hetman. " In the original, the word "next" is crossed out and "tokmo ten" is written on top. Except for the province of Little Russia, which was "in charge of the Hetman," the number of provinces is 12, not 10. Even if we take into account that there was no separate Vyborg province (this is part of St. Petersburg), then they appear (before Catherine's own handwritten correction of the number) does not matter one morethan in reality, namely: in 1762 the Belgorod province, as well as under Elizabeth, did not yet exist. The southernmost province of Azov, declared in 1708 by Peter I, also did not exist, since Azov at that time belonged to Turkey. Belgorod province, which Catherine mentioned in 1791, appeared as part of the Russian Empire only after 1770.!
The fact that the border of Muscovy and Siberia crossed the Volga near Nizhny Novgorod not only in 1706 (as shown on the academic French map), but also in 1762, is evidenced by the Romanov story itself: at the beginning of her reign, Catherine II, following the example of Peter I goes around my possessionwhile touring the Volga from Tver to Simbirsk(and not to Samara, Saratov or Tsaritsyn, not to mention Astrakhan!). At the same time, the foreign ambassadors accompanying her on the trip are not even allowed to Nizhny Novgorod and are sent back under a plausible pretext. About Nizhniy, Ekaterina writes that the location is favorable, but the city itself is terrible, the visit to Kazan is not mentioned in the report on Catherine's trip, and about Simbirsk she writes that there are “too many houses in mortgage". This segment of the journey contrasts sharply with the description of the "ceremonial" section of the path: about the jubilation of the people at the meeting with the empress, for example, in Kostroma and Kimry. In Yaroslavl, Catherine not only communicates with the people, but also "creates a court": upon a complaint from the merchants, she removes the governor from work, although the Yaroslavl province as such does not yet exist. (In Yaroslavl, Catherine could only fire the Nizhny Novgorod governor.) This trip shows that the relationship of Muscovy with Kazan and Astrakhan was sharply different from the attitude of Muscovy towards the Nizhny Novgorod province subordinate to it.
Objectives:
Expansion of state lands and an increase in the taxable population
Mastering the fur wealth of Siberia is another source of income for the state
Search for precious metal ores
Conquerors of Siberia: Cossacks, "service people", peasants, runaway (walking) people
Russian explorers
Local uprisings
Their main reason is the violence and arbitrariness of the tsarist governors over the new subjects of Russia.
1636,1675-1676 of the Yakuts
1647-1681 for the Evenks
1662 - major uprising of the peoples of Western Siberia
Yasak -a tax paid by the local population to the state.
The development of Siberia contributed to the acceleration of the socio-economic development of the indigenous peoples.
Theme: The era of palace coups.
Catherine I - 1725-1727
Peter III 1727-1730
Anna Ioannovna 1730-1740 .
Elizaveta Petrovna 1741-1761
Peter III 1761-1762
Catherine II 1762-1796
The dispute in the struggle for power was resolved by the guards, a privileged military detachment not associated with administrative institutions, originating from among the serving nobility and foreigners close to the throne.
Domestic policy of Russia in the middle of the 18th century.
Autocracy in its domestic policy in the middle of the 18th century. (as well as later) in order to maintain its social base - the nobility - focused primarily on this class.
Facilitation of Noble Service:
1730s -
1) The release of the nobility from the obligation to begin service as an ordinary soldier
2) Creation of a gentry cadet corps
1736 - Establishment of the term of noble service (25 years)
Strengthening serfdom
1736 - The landowners receive the right to determine the punishment for the escape
30s of the XVIII century - The increase in the duties of the peasants in favor of the feudal lords.
The practice was to sell peasants without land, torture, and separation of families.
The position of a serf was not much different from that of a slave.
The life of a serf peasant entirely depended on the disposition of his master.
Palace coups were a struggle for power by various groups of the nobility, and not a change in the form of government. The noble guard played a decisive role in this. Reasons: the increased role of the nobility in government and the political aspirations of the guard.
Immediate reason: 1722 - Decree of Peter I on succession to the throne.
Consequences of the Decree: –the principle of inheritance by seniority is interrupted;
FROM the overthrow of the supreme power does not look like an encroachment on holiness;
- an increase in the number of pretenders to the throne,
- intensification of the struggle for power of different groups.
Supported by Catherine I: A.D. Menshikov and the guard, to whom Catherine from her own funds allocated a salary that was not given for 16 months.
Opposition: Tsarevich Peter (son of Tsarevich Alexei), Prince D.M. Golitsin. The opposition defended the principle of "generosity", which could not attract the guards, a large part of which consisted of Peter's nominees.
On February 8, 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created to "help" Catherine the First, which ousted the Senate (the Senate began to be called not ruling, but high); the "Supreme Privy Council" consisted of 7 people: AD Menshikov, FM Apraksin, GIGolovkin, PA Tolstoy, AI Osterman, DM Golitsin, Karl Friedrich Holshtinsky.
The division of provinces into counties has been restored.
The bureaucratic apparatus has been reduced.
Facilitated the service of the nobles.
The nobles were given the right to trade in all cities and at fairs, to start factories.
The participation of the army in the gathering is canceled poll tax and lodging by county
Reduced duties on a number of goods.
The Chief Magistrate was liquidated; city, provincial magistrates and town halls were headed by voivods.
Petr Alekseevich (12 years old) was appointed as the successor under the guardianship of A.D. Menshikov.
Dolgorukiy and A.I. Osterman made a coup, A.D. Menshikov was exiled to Berezov, where he died two years later. The sister of Ivan Dolgoruky, Ekaterina, was declared the bride of Peter. The court moved to Moscow, demonstrating a rejection of the legacy of Peter the Great.
In January 1730, on the eve of his wedding and coronation, Peter II caught a cold, fell ill with smallpox and died.
After his death, the Dolgoruky tried to defend the right to the throne of the "empress-bride" with the help of a false will, but the rest of the "supreme leaders" were against strengthening the Dolgoruky.
"Verkhovnikov" was much more satisfied with the daughter of Peter I's brother Ivan, married to the Duke of Courland. She was not associated with either the guards or the groups at the St. Petersburg court; with her it was possible to "add will to yourself." She was invited to the throne, but subject to the condition:
Do not get married;
Not to appoint an heir to the throne without the consent of eight members of the Privy Council:
Do not declare war;
Don't make peace;
- not to command the guard and the army;
Do not favor estates, ranks above the colonel;
Do not introduce new taxes;
Do not take away "life, property and honor" from nobles without trial. Distribution of Treasury Income and Appointment of a Successor to the Sovereign
also had to be in the hands of the Supreme Privy Council.
The conditions of the "supreme leaders" aroused the discontent of the nobles, a petition was being developed among them, in which a demand was expressed for the abolition of the condition
- Anna Ioannovna tore off her condition and declared herself an autocrat.
The Empress, thanks to the support of the nobility and the guards, tore up the conditions of the supreme ("Condition") and freed herself from these promises;
- reprisals against the leaders began (many were exiled to Siberia);
The nobility and the guards endowed Anna Ioannovna with unlimited autocracy;
Russia was actually ruled by the Duke of Courland, E. Biron (reign - "Bironovschina");
Instead of the Supreme Privy Council, the Cabinet of Ministers was created (Chancellor Golovkin, Vice Chancellor Osterman and Prince Cherkassky);
the secret police were raging in the country; executions and torture intensified;
"Bironovism" gave rise to fear and uncertainty in the future among people;
The embezzlement flourished;
there was a dominance of the Germans in the entire state system of power; the affairs of the state, its foreign policy were in charge of the vice-chancellor, Count L. I Osterman;
Foreigners in key posts. "... They poured into Russia like dirt from a sack of holes, covered the courtyard, settled the throne, climbed into all profitable places in the administration" (V.O.Klyuchevsky. "Field Marshal B.K. A.I. Osterman; the Ural factories were Shemberga; the Academy of Sciences was headed by I.D. Schumacher (a supporter of the Norman theory), the court and the guard were headed by the Levenwold brothers;
- a policy was pursued in the interests of Austria, not Russia; The Caspian regions were returned to Persia; trade with Turkey was allowed only on merchant ships; russian-Turkish war 173 5-173 9 years. led to the return of Azov to Russia, but without fortifications;
b.Kh. reigned supreme in the army. Minich;
- drills, stick discipline and theft were imposed;
The interests of Russia were alien to the Germans; "Bironovshchina" was promoted by Russian aristocrats who were engaged in their own enrichment (brothers Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Saltykov, Ushakov) ",
Anna Ioannovna pursued a policy of feudal reaction; the heir to the throne, Anna Ioannovna announced her son
anna Leopoldovna's niece - Ivan Antonovich; Regent under him - E. Biron;
Already on November 8, 1740, Field Marshal Minich organized the arrest and overthrow of Biron, who would soon be exiled. The regent was the mother of Ivan IV - Anna Leopoldovna.
- The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.
November 25, 1741 daughter of Peter I Elizabeth fromwith the help of the guards, she carried out a new palace coup:
The following were sent to the fortress: Anna Leopoldovna, the infant sovereign Ivan Antonovich, Osterman, Minikh and others;
the trial of the arrested was carried out without torture;
the proclamation of a return to the traditions of the father, patriotic slogans;
elizabeth's reign was quite humane, she did not sign a single death sentence;
elizabeth's favorites: Alexey and Kirill Razumovsky, Ivan Shuvalov;
- in the 50s. the actual head of government becomes Petr Shuvalov(reorganization of artillery, reduction of direct taxes by increasing indirect taxes, abolition of internal customs);
In 1755 Moscow University was opened, in 1757 the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg;
Patronage of the nobility - the expansion of serfdom, the transfer of police functions to the landowner, the right to exile serfs to Siberia;
led an active foreign policy;
In Europe, two opposing coalitions have developed: Austria, France, Russia against Prussia and England. Russia took part in Seven Years War (1756-1762):
in 1757 victory at Gross-Jägersdorf , despite the passivity of the commander Apraksin, who ordered to retreat after the victory;
In 1758. Russian troops occupied Konigsberg, a general battle near the village of Zorndorf (the Farmer, who commanded the Russian troops, fled from the battlefield, but the Russian regiments fought desperately);
in 1759, the new commander of the Russian troops, General Pyotr Saltykov, defeated the Prussian king Frederick at Kunersdorf , but due to disagreements with the Austrians, the final victory could not be achieved;
In 1760 Russian troops for a short time managed to capture the capital of Prussia, Berlin, but, on the whole, the campaign did not give decisive results;
In 1761, the corps under the command of General Rumyantsev captured the Kolberg fortress.
December 25, 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died. Emperor Peter III, an admirer of the Prussian king Frederick, returned to Prussia everything that Russia had conquered in this war.