Causes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1828. Russian-Turkish wars - in brief

Elizabeth's character changed a lot with age. Beauty disappeared, diseases appeared, and with them irritability, suspiciousness. She did not live up to the age when death ceases to frighten, and therefore was very afraid to die. The new Winter Palace had not yet been completed, the old one was made of wood, and she was terrified of a fire, so she loved to live in Tsarskoe Selo.

Life was not fun there. Catherine describes in detail the empress's pastime in Tsarskoye. Elizabeth brought the entire state with her - ladies and gentlemen. Four or five ladies lived in each room, with maids at their side. Any hostel is squabble, and the ladies of the court succeeded in this more than others. The only entertainment is cards. The Empress was rarely seen, she lived in solitude in her chambers, sometimes she did not appear in public for two or three weeks. The courtiers were not allowed to leave for the city, nor were they allowed to host guests or relatives.

The Empress occupied the first floor, her chambers overlooked the garden, in which it was strictly forbidden to appear for anyone, even court lackeys. Lunches or dinners of the Empress revived life somewhat, to which ladies and gentlemen were invited - the closest circle. The only trouble is that no one knew when these lunches or dinners would take place. Elizabeth completely disrupted her daily routine and most often dined late at night. The courtiers were awakened; somehow putting themselves in order, they came to the table. It was necessary to talk about something, but everyone was afraid to open his mouth so as not to upset her majesty. They knew firmly that one should not speak “either about the Prussian king, or about Voltaire, or about diseases, or about the dead, or about beautiful women, or about French manners, or about the sciences; she did not like all these subjects of conversation. " The Empress sat gloomy and anxious. “They only love to be in their company,” Elizabeth said with resentment, “I rarely call them, and even then they only do that they yawn and do not want to entertain me at all.”

After the famous fainting spell on August 6, 1757, Elizabeth's health improved, but it still aroused concern among doctors. Too many worries fell on her shoulders. The war dragged on, demanded money, but where to get it? Bestuzhev's resignation did not improve, but worsened the state of affairs. The Grand Duchess has started an intrigue, and you can't catch it! And is it worth catching, if there is no one to leave the throne, Petrusha's nephew is very unreliable. Buturlin turned out to be the worst of the four commanders-in-chief of the army, he is simply old. Chancellor Vorontsov is clearly not coping with his duties, where is Bestuzhev to him! How Mikhail Illarionovich wanted to take this place, and now he complains of illness and asks to resign. The latter is absolutely impossible, it was necessary to think earlier, and not to restore it against Bestuzhev! Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov also left the game, diseases tortured him. Who can you rely on? One light in the window - Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, but he will not solve all the problems.

During the entire winter of 1760–1761, Elizabeth only once attended the feast in honor of St. Andrew the First-Called. I forgot about balls, receptions, theaters, because my legs are swollen, do not fit into shoes, and still unhealed ulcers, and even fainting, and most importantly - melancholy, melancholy burns my chest. Now Elizabeth spends most of the day in bed, here she accepts her ministers if they become too persistent.

On November 17, 1761, seizures suddenly began again, but the doctors managed to remove them. It even seemed to Elizabeth that she had conquered both illness and melancholy. She suddenly decided to deal with state affairs, checked what the Senate had managed to do during this time, and became angry. Senators argue over every trifle, there is no end to discussions, and there is no benefit from it. As early as June 19, through the Prosecutor General, she instructed the Senate "to use diligence to have at least the part in the newly built winter palace in which her Imperial Majesty has her own apartment, how to finish it as soon as possible," and still nothing. For the complete decoration of the palace, the architect Rastrelli requested 380 thousand rubles, and for his own agreed apartment, 100 thousand rubles are needed, and those were not found. The explanation is obvious - a fire on the Malaya Neva. Warehouses with hemp and flax burned down, barges on the river burned down, the merchants lost more than a million rubles. I had to help the victims of the fire, there is no time for the imperial apartments.

On December 12, Elizabeth again felt sick. Vomiting with coughing and blood completely finished her off. Doctors bleed, the patient's condition spoke of some kind of strong inflammatory process. And again she felt better. The Empress immediately sent a personal decree to the Senate on the release of a significant number of prisoners, and also ordered to lower the duty on salt to make life easier for the poor. Elizabeth took vows all her life and fulfilled them. But this time, the act of mercy did not help her cope with the disease.

On December 22, 1761, she again began vomiting with blood, the doctors considered it their duty to declare that the empress's health was in extreme danger. Elizabeth listened to this message calmly, the next day she confessed and received the Holy Communion, and on December 24 she received unction. The confessor read the prayers of death, Elizabeth repeated them word for word. Near the bed of the dying were always grand duchess Ekaterina and grand Duke Peter.

A change of government is a very important time in any state. "The king is dead, long live the king!" - the slogan of the English house. It seemed that everything in the Russian house should be clear, here he is - the heir, announced long ago, but no. Catherine expected any surprises. This was indicated by the experience of previous reigns. The guards did not like Pyotr Fedorovich. The rumors about the succession to the throne in society were very diverse.

The wise Catherine writes in her "Notes": "Happiness is not as blind as it is presented." In all cases of life, she knew how to "spread straws". Here is the "Advice for Emperor Peter III". It was written by Catherine herself very well in advance and was preserved in her papers.

“It seems very important that you know, Your Highness, the exact state of health of the Empress, if possible, not relying on anyone's words, but listening and comparing the facts, and that if the Lord God takes her to him, you would be present at this event ...

When this is deemed to have happened, you (going to the scene of the incident as soon as you receive this news) will leave her room, leaving in it a dignified person from the Russians and, moreover, skillful, in order to make the orders required by custom in this case.

With the composure of a commander and without the slightest embarrassment and a shadow of embarrassment, you will send for the chancellor ... "

And so fifteen points. Catherine expected surprises. But everything happened without a hitch and without a hitch. On December 25, the door from Elizabeth's bedroom opened, and senior senator Prince Nikita Yuryevich Trubetskoy entered the reception room, where the highest dignitaries of the state and courtiers had gathered, and announced that Empress Elizabeth Petrovna had died and his Majesty Emperor Peter III was now reigning. It was the most painless transition of power in all reigns in the 18th century. True, Paul also very naturally took the throne, but both father and son ended their reign very tragically.

The reign of Elizabeth Petrov (briefly)

The future Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna Romanova was born in an illegal marriage at that time between Peter the Great and Catherine the First on December 18, 1709. Peter the First, as soon as he learned about the birth of his daughter, even decided to cancel the celebration planned for this day to mark the end of the Russian-Swedish war. In the spring of 1711, the illegitimate Elizabeth was declared a princess.

Contemporaries note that the girl was distinguished by her love for horse riding, dancing, and was also unusually resourceful, intelligent and expressively beautiful. Elizaveta Petrovna received her education in Izmailovsky and Preobrazhensky villages, where she was taught foreign languages, geography and history.

Peter made more than one attempt to marry his daughter to numerous applicants from among the nobility and ruling dynasties, but none of them were successful. Menshikov's attempts to "bring down" Elizabeth under Peter II were doomed to similar failures.

In 1730, Pyotr Alekseevich died and the question of a new ruler of Russia arises, but the Supreme Privy Council handed over the rule to the hands of Elizabeth's sister Anna Ioannovna. During the reign of the latter, the country was not going through its best days: the treasury was plundered by palace entertainments and favorites, the prestige of the state was falling every day, etc. As a result of the palace coup, Elizabeth still gains power and legally ascends the throne in 1741.

Wanting to restore the state of the state to its former state as soon as possible, Elizabeth decides to continue the reforms begun by Peter the Great and her first order - the abolition of the death penalty in Russia. Also, in 1741, a stage of internal political reforms began: the Senate (a new legislative body) appears, new laws are drawn up. In addition, Elizaveta Petrovna improves the position of the nobility, abolishes customs duties, and thereby activates the "stagnant" Russian market. It was during the reign of this monarch that new academies and universities appeared in Russia, and the second population census was carried out.

The ruler was no less active in her foreign policy. At the very beginning of her reign, Russia is waging hostilities with Sweden, which sought to avenge Russia for its defeat in Northern War... The result of these actions is the transfer of a part of Finland to Russia. After that, Russia enters the war for the Austrian succession.

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………

1. The beginning of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna

2.Russia under Elizaveta Petrovna

2.1. Domestic policy

2.2. Foreign policy

Conclusion

List of references

Introduction

The figure of Elizabeth Petrovna, the daughter of Peter, does not look so significant both in comparison with the great father, and in comparison with her later follower - Catherine II. But we cannot do justice to the tsarina, who with pedantic insistence put into practice Peter's ideas and did so much for the prosperity and glorification of Russia.

The goal of her reign, Elizabeth proclaimed the return to the order of her father Peter I. From the very beginning of her reign, Elizabeth wanted to set an example of humanity and generosity.

During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, measures were taken to develop the country's economy.

Elizabeth paid special attention to the outskirts and foreign policypersonally dealing with issues in this area.

The reign of Elizaveta Petrovna was favorable for the development of culture.

goal test work - analysis of historical events that took place during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in Russia (1741-1761).

1. The beginning of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna

On the morning of November 25, 1741, a manifesto was published, which proclaimed that Elizabeth Petrovna had ascended the throne. Convinced of the complete approval of society for the change, Elizabeth on November 28 declared herself empress with a manifesto to the people.

In the manifesto, the Empress, in detail and without hesitation in expressions, proved the illegality of the rights to the throne of John VI and brought up a number of accusations against the German temporary workers and their Russian friends. All of them were put on trial, which determined the death penalty for Osterman and Minich by quartering, and Levenwold, Mengden and Golovkin - just the death penalty. The execution was scheduled for January 18, 1742. But already standing on the scaffold, they were pardoned and exiled to Siberia.

Having secured power for herself, Elizabeth hastened to reward the people who contributed to her accession to the throne or were generally devoted to her, and to form a new government from them. The grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky regiment was named the Life Campaign. Soldiers not from the nobility were enlisted in the nobility, corporals, sergeants, and officers were promoted. All of them, in addition, were granted lands mainly from estates confiscated from foreigners; in total, the Leibkampans received 14 thousand male souls. Of those close to Elizabeth, Alexei Razumovsky, the morganatic spouse of the empress, elevated to the rank of count and made a field marshal and knight of all orders, and Lestok, who also received the title of count and vast lands, were especially showered with favors. The first places in the new government were occupied by representatives of the social group that, in the name of offended national feelings, overthrew the German regime. Many of them before the coup were ordinary guards officers, such as the old servants of Elizabeth, PI Shuvalov and MI Vorontsov, who now, together with their relatives, have acquired the greatest importance in the government environment. Along with them, some of the leaders of the previous governments, for example, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Prince A. M. Cherkassky and Prince N. Yu. Trubetskoy, who fell into disgrace or did not play an independent role in the two preceding reigns, became in power.

The first time after accession to the throne, Elizabeth herself took an active part in public affairs... Reverenting the memory of her father, she wanted to rule the country in the spirit of his traditions, but limited herself to only the abolition of the cabinet of ministers, from which, as the personal decree said, “there was a considerable neglect of affairs, and justice was completely weak,” and the return of the former rights associated with with the restoration of the prosecutor's office, the chief magistrate and berg - and the manufactory collegia. After these first steps, Elizabeth, having gone almost entirely into court life, with her gaiety and intrigue, transferred the administration of the empire into the hands of her employees; only occasionally, between hunting, mass, and ball, did she pay little attention to foreign policy. To manage the latter and partly to consider related military and financial issues, a month after the coup, an unofficial council arose under the empress of those closest to her, which was later called a conference at the highest court.

2.Russia under Elizaveta Petrovna

2.1. Domestic policy

Elizaveta Petrovna played an important role in the further centralization of power. She immediately resolved the issue of the heir: having summoned her nephew, the future Peter III, from Holstein, she married him to the princess, the future Catherine II. When their son was born, who later became Emperor Paul 1, Elizabeth took him from his mother and took care of the baby herself.

Announcing the return to the course of Peter 1, changed by the "German temporary workers", on December 12, 1741, the Empress issued a decree, according to which the Cabinet of Ministers was abolished and the role of the Senate was restored as the highest government body, where it was also announced that during the reign of Catherine I "there was a lot of neglect of state affairs." According to this decree, the Senate included: Field Marshal Prince I. Yu. Trubetskoy, Grand Chancellor Prince A. M. Cherkassky, Chief Hoffmeister Count S. A. Saltykov, General-in-Chief G. P. Chernyshev and others.

The personal imperial chancellery was restored - which increased the importance of the autocrat. The Senate was under the control of the Empress. Analysis of documents of higher government agencies confirms the opinion about the significant dependence of the Senate on the imperial power. In November - December 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna gave 51 decrees to the Senate and received 14 reports from him for "the highest approval." In 1742 these figures were 183 and 113, respectively, in 1743 - 129 and 54, in 1744 - 164 and 38, etc.

Among the instructions to the Senate was a decree on the creation of a commission to develop a new Code, but the fact that its work was unfinished, it is hardly worth blaming the Empress: before her, five such commissions worked on the code of laws, after, already under Catherine II, another, but all works were unsuccessful - the all-Russian code was created only in the 19th century, under Nicholas I.

Since the end of the 1740s. the actual head of the government PI Shuvalov carried out important events in economic, social, military and administrative life; the abolition of internal customs duties and an increase in duties on imported goods increased treasury revenues and contributed to the formation of an all-Russian market. In 1744-1747, a second revision was carried out (census of the taxable population), which made it possible to streamline the collection of taxes. According to the results of the audit, an increase in the taxable population by 17% was registered. A Commission on the Code was assembled, which unsuccessfully continued the attempt to create a new code of laws.

The new government did not have any major transformation program state system... Public service was made a privilege of the nobility only. Even foreigners were patient in the service only when for some reason there were no capable or knowledgeable Russian nobles. This made it possible for the Germans to remain in the diplomatic field. At the same time, the very service of the nobles became easier. The 25-Year Service Act, passed in 1735 and now suspended, has now received full force... Practice, in addition, legalized that the 25-year service of the nobles actually passed in a much shorter period, since the government generously allowed them preferential and long-term leaves, which were so ingrained that in 1756 - 1757. had to resort to drastic measures to force the officers who had healed on their estates to appear in the army. In the 1750s, the Senate was preparing a decree on the complete release of the nobles from public service, accidentally published only by Elizabeth's successor. The restored prosecutor's office did not have the same strength, as a result of which the service, from sometimes heavy duty, began to take the character of a profitable occupation. This is especially true of the voivods who became indefinite at this time. The whip, execution and confiscation of property, which followed under Peter the Great and Anna Ivanovna for embezzlement and bribery, have now been replaced by demotion, transfer to another place and rarely dismissal. Administrative morals, in the absence of control and fear of punishment, fell extremely low. The growth of the estate element in the central and regional administration was mitigated, however, by the fact that by the 40s of the 18th century, the national organism, in general, had coped with the consequences of the Peter the Great financial crisis. In December 1741, the Empress forgave the arrears for the period from 1719 to 1730 and abolished the Household Commission under the Senate. During the reign of Elizabeth, taxes were paid more regularly than before, the amount of arrears was reduced, and the amount of capitation money was reduced by 2-5 kopecks per soul. The Manifesto of 1752, which forgave 2 1/2 million per capita shortfalls from 1724 to 1747, publicly announced that the empire had achieved such prosperity that in income and population "almost a fifth of the previous state surpasses". Therefore, in the methods of administrative influence on the population, a certain leniency began to be practiced, especially compared to the exactingness and cruelty of the administration during the German regime. No less progress was made under Elizabeth and the conquest of land and peasant labor by the nobility.

The nobility became hereditary, privileged and closed class in the state. A number of measures increased the very severity of serfdom. Having removed the peasantry from the oath at the very moment of Elizabeth's accession to the throne, the government thereby looked at them as slaves, and subsequently vigorously put this view into practice. The decree of July 2, 1742 forbade the landlord peasants of their own free will to join military service, thus taking away from them the only opportunity to get out of the serfdom, and the boundary instruction of the same year ordered all commoners, illegitimate and freedmen, to enroll either in the posad, or in the soldiers, or for the landowners, otherwise threatening with reference to the settlement in Orenburg edge or return to work at state-owned factories. The rights of the landowners over the peasants themselves were significantly increased by decrees on December 4, 1747, May 2, 1758, and December 13, 1760.

Turkish sultan Mahmoud IIHaving learned about the destruction of his naval forces at Navarino, he hardened more than before.

The envoys of the allied powers have lost all hope of persuading him to accept London treatise and left Constantinople. Following this, in all the mosques of the Ottoman Empire, a hatt-i-sheriff (decree) was promulgated on a general militia for faith and fatherland. The Sultan proclaimed that Russia was the eternal, indomitable enemy of Islam, that she was plotting the destruction of Turkey, that the Greek uprising was her business, that she was the true culprit of the London Treaty, which was harmful to the Ottoman Empire, and that in the last negotiations with her Porta was trying only to gain time and gather strength, deciding not to perform in advance Akkerman Convention.

The court of Nicholas I responded to such an hostile challenge with deep silence and for four months hesitated to announce the break, still not losing hope that the Sultan would reflect on the consequences of the new Russian-Turkish war that were inevitable for him and agree to peace; hope was in vain. He challenged Russia to war not only in words, but also in deed: he insulted our flag, detained ships and did not open the Bosphorus, which stopped any movement of our Black Sea trade. Not only that: at the very time when the peace agreements between Russia and Persia were drawing to a close, Turkey, with the hasty arming of its troops and the secret promise of a strong support, shook the peaceful disposition of the Tehran court.

Forced to draw his sword in defense of the dignity and honor of Russia, the rights of his people, acquired by victories and treaties, emperor Nicholas I announced publicly that, despite the disclosures of the Sultan, he did not at all think about the destruction of the Turkish Empire or the expansion of his power and would immediately stop the hostilities initiated by the Battle of Navarino, as soon as the Porta satisfied Russia in its just demands, already recognized by the Akkerman Convention, and would provide for the future time a reliable guarantee of the validity and exact execution of previous treaties and will proceed to the terms of the London Treaty on Greek affairs.

Such a moderate response from Russia to the Turkish declaration, full of anger and implacable hatred, disarmed and calmed the most distrustful envious people of our political power. The European cabinets could not but agree that it was impossible to act more noble and magnanimous than the Russian emperor. God blessed his just cause.

Turkish sultan Mahmoud IIHaving learned about the destruction of his naval forces at Navarino, he hardened more than before. The envoys of the allied powers have lost all hope of persuading him to accept London treatise and left Constantinople. Following this, in all the mosques of the Ottoman Empire, a hatt-i-sheriff (decree) was promulgated on a general militia for faith and fatherland. The Sultan proclaimed that Russia was the eternal, indomitable enemy of Islam, that she was plotting the destruction of Turkey, that the Greek uprising was her business, that she was the true culprit of the London Treaty, which was harmful to the Ottoman Empire, and that in the last negotiations with her Porta was trying only to gain time and gather strength, deciding not to perform in advance Akkerman Convention.

Forced to draw his sword in defense of the dignity and honor of Russia, the rights of his people, acquired by victories and treaties, Emperor Nicholas I announced publicly that, despite the Sultan's disclosures, he did not at all think about the destruction of the Turkish Empire or the expansion of his state and would immediately cease hostilities , begun by the Battle of Navarino, as soon as the Porta satisfies Russia in its just demands, already recognized by the Ackerman Convention, will provide for the future with a reliable guarantee the validity and exact execution of the previous treaties and proceed to the terms of the London Treaty on Greek affairs. Such a moderate response from Russia to the Turkish declaration, full of anger and implacable hatred, disarmed and calmed the most distrustful envious people of our political power. The European cabinets could not but agree that it was impossible to act more noble and magnanimous than the Russian emperor. God blessed his just cause.

The Russo-Turkish War began in the spring of 1828. From our side, an extensive plan of military operations was drawn up in order to disturb Turkey from all sides and with the combined, united strikes of land and naval forces in Europe and Asia, on the Black and Mediterranean seas, to convince the Porto of the impossibility of fighting Russia. Field Marshal Count Wittgenstein instructed by the main army to occupy Moldavia and Wallachia, to cross the Danube and on the fields of Bulgaria or Rumelia to deal a decisive blow to the enemy; Count Paskevich-Erivansky was ordered to attack the Asian regions of Turkey with the Caucasian corps in order to divert her forces from Europe; Prince Menshikov with a separate detachment to take Anapa; Admiral Greig with the Black Sea Fleet to help conquer the coastal fortresses in Bulgaria, Rumelia and on the eastern coast of the Black Sea; Admiral Heiden with a squadron in the Archipelago, to lock the Dardanelles to prevent the supply of food from Egypt to Constantinople.

Campaign of 1828 in the Balkans

The main army, including 15,000 people, starting the Russian-Turkish war, crossed the border of the empire, the Prut River, at the end of April 1828 in three columns: the right one almost without a shot took possession of Yassy, \u200b\u200bBucharest, Craiova, occupied Moldova and Wallachia and with a quick movement saved both principalities from the anger of the Turks, who intended to destroy both completely. The Moldovans and Vlachs greeted the Russians as deliverers. The middle column, entrusted to the main command of the Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, turned to Brailov and besieged him in order to secure the rear of the army beyond the Danube by taking this fortress, which is important in its strategic position on the path of our military operations. Below Brailov, against Isakchi, the troops of the left column, more numerous than others, were concentrated to cross the Danube.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. Map

Here the Russian army faced one of the most glorious feats of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829: from the extraordinary flood of spring waters the Danube overflowed its banks and flooded the surroundings over a vast area. Its left, low-lying side turned into an impenetrable swamp; in order to reach the river bank and build a bridge over it, it was necessary first to make an embankment, like those gigantic works with which the Romans still amaze us. The troops, inspired by the presence of the sovereign emperor, who shared with them the labors of the campaign, quickly set to work and built a dam on an area of \u200b\u200b5 versts. The Turks also did not remain idle: as we built the embankment, they erected batteries that threatened to crossfire to destroy all our efforts to build the bridge.

A favorable event made it easier for us to clear the right bank of the enemy. The Zaporozhye Cossacks, who have long lived at the mouths of the Danube under the auspices of the Port, but who did not betray the faith of their forefathers, having learned that the emperor himself was in the Russian camp, expressed a desire to strike the Orthodox Tsar with his forehead and, carried away by his goodness, agreed to return to the depths of their ancient fatherland. All their kosh moved to the left bank, with all the foremen and the kosh chieftain. Hundreds of light ships were now at our disposal. Two jaeger regiment they boarded the Zaporozhye canoes, crossed the Danube, captured the Turkish batteries and hoisted the Russian banner on the right bank. Following this, all the troops assigned for offensive operations in Bulgaria crossed in orderly order. Sovereign Emperor Nicholas, himself leading the crossing, swam across the Danube waves in a Zaporozhye boat, driven by the koshev chieftain.

Beyond the Danube, the Ottomans did not dare to meet us in the open field and locked themselves in the fortresses that had served as a stronghold in the Port in the previous Russian-Turkish wars. The main points defended by them, besides Brailov, were Silistria, Ruschuk, Varna and Shumla. Each of these fortresses had a large garrison, reliable fortifications and experienced military leaders. In Shumla, impregnable in its position, 40,000 of the best Turkish troops were concentrated under the command of the courageous seraskir Hussein Pasha. Beyond the Balkans stood a vizier with a reserve army to defend Constantinople.

In our main apartment it was decided to start a war by moving directly to Shumla, in order to test whether it would be possible to lure the seraskir into battle and by defeating his troops to open the way beyond the Balkans. Small trans-Danube fortresses Isakcha, Tulcha, Machin, Girsova, Kistenji, lying on our way, could not detain us: they were taken one after another by separate detachments. But the stubborn defense of Brailov, on the left bank of the Danube, in the rear of the Russian army, forced her to stop for a while near Trayanov's shaft. Waiting for the fall of Brailov, the troops again moved forward; they walked in the midst of intolerable heat, a country so barren and meager that they had to carry the smallest things, even coal. Unhealthy water gave birth to disease; horses and oxen died in the thousands from lack of food. The valiant Russian soldiers overcame all obstacles, drove the enemy troops out of Pazardzhik and approached Shumla.

The hope for a battle was not fulfilled: Hussein remained motionless. It was difficult to take Shumla by attack or by a correct siege, at least one had to fear a cruel bloodshed, and in case of failure it would have been necessary to return across the Danube. It was also impossible to enclose it on all sides, to prevent the supply of food supplies, due to the small number of troops. To bypass Shumla and go straight for the Balkans meant leaving in its rear an entire army, which could attack us in the Balkan gorge from behind, while the vizier would strike from the front.

Capture of Varna

The Russian emperor, avoiding any wrong enterprise, ordered Field Marshal Wittgenstein to remain under Shumla to watch Hussein; meanwhile, the detachment of Prince Menshikov, which had already defeated Anapa, with the assistance of the Black Sea Fleet, seize Varna, and the corps of Prince Shcherbatov of Silistria. The capture of the first fortress provided food for the Russian army with the delivery of food supplies from Odessa by sea; the fall of the second was considered necessary for the safety of our army's winter quarters across the Danube.

The siege of Varna lasted two months and a half. The small detachment of Prince Menshikov turned out to be too insufficient to conquer a first-class fortress, defended by an advantageous location, strongholds that always reflected all our efforts during the previous Russian-Turkish wars, and the courage of the 20,000 garrison, under the command of the brave captain-pasha, the favorite of the sultan. In vain Black Sea Fleetanimated by the presence of the sovereign emperor, he smashed Varna from the sea: she did not surrender. The arrival of the Russian guard to help the siege corps gave a different turn to military operations. No matter how actively the garrison resisted, our work quickly moved to the very walls of the fortress, and all the efforts of the Turkish commander Omar-Vrione to save Varna by attacking the besiegers from the Balkan Mountains were in vain: repulsed by Prince Eugene of Württemberg and the brave Bistrom, he had to go into the mountains. September 29, 1828 Varna, fell at the feet of the Russian emperor. Conquering it, providing food for the Russian troops in Bulgaria, at the same time deprived Shumla of its former importance in a strategic sense: the path to Rumelia through the Balkans was opened from the sea, and only early winter forced us to postpone decisive actions until the next campaign of this Russian-Turkish war. Count Wittgenstein returned across the Danube, leaving strong troops in Varna, Pazardzhik and Pravody.

Campaign of 1828 in Transcaucasia

Meanwhile, in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 in the Caucasus, wonderful, incredible things were happening: there, before a handful of brave fortresses, unapproachable fortresses fell and numerous enemies disappeared. Acting defensively in Europe, the Turkish sultan thought to inflict a strong blow on us in Asia, and at the very beginning of the war ordered the Erzurum seraskir with 40,000 army to invade our Transcaucasian regions at various points, with full hope of success. In fact, the state of our affairs in that region was very difficult. The main Russian army had already crossed the Danube, and the Transcaucasian corps barely had time to return from the Persian campaign, exhausted by battles and diseases; in its ranks there were no more than 12,000 people. Food supplies and military ammunition were depleted; transports and artillery parks could hardly serve. The Muslim provinces under our control, shaken by the appeals of the Sultan, were only waiting for the appearance of the Turks of the same faith in order to rebel against us without exception; the ruler of Guria, having conceived treason, communicated with the enemy; in the auls of the mountaineers, general unrest prevailed. It took a lot of intelligence, art and mental strength to ward off the dangers that threatened the Transcaucasian region at the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. But Paskevich did more: the thunder of his victories stunned his enemies and made the Sultan tremble in Constantinople itself.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. Siege of Kars in 1828. Painting by Y. Sukhodolsky, 1839

Knowing that only a quick and bold blow could stop the enemy's formidable striving towards the Transcaucasian land, Paskevich decided on a brave feat: with 12,000 corps, he moved (1828) into the borders of Asian Turkey and, beyond the expectations of enemies, appeared under the walls of Kars, a fortress famous in Turkish chronicles: they remembered that she repelled Shah Nadir, who besieged her for 4 months without success with 90,000 troops. Our efforts to capture it in 1807, during the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812, were also in vain. Count Paskevich did not stand near Kars for four days. He took it by storm. Turkish troops, sent by the seraskir to invade Georgia from Kars, retreated to Erzurum.

Capture of Akhaltsikh by Paskevich (1828)

Meanwhile, the most important danger threatened the Russian borders from the other side: up to 30,000 Turks strove to the borders of Guria, along the Akhaltsikhe road, under the command of two noble pashas. hurried to warn them near Akhaltsikh. An unexpected obstacle stopped him: a plague opened in the building; a rare regiment was not infected. Saving his brave companions from death, the commander-in-chief stood in one place for three whole weeks. Finally, his prudent and decisive measures were crowned with the coveted success: the plague stopped. Russian army quickly moved to the borders of Guria, in passing took possession of the important fortress of Akhalkalaki, then Gertvis, made an incredibly difficult transition through the high mountain ranges considered impassable, overcame the intolerable heat and approached Akhaltsikh. At the same time, both Pashas, \u200b\u200bwho had come from Erzerum, with an army of 30,000, also appeared under its walls. Paskevich attacked them, utterly defeated both of them, scattered their troops through the forests, captured four fortified camps, all the artillery and turned the guns repulsed from the enemy to Akhaltsikh.

Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich

Founded by Caucasian daredevils in the gorges of the mountains, on rocks and cliffs, Akhaltsikh, long before the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, served as a den for a violent freeman of different faiths and tribes, who found a safe refuge in it, was famous throughout Anatolia for the warlike spirit of its inhabitants, conducted an active trade with Erzerum, Erivan, Tiflis, Trebizond, had up to 50,000 inhabitants within its walls and since he fell into the power of the Turks, for about three centuries he had not seen alien banners on the walls. Tormasov could not take it, and it is not surprising: the unusually solid and high palisades that surrounded the entire city, the fortress, the three-tiered fire of numerous artillery, houses built in the form of fortified castles, and the tested courage of the inhabitants, of which each was a warrior, served as the defense of Akhaltsikh.

Confident in his abilities, Pasha Akhaltsikhsky replied proudly to all offers of surrender that the saber would solve the matter. Three weeks of fire from our batteries did not shake his tenacity. Meanwhile, our scarce reserves were depleted. It remained either to retreat or to take Akhaltsikh by storm. In the first case, it was necessary to fear an unfavorable influence for the Russians on the minds of enemies, explicit and secret; in the second, the entire corps could easily have perished in the fight against the enemy, five times the strongest. The brave Russian leader Paskevich decided on the latter. On August 15, 1828, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, the assault column, led by Colonel Borodin, launched an attack and, after incredible efforts, burst into Akhaltsikh; but here a desperate battle awaited her; it was necessary to storm every house and pay dearly for every step forward. This one of the most glorious battles of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 lasted a whole night amidst a fire that engulfed almost all of Akhaltsikh; several times the preponderance was tilted to the side of numerous enemies. Commander-in-chief Paskevich, with rare skill, supported the weakening forces of his columns, sent regiments after regiments, brought his entire corps into action and triumphed: on the morning of August 16, 1828, the Russian St. George banner was already fluttering on the Akhaltsikhe fortress.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. Fights for Akhaltsikh in 1828. Painting by Y. Sukhodolsky, 1839

The victor Paskevich was in a hurry to calm the bloodshed, bestowed mercy and patronage on the defeated, established a management order in accordance with their customs, and, having restored the destroyed fortifications of Akhaltsikh, turned it into a reliable stronghold of Georgia from Asian Turkey. The conquest of Bayazet by a separate detachment at the foot of Ararat ensured the annexation of the entire Erivan region. Thus, in less than two months, with the most limited means, the will of the emperor was fulfilled: the enemy army, which threatened the Transcaucasian territory with a ruinous invasion, was scattered by Paskevich; Pashalyks Karsky and Akhaltsikhsky were in the Russian government.

Preparing for the 1829 campaign

The successes of Russian weapons in 1828 in Europe and Asia, on land and at sea, the occupation of two principalities, most of Bulgaria, a large part of Anatolia, the conquest of 14 fortresses, the capture of 30,000 people with 9 pashas, \u200b\u200b400 banners and 1,200 guns, - all this, it seemed, should have convinced the sultan of the need to end the Russian-Turkish war and make peace with the powerful emperor of Russia. But Mahmoud remained adamant in hostility and, rejecting peace offers, prepared for renewed fighting.

An unexpected event confirmed the Sultan's intention to continue the Russian-Turkish war. At the end of January 1829, our envoy to Tehran, the famous writer Griboyedov, was killed with most of his retinue by the violent mob; at the same time, the shah's hostile disposition was revealed, who even began to concentrate his troops near the Russian borders, on the Araks. The Sultan hastened to negotiate with the Tehran court and no longer doubted Persia's break with Russia. His hope was not fulfilled. Count Paskevich rejected a new Russian-Persian war. He made it known to the heir to the throne Abbas Mirza that the extermination of the imperial mission in Tehran threatened Persia with the most disastrous consequences, that new war with Russia can even overthrow the Qajar dynasty from the throne and that there is no other way to make amends for the deplorable loss and turn off the thunderstorm, how to ask forgiveness from the Russian emperor for the unheard-of act of the Tehran rabble through one of the Persian princes. No matter how painful it was for the pride of the eastern such a proposal, Abbas Mirza persuaded the Shah to agree, and Abbas's eldest son, Khozrev Mirza, in a solemn audience, in the presence of the entire court and the diplomatic corps, at the foot of the Russian throne, asked the Emperor to consign the incident to eternal oblivion , which offended the Russian court as well as the Persian court. "The heart of the shah was horrified," said the prince, "at the mere thought that a handful of villains might break his alliance with the great monarch of Russia." We could not wish for a better retribution: the prince was announced that his embassy had scattered every shadow that could darken the mutual relations of Russia with Persia.

Deprived of the Shah's assistance, the Sultan did not lose hope of turning the tide of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 and he turned all his forces in to fight Russia. His army, concentrated in Shumla, was increased by several thousand regular troops sent from Constantinople, and the new Turkish vizier, active and brave Resid Pasha, was ordered to take Varna away from the Russians at all costs and drive them out of Bulgaria. Erzurum also has a new seraskir with unlimited powers; Gagki Pasha, a commander known for his art and courage, was sent to his aid: they were instructed to arm up to 200,000 people in Anatolia, to take possession of Kars and Akhaltsikh and to defeat our Transcaucasian regions.

The sovereign emperor, for his part, having strengthened the army that was on the Danube, entrusted it, due to the illness of Field Marshal Wittgenstein, to the chief command of the count Dibich... Reinforcements were also assigned to Count Paskevich's corps. Both generals were ordered to wage the Russian-Turkish war in 1829 as decisively as possible. They carried out the will of their sovereign in the most brilliant way.

Having crossed the Danube with the main army, in the spring of 1829 Count Diebitsch laid siege to Silistria, which we did not have time to take last year because of the early winter. The commander-in-chief turned in that direction as much because the conquest of Silistria was necessary to ensure our operations beyond the Danube, and so much with the intention of luring the vizier out of Shumla. It was almost possible to guarantee that the active Turkish commander, taking advantage of the distance of the main Russian army, would not leave our troops stationed in Pravody and Pazardzhik alone, and would turn to them with most of his forces. The vision of the far-sighted leader soon came true.

Battle of Kulevche (1829)

In mid-May 1829, the vizier set out from Shumla with 40,000 of his best troops and laid siege to Pravody, occupied by General Kupriyanov, under the chief command of General Roth, who distracted him with stubborn defense and let the commander-in-chief know about the enemy's withdrawal from his impregnable position. Count Dibich was just waiting for that: having entrusted the siege of Silistria to General Krasovsky, he himself hastily moved to the Balkans with most of his army, walked without rest, skillfully concealed his movement and on the fifth day he stood in the rear of Reshid, thus cutting him off from Shumla. The Turkish vizier did not suspect at all about the danger that threatened him and calmly engaged in the siege of Pravod; finally learning about the appearance of the Russians in his rear, he took them for a weak detachment from the corps of General Roth, who dared to block his way to Shumla, and turned his army to exterminate the enemy, which, in his opinion, was small in number. Beyond all hopes, in the gorges of Kulevchi, Diebitsch himself met him on May 30, 1829. Reshid grasped all the danger of his position, but did not lose courage and decided to break through the Russian army. He quickly and boldly led the attack at all points and met a formidable rebuff everywhere. In vain the Turks rushed with a frenzy of despair at our slender columns, cut into the infantry, crashed into the cavalry: the Russians were unshakable. The prolonged battle so tired both armies that about noon the battle seemed to have died down of itself. Taking this opportunity, Diebitsch reinforced the tired soldiers with fresh regiments and, in turn, attacked the enemy. The battle was resumed with a terrible cannonade from both sides; it did not hesitate for long: from the brutal fire of our batteries, controlled by the chief of staff himself, General Tol, the enemy guns fell silent, the enemies wavered. At that very moment, Count Diebitsch moved forward his incomparable infantry, formidable columns hit her with bayonets. The harmony and speed of the widespread attack thrilled the Turks: they fled and scattered in the mountains, leaving on the battlefield up to 5,000 corpses, the entire baggage train, artillery and banners. The vizier barely escaped captivity by the speed of his horse, and with great difficulty made his way to Shumla, where not even half of his army returned. The winner camped in front of him.

Trans-Balkan campaign of Diebitsch (1829)

The victory at Kulevche had very important consequences for the course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. Completely defeated, trembling for Shumla itself, the vizier, to protect her, drew the detachments guarding the paths in the mountains to him, and thus opened the Balkan gorges, and also weakened the coastline. Graph Diebitsch decided to take advantage of the enemy's oversight and only waited for the conquest of Silistria in order to cross the Balkans. She finally fell, driven by the activity and skill of General Krasovsky to the point of impossibility to continue the defense. The commander-in-chief immediately transferred the corps that besieged Silistria to Shumla and instructed Krasovsky to lock the vizier in its strongholds; he himself, with other troops, quickly moved to the Balkan Mountains. The forward corps of Roth and Ridiger cleared the way of the enemy, knocked him out of all the places where he wanted to stop, seized the crossings on Kamchik from the battle and descended into the valleys of Rumelia. Diebitsch followed them.

Field Marshal Ivan Diebitsch-Zabalkansky

Krasovsky, meanwhile, acted with such skill under the Shumla that for several days Reshid Pasha took his corps for the entire Russian army, and then only learned about its movement beyond the Balkans, when it had already passed the dangerous gorges. In vain he tried to hit her in the rear: the brave Krasovsky struck him himself and locked him in Shumla.

Meanwhile the Russians naval forces in the Black Sea and in the Archipelago, by order of the sovereign the emperor himself, coordinating their actions with the actions of the commander-in-chief, they seized the coastal fortresses in Rumelia, Inado and Enos and united with the land army.

In the fertile valleys of Rumelia, the Trans-Balkan campaign of Diebitsch - the most heroic deed of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 - was likened to a solemn procession: small detachments of Turkish troops were unable to stop it, the cities surrendered one after another almost without resistance. The Russian army maintained strict discipline, and the inhabitants of Rumelia, certified of the inviolability of their property and personal safety, willingly submitted to the victor. So Diebic reached Adrianople, the second capital of the Turkish Empire. The Pasha who commanded it wanted to defend themselves and formed an army. But numerous crowds of people, avoiding bloodshed, left the city with greetings to meet our soldiers, and populous Adrianople was occupied by the Russians on August 8, 1829 without a fight.

Diebitsch stood in Adrianople, relying on the right flank on the archipelago squadron, and on the left flank on the Black Sea fleet.

Campaign of 1829 in Transcaucasia. Capture of Erzurum Diebitsch

An equally cruel blow was dealt to the Russian Turks in Asia. Fulfilling the order of the emperor, who demanded the most decisive actions, Count Paskevich in the spring of 1829 concentrated his entire corps in the vicinity of Kars, including up to 18,000 people, including Muslims recruited in the regions shortly before conquered by our arms. The brave Russian leader planned to immortalize the memory of this Russian-Turkish war with a feat worthy of his glory - the capture of the capital of Anatolia, the rich and populous Erzurum.

Seraskir Erzurum, for his part, gathered 50,000 army with the intention of taking away from us the gains of the past year and invading our borders. For this purpose he sent his comrade Gagki Pasha with half an army to Kars; the other half led himself to help him. Count Paskevich was in a hurry to defeat them one by one, before they had time to unite, crossed the high Saganlung ridge, covered with snow, and met Gagki Pasha, who was standing in a fortified camp, in an impregnable place. There was a seraskir ten miles from him. The commander-in-chief rushed to the latter and after a short battle scattered his army; then he turned to Gagki Pasha and took him prisoner. Two enemy camps, carts, artillery were the trophies of this victory, famous in the annals of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829.

Without giving the enemies time to recover from horror, Paskevich quickly moved forward and a few days later appeared under the walls of Erzurum. Seraskir wanted to defend; but the inhabitants, who had been confirmed by repeated experiences in the generosity of the victor, in the inviolability of their property and their charters, did not want to experience the fate of Akhaltsikh and submitted voluntarily. Seraskir surrendered to prisoners of war. The Turkish army did not exist. In vain a new seraskir sent by the Sultan wanted to oust the Russians from Erzurum and gathered scattered troops: Paskevich struck him within the walls of Bayburt and was already intending to penetrate further into Anatolia, when the news of the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 stopped his victorious march.