Domestic policy of guang wu di. Han east

in 23-29 AD

The initial period of the Eastern (Late) Han empire is characterized by the struggle to achieve and retain supreme power by the first emperor Kuan-u-di (25-57). The struggle for the throne, for the retention and strengthening of power, took the period from 23 to 29 years. AD, it was difficult and lengthy. Below we tried to give a more detailed description of the events of 26 and the very beginning of 27 - the first years of the full rule of the first emperor of the Eastern Han.

It should be said that the history of the Eastern Han Empire, in contrast to the earlier Western Han, has not yet been sufficiently studied in European and Russian historiography. The only monograph in Russian dedicated to the state of Eastern Han is the monograph by V.V. Malia-wine "Empire of Scientists". Only part of the second chapter is devoted to political history in it, and the administrative apparatus of the empire is described in most detail in it. The social sphere of life of the Chinese society of that time is described in comparative detail in the collective monograph Kryukova M.V., Perelomova L.S., Sofronova M.V., Cheboksarova N.I. " Ancient chinese in era centralized empires "... Until now, one of the most informative works on this topic is the section on Eastern Han in the collective monograph, written by G. Bielenstein. The main source on the history of this period in the history of China is Hou Han Shu ("History of the Later [Empire] Han"), the third of the twenty-four official normative stories ( zheng shi), which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century. AD with the involvement of a large number of earlier works.

First chapter Hou Han Shu includes an undated preamble and a record of events by year, in total, this chapter describes the events of seven years: from 23 A.D. to 29 AD From the point of view of structure, the text can be divided into two large parts: from 23 to the sixth month of 25, inclusively, it represents a chronicle-artistic description, and after the seventh month of 25, the nature of the messages changes and the text takes on the character of an official chronicle.

In a kind of preamble to the first chapter Hou Han Shu provides some information about the future emperor Guang-wu-di (Liu Xiu) and reports on his life until 23 AD. It is indicated that he is a descendant of Jing-di (156-141 BC), an outstanding emperor of the Western Han state, but with each generation the nobility of the ancestors of Guan-u-di decreased: if his great-great-great-grandfather was the emperor , then great-great-great-grandfather - van, great-great-grandfather - hou, great-grandfather - the governor of the district, grandfather - the commander of the district, father - the commander of the district. According to G. Bielenstein, the date of birth of Guan-u is 5 BC. e. ...

Describing the appearance of the future emperor, the author of the chronicle notes his main physiognomic features: he had a "sun horn" on his forehead, that is, a bone growth, which was considered a sign of a predisposition to power. It goes on to say that the future Guan-wu at the age of nine was left an orphan and was raised by his uncle, who was his father's younger brother. This uncle, in turn, had a son, Liu Yi, nicknamed Bosheng. According to Hou Han Shu (Ch. 1A), namely Liu Yi at the turn of 22 and 23 years. initiated the anti-Vanman uprising in the city of Wan, it was he who made acquaintances, on his initiative, weapons were purchased and a detachment of soldiers was assembled.

In the period from 23 to 29 years. AD events developed like this:

1. At the first stage (22? - the sixth month of 23) Guan-wu-di acted under the command of his cousin Liu Yi.During this period, representatives of the large nobility of the Nanyang district, where he was from, gathered an army capable of resisting the army of Wang Man, and, setting over themselves erected by them to the imperial throne Geng-shi-di, captured this district. The end of this period was marked by the first conflict in their camp between Liu Yi and Geng-shi-di. Guan-wu, leaving his relative (sibling or cousin), went over to the side of the new emperor, receiving the rank of commander and the title hou... These events highlight the fragility of the rebel coalition.

2. Second phase The struggle for power lasts from the sixth month of 23 to the fall of 24. During this period, Guan-wu fights in the army of Geng-shi-di. The next success of the rebels during this period was the capture of the capital Chang'an and the assassination of Wang Man. But this success led to a new conflict in their camp: one of the generals of Geng-shi-di, Wang Lan, declared himself emperor. Guan-wu supported Geng-shi-di again, not without hesitation. The city of Handan, the capital of Wang Lang, was taken in the fourth month of 24 g. For the capture of the capital, Guan-wu received the title wana, the highest title after the imperial. And in the fall of 24, Guan-wu attacked Geng-shi-di himself. That is, having received from the new emperor everything that he could give him: the highest title and an army tested in battles, Guan-wu betrayed his patron. The coalition supporting Geng-shi-di was unstable, the hostilities that it waged strengthened some of its members, who were not personally loyal to the new emperor and split away from him. As long as there was a threat from Wang Man, these conflicts could be extinguished, but as soon as Wang Man was defeated, a new split occurred, which led to new military actions, that is, something like a chain reaction happened. In the end, Guan-wu, taught by the experience of his predecessors, did not wait until they went to war and at a convenient moment struck the first blow.

3. Stage three the struggle for power of Guan-wu begins in the fall of 24 and lasts until the first month of 25. During this time, Guan-wu subdued three "bands" - the armed formations of the local nobility, providing himself with vast lands.

4. During fourth stage struggle for power (the second month of 25 - the twelfth month of 25) Guan-wu himself becomes emperor after his army occupied the capital of Geng-shi-di, the city of Luoyang, and removed him from the throne. It is worth noting that during this period there is a sharp increase in the number of emperors; Liu Peng-tzu (with the support of the Red-browed armed formations), Liu Yong and Gongsun Shu announced their claims to the throne.

5. During fifth stage struggle for power (from the first to the sixth month of 26) Guan-u-di, a regrouping of forces occurs, associated with the death of Gen-shi-di: the generals of Gen-shi-di went over to the side as Guan-u-di and other claimants who call themselves emperors. During this period, Guan-u-di endowed his relatives with titles, introduced the empress to the subjects and announced the name of the heir, which significantly strengthened his position.

6. During sixth stage the struggle for power (the sixth month of 26 - the second month of 27), a victory was achieved over the "Red-browed", one of the largest military formations of that time, whose leadership captured the former capital of Western Han - Chang'an. After that, the state seal was in the hands of Guan-u-di, which markedly increased his legitimacy as an emperor. But the struggle continued, and the presence of the imperial seal at Guan-u-di did not make him a generally recognized and sovereign monarch.

Let's talk in more detail about the events of 26 (see. application). In the first half of 26 A.D. there was a redistribution of forces caused by the death of the emperor Geng-shi-di (23-25 \u200b\u200bAD). Its commanders were forced to look for a new ruler, and in the first month of 26, the influential commanders Deng Yi and Yu Kuan went over to the side of the emperor Kwang-u-di. Some noble courtiers, such as Liu Xi, whom Geng-shi-di bestowed the title of Yuan-shi-wang, also sided with Guan-u-di (while Liu Xi received another title of Syshui-wang). Former supporters of Geng-shi-di could also be subdued by force. Thus, in the third month of 26, Yin Qun, whom Geng-shi-di bestowed the title of Yan-wan, was attacked by one of the generals of Kuan-u-di and was brought to submission to them.

This period is characterized not only by the arrival of generals to Guan-u-di, but also by attempts of rebellions against him by some of his supporters; rebellions were quickly suppressed by Guan-u-di and his supporters. At the same time, Guan-u-di was not yet the only ruler, besides him there were several more "emperors" who were enthroned by various armed formations and waging military operations against rivals. Guan-wu-di's troops laid siege to the army of "emperor" Liu Yong in Suiyang. It is known that Liu Yun was supported by the former commander Geng-shi-di Su Mao, which speaks of his strength and the fact that not all Geng-shi-di commanders supported Guan-u-di.

Guan-u-di led military operations both with the "emperors" and with the "gangs" - various armed formations that fought during the fight against the troops of Wang Man. So, in the first month of 26, the commander Wu Han subdued the Tangxiang gang.

In the first month of the 26th year, Guan-u-di erected the Gaomiao temple and, according to the source, this important deed of the emperor was accompanied by signs. The "Red-brows" in the same month burned down the palace buildings in Chang'an and excavated the imperial burial kur-gan, which gave rise to Deng Yu, the commander of Guan-u-di, to enter Chang'an and take possession of the tablets of the ancestors of Guan-u-di, who Deng Yu was placed in Gaomiao upon his return.

However, Liu Peng-tzu, a relative of the rulers of Western Han, still claimed the role of emperor. Since he is constantly referred to precisely as a protege of the "Red-browed gang", this allows us to conclude that he was deliberately discredited on the pages Hou Han Shu.

It was during this period that Guan-u-di strengthens the position of members of his kind - he bestows titles not only on commanders, but also on his relatives. The title of wang was received by: the uncle, who brought up Guan-u-di, as well as two nephews, the sons of his older brother. Also, Guan-u-di introduces the empress to the subjects and declares the heir to the throne. Moreover, this heir was not his eldest son, and the eldest son receives the title of wang. In the first half of 26 A.D. Guan-u-di fortified in Luoyang. Some regiments of Geng-shi-di went over to him, and he even subdued one of them by force.

In the eighth month of 26 A.D. Guan-u-di himself led a campaign against the "gang" of Wuxiao ("Five military camps") and defeated it. Thus, by the end of 26, five large armed formations ("bands") were defeated and dispersed: Tongma, Gaohu and Rongliang, he subordinated in the fall of 24, while still being Xiao-wang, the "gang" of Tansiang was subordinated to the commander Guang- wu-di Wu Hanem in the first month of 26, and finally, the "gang" of Wuxiao was subdued by Guan-u-di himself in the eighth month of 26.

In the same month, the struggle continues with another "emperor" from the Liu clan, Liu Yong. Sent on a campaign against Liu Yong in the third month of the same 26, the commander Guan-u-di Ge Yan captures Suiyang, thereby forcing Liu Yong to flee to Qiao. Thus, in 26, Guan-u-di already had enough troops to carry out two military operations simultaneously. It is also worth noting that at that time the fight against the "gangs" for Guan-u-di was a more pressing problem than the fight against Liu Yong, which did not require the personal participation of Guan-u-di.

In the eleventh month, an alliance of three "gangs": Tongma, Qingdu and Yulai, elevated Sun Deng to the throne. However, this "emperor" was killed in the same month by his own general. It is worth noting that one of these "gangs", Tunma, had already been conquered by Guan-u-di. Apparently, the leaders of this "gang" decided that Guan-wu-di, who settled in Luoyang, was no longer up to them. However, after the assassination of the "emperor" they had chosen, this "gang" had to submit again. The Qingdu "gang" to participate in these events cost two districts. It is worth recalling that in 24, the Qingdu "gang" entered into an alliance with the "Red Brows", so the weakening of this "gang" was a weakening of the allies of the "Red Brows".

It should also be noted here that one of the tasks facing the author Hou Han Shu, was the exaltation of Guan-u-di. For example, from the moment of accession to the throne, he is presented as the only legitimate emperor, confirming this by the mention of his imperial title. At the same time, all the other "emperors" after the announcement that they had become the Sons of Heaven are called only by name, ie. ambiguity of the situation with supreme power is hushed up in every possible way.

However, along with Guan-u-di in the period from 25 to 27 years. n. e., as it was shown, there was a more legitimate emperor - Liu Peng-tzu, who in 25 year occupied Chang'an, the capital of the Western Han state, and it was he who had the state seal during this period. But there is almost no mention of him in the source, because he was elevated to the throne by the "Red Brows". This suggests that the increased attention to the "Red-browed" in the source may be due to the desire of the author Hou Han Shu to show that Liu Peng-tzu is not an independent figure, he is a protege of some "bandits", thereby belittling his status as a politician. This allows us to conclude that the "Red-brows" in the source are a tool to discredit Liu Peng-tzu as an emperor, they are brought to the forefront of the narrative in order to divert attention from the personality of Liu Peng-tzu.

7. Finally, during seventh stage struggle for power (the second month of 27 - the end of 29) ends the struggle between Guan-wu-di and another "emperor" from the family of Liu, Liu Yong, and his son Liu Yu. After the capture of Liu Yu at the end of 29, Guan-u-di remained the only emperor of the Liu clan. By the end of 29, there were three more "emperors" left in addition to him: Gongsun Shu, Li Xian and Lu Fang, who were brought into submission in the following years.

Here is our translation of a fragment of the monument, which describes the events of 26 - early 27 years.

application

Fan E. Hou Han Shu (History of the Later [Empire] Han)

Section 1. Basic records.

Chapter 1A.Zapisi [about the reign] of the emperor Guan-u-di

[ VI]. Second year (26). Spring. Initial month. New moon.

[and] Day chia-tzu. Happened solar eclipse. Dasima Wu Han, at the head of nine generals, attacked the Tangxiang gang [in place] east of Ye, inflicted a crushing defeat on it and forced it to surrender.

Day gen-chen. Granted the title to all distinguished subjects lehow; in all four counties of large holdings ( dago) all others received [remuneration] depending on the position held. The decree read: “In human feelings it is necessary to know the measure, if you leave things to themselves, then desires quickly overwhelm [people] and the fear of punishment is forgotten. All the generals, spreading their deeds far, achieved great merit. But, in fact, their desires are limitless, and you should [feel yourself floating] over a deep abyss, stepping on thin ice - to tremble and tremble, to be extremely circumspect. For their significant achievements [some of them] are still not rewarded. Those whose names are not yet on the [award] lists will be quickly entered by [officials] dahunlu ... I intend to reward them depending on their positions. "

Boshi Ding Gong said during the discussion: “Since ancient times, sovereigns, endowing hereditary rulers with land ( zhuhou), did not exceed [the norm] in one hundred whether, so it was beneficial to establish [new] hou... They took an example from a strong trunk and weak branches, thanks to this, and controlled them. Now if you give everyone possessions zhuhou four counties, it will not comply with the system of laws. "

The emperor said: “In ancient times, all the lost kingdoms became so insofar as they lost the righteous path. I never heard that among the perished [kingdoms] there were those in which the deserved subjects had a lot of land. "

Then they sent [the official] yejae謁者 (the master of ceremonies) immediately provide [them] with a cord for the government seal. The order read: “Having occupied a significant post, do not behave in a superior manner; rising high, do not threaten with danger; observe the measure, strictly adhere to the norms; limit yourself and do not allow excess; keep respect, be discreet. Hand over [the land] to your descendants, their growth will protect the Han.

[b] Day jen-wu ... Geng-shi [-di] left the Han commander Deng Yi 鄧曄, [and] the assistant to the Han commander Yu Kuang 于匡. Surrendered. Each of them retained the title [ hou?].

[c] Day ren Tzu ... They erected a [temple] to Gaomiao, erected an altar for the spirits of the earth and cereals in Luoyang. Altars were erected on the outskirts south of the city wall. We began to read the element of fire and red.

[d] The same month... The "Red-brows" burned down the palace buildings of the Western capital (Chang'an), dug up the burial mounds of the emperors [Western Han], invaded and plundered [it].

Dasytu Deng Yu 鄧禹 joined Chang'an. Directed officials to plant the tablets of the spirits of the eleven emperors, returning them to [the temple] of Gaomiao.

[e] Zhending-wang Yang 真定王楊, Lin-i-hou Zhan 臨邑侯侯 conceived a rebellion; the sent vanguard general Geng Chun 耿純 punished them.

[f] Second month. Day ji-yu. [His Majesty] was honored with a high visit to [County] Xuyu.

[g] Dasykun Wang Liang 王梁 was removed from office.

Day Ren Tzu. Song Hong 宋弘, [ranked dignitary] taichung dafu, Was assigned dasykun.

[h] Sent by the [emperor] the commander-in-chief of the cavalry Jing Dan 景丹 led a punitive campaign, captured the commander Zhai Zun 祭遵 and two more commanders, struck at the gang of Hong Nong; defeated her. After that, [the emperor] directed Zhai Zun to besiege [who had taken refuge in the city] Manzhong 蠻中 of the robber Zhang Many 張滿.

[i] Chief ( taishou) [county] Yuyang 漁陽 Peng Chun 彭 л rebelled, attacked the chief ( mu) of Yuzhou area 幽州 Zhu Fu 朱浮 under Ji 薊.

[j] Yan Cen 延岑 voluntarily identified himself as Wu-an-wang in [the county of] Hanzhong 漢中.

[k] Day hsin-mao ... [His Majesty] came [to the capital] from Xuyu [county].

[l] Third month. Day i-wei. General amnesty throughout the Middle Kingdom. The decree read: “Now there are many offended people in prisons, torture is used ruthlessly. We are very worried about them. Confucius said: "Punishments do not reach the goal if the people have nowhere to attach their arms and legs." We hereby prescribe to average officials with a salary of 2,000 measures of grain, all dafu (dignitaries), scientists boshi, [to officials] ilan take care of moderation in punishment laws. "

[m] The ruler of the metropolitan area sent by the [emperor] ( zhijinwu執金吾) Jia Fu 賈復, at the head of two generals, struck at [serving] Gen-shi [-di] Yan-wang Yin Tsung 郾王尹遵, defeated him and forced him to surrender.

[n] The chief of the cavalry Liu Zhi 劉植 attacked the robber Mi, fell on the battlefield.

[o] They sent the commander of the "tiger banner" Ge Yan 蓋延, becoming the head of the four commanders, to march against Liu Yun 劉永.

Fourth month. Summer.They besieged [Liu] Yun in Suiyang. The commander Geng-shi [-di] Su Mao killed the [district] chief Huaiyan Pan Jian and joined Liu Yong.

[p] Day chia-wu. The younger brother of [Emperor Liu] Liang's father was granted the [title] of Guanyang-wang; [Liu] Zhang, the son of an older brother, was granted the [title] of Taiyuan-wang; [Liu] Zhang [Liu] Xing's younger brother was granted [title] Lu-wang; The heir of Chongling-hou [Liu] Zhi was granted the [title] of Chengyan-wang.

[q] Fifth month. Day gen-ch eh ny. The [title] of Syshui-wan was granted to Xi, who had been endowed with the [earlier] Geng-shi [-di] title of Yuanshi-wang. Then Te, the son of Zhendding-wang Yang, was granted the [title] of Zhendding-wang; Ji Chan, a descendant of [Ji] Zhou, was granted the [title] Zhouchensiu-gun.

[r] Day gui-wei. The highest decree read: “Among the people there are married-off wives, sold sons. Those of them who wish to return to their parents are allowed to give free rein. We dare not deprive them of their freedom, we recognize them in accordance with the law. "

[s] Sixth month. Day Mou-hsui. The first lady was erected ( guirena) Ms. Guo as Empress, [Emperor] Qiang's son was declared heir apparent. A general amnesty was announced [throughout] the Celestial Empire. Increased the ranks of [officials] by one rank lanam, yejae, tsongguan.

Day bin-y. The eldest son of the [emperor] Liu Zhong was granted the [title] of Zichuan-wang.

[t] Autumn. Eighth month.The emperor personally led the campaign against Wu Xiao.

Day bin-chen.[ His Majesty ] honored with the highest visit to Neihuang.

Wuxiao inflicted a major defeat at Yiyang, forced to surrender.

[u] Sent a military officer yuji and Warlord Deng Lun help Zhu Fu 朱浮 and fight Peng Chun 彭寵 at Lu 潞. [Deng] Luna's army was defeated.

[v] Ge Yan 蓋延 captured the [district] Suiyang 睢陽, Liu Yong fled to Qiao 譙.

[w] They defeated and captured the commander Deng Feng 鄧奉, captured Yuyang.

[x] Ninth month. Day ren-wu.[ His Majesty ] arrived from Neihuang 內黃.

[y] The commander of the light cavalry, General Jing Dan 景丹 has reposed.

[z] Yan Cen 延岑 inflicted a great defeat on the Red Brows at Dulin 杜陵.

Hunger broke out in the Intrazastavye, people ate each other.

Eleventh month. Winter.Judge of the Supreme Court of Justice Cen Peng was appointed commander-in-chief of the "marching southward", put [him] at the head of eight generals to attack Deng Feng at Zhexiang.

[The armed formations] "Tunma" (Copper horses), "Qingdu" (Young bulls), "Yulai" (Selected wheat) and the rest of the robbers jointly elevated Sun Deng to the throne, considering him the Son of Heaven, in Shangjun [District]. Yue Xuan, [Sun] Deng's commander, killed [Sun] Deng, causing the entire crowd of fifty thousand to surrender.

The sent Deputy Warlord Feng Yi replaced Deng Yu and attacked the Red Brows.

Fu Lung was appointed, [ranked] taichung dafu, as an ambassador to pacify and unite the two counties, [employed] Qingxu. Zhang Bu offered to surrender to him.

Twelfth month. Day moe. The highest decree read: “Members of noble families and lehow overthrew Wang Man. The souls of the ancestors do not have those on whom to rely. We are extremely sorry for this. Therefore, we are restoring the original kingdom. If hou have not died yet, but their descendants belong to those whose names can be seen in the [department's lists] "Shangshu", then welcome the title and grant a high post. "

The same year. Ge Yan and others inflicted a great defeat on Liu Yong west of Pei [County].

It began with the fact that at the end of the [reign] of Wang Man in the Middle Kingdom there were droughts and locust raids. One jin斤 gold is exchanged for one hu斛 millet. It got to the point that the people were feeding on wild-growing cereals. [And somewhere] hemp grew abundantly, the oak silkworm gave cocoons, and someone took refuge in the mountains and hills - people thus got their benefit.

[ Vii] The third year (27),

[a] The first month. Spring. Day chia-tzu. Flank commander Feng Yi made a punitive campaign against four generals. Du Mao was appointed commander-in-chief of the light cavalry. Dasytu Deng Yu, joining Feng Yi, opposed the "Red-browed" at the Battle of Huixi, [Deng] Yu and [Feng] Yi were defeated.

[b] They punished the captive commander Zhai Cun, who was defeated at Manchzhong, executed Zhang Many 張滿.

[c] Day blue-si. Erected [in honor of the emperor's grandfather], the sovereign [of the county] of Nandong, four temples.

[d] Day ren-wu. General amnesty [throughout] the Celestial Empire.

[e] Leap year extra month. Day and-sy. Dasytu Deng Yu was dismissed.

[f] Feng Yi 馮異 entered the battle with the Red Brows under Yaodi 崤底, inflicting a great defeat. The rest of the people fled south to Yiyang. The Emperor personally led the campaign against the ["Red Browsers"].

Day tszi-hai. [His Majesty] honored with a visit to [County] Iyan.

Day jia-chen. [His Majesty] personally commanded six armies. They were the first to put up horses harnessed to war chariots, the elite troops dasima Khan were in front, the main forces of the army followed them, light cavalry and guards lined up on the flanks. "Red-browed" seeing all this from afar, were frightened and intimidated, sent the ambassador to ask for the conclusion of peace.

Day bin-y. The leader of the "Red Brows" surrendered and handed Gao [-u-] di the imperial seal. The order was given to subordinate [Chang'an] to the chief of the city garrison.

Day wu-shen. [His Majesty] returned from Iyan.

Day ji-yu. The highest decree read: “The robbers were brazenly self-willed, ruining the people. [Liu] Peng-tzu appropriated the title, instigated a mutiny and sowed confusion in the Celestial Empire. We raised an army, attacked and immediately fell down and defeated them. More than ten thousand people with their hands tied submitted. The seal of the former emperors has been returned to the treasury. The souls of all these ancestors, the strength of the warriors - aren't We worthy to use this! We have chosen a happy new moon day in the Gaomiao temple, and we grant titles to those sons of the Celestial Empire who treat their fathers as descendants [let them] have the first rank [of nobility]. "

[g] Second month. Day tszi-wei. We performed a prayer of thanks in [the temple] of Gaomiao, and accepted the state seal passed down from generation to generation.

Literature
1. Fan Ye... Hou Han shu (History of the Later [Empire] Han). Beijing, 1965.
2. Kryukov M.V., Perelomov L.S., Sofronov M.V., Cheboksarov N.I. Ancient chinese in era centralized empires... M., 1983.
3. Malyavin V.V.... Empire of Scientists, M., 2007.
4. The Cambridge history of China. Volume 1. The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. - A.D. 220. London, 1984.

Art. publ .:Society and State in China: T. XLII, Part 3 / Edited by A.I. Kobzev et al. - M .: Federal State state-financed organization Science Institute of Oriental Studies Russian academy Sciences (Institute of Oriental Studies), 2012. - 484 pp. - (Scientific Notes of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Department of China. Issue 7 / Edited by A. Kobzev et al.). S. 65-74.

God of war and military valor, patron saint of soldiers fighting for a just cause. Such is this god, who was worshiped until the middle of the 19th century.

In this image, the ancient ideas about the god of war and the legendary stories about a really existing valiant warrior named Guan Yu, who lived in 160-219, merged together.

Apparently, in ancient times, Guan Di was somehow associated with mythical dragons. In any case, in the Middle Ages, legends were spread that before the birth of Guan Yu, a dragon circled over his parents' house. According to another version, he was miraculously born from the blood of the executed dragon Yu Di, which a Buddhist monk poured into his bowl. Therefore, the blood of a dragon flowed in Guan Yu's veins.

It was said that from childhood he possessed extraordinary strength and fearlessness. He accomplished his first feat by killing the cruel ruler of the district, who was doing arbitrariness. To prevent him from being identified, he washed his face with water from a magic stream. However, if he really did such a desperate act, grateful fellow countrymen would not have betrayed him anyway.

It is possible that there is some truth in this story, because the further behavior of the hero is quite realistic and prosaic: he became a seller of soy cheese and thus managed to even get a little rich. However, the second could happen after he, having entered the service of the ruler, was selflessly devoted to him.

Apparently, episodes from Guan Yu's biography explain that Guan di was considered their patron not only by the military, but also by soybean traders and even merchants, rich people (or was it important for them to have a reliable guard?). Buddhist monks also revered him primarily as a protector of monasteries.

The worship of Guan Di turned into a real cult of personality, in which the real Guan Yu became a mythological hero, and his virtues and deeds were truly exalted to heaven. Emperors bestowed honorary titles on him - as forever alive. At the end of the 16th century, during the Ming dynasty, he was given the title "di" - sovereign.

In the middle of the 19th century, Guan Di received the title of "sheng" ("perfect wise") after he allegedly appeared in the sky and helped the government troops defeat the Taiping - rebellious peasants who tried to create a people's state. Although in reality the rulers of the Qing dynasty in this case were helped by the British, Americans and French. However, half a century later, the participants in the anti-imperialist uprising of 1900 also prayed to Guan di.

There is no doubt that the cult of the faithful servant and the valiant warrior was rooted and disseminated primarily by the sovereigns who were vitally interested in this kind of propaganda. Almost a thousand large and small temples scattered throughout China were dedicated to him. He was honored by representatives of different religious trends. Buddhists claimed that he was converted to their faith. And the Taoists laid down the legend that Guan di defeated the rebel monster Chiyu in battle, who in ancient China was revered as a fierce god of war, a beast-man with a leopard's head and tiger's claws, who wielded all types of weapons. According to another version, the monster had the hooves and horns of a bull, a human body, four eyes and six arms. It was believed that he rebelled against the legendary ruler Huang Di.

In fact, the allegory about the victory of the loyal Guan di over the rebellious Chiyu had its own truth: over time, with a significant strengthening of the emperor's power, loyal moods began to prevail among the people (the opposite were dangerous and were brutally eradicated). This was facilitated by the fact that Guan di was an example of loyalty to duty, and therefore was considered the patron saint of merchants. He was also popular as one of the gods of wealth. For Confucians, he became the patron saint of scholars and writers, because, according to legend, his reference book was Confucius's essay "Spring and Autumn".

On the example of Guan di, it is especially clear how the mythologization of the historical person takes place. It is not at all necessary to assume that some mystical forces, complex philosophical considerations play an important role here. Too often, the explanation lies in the plane of the real interests of individual social groups, public organizations, government agencies.

Much also depended on the current political situation. The Han Empire, after a period of prosperity, when it covered a fifth of the entire population of the Earth, began to shake and decline. In the 3rd century A.D. e. it was constantly shaken by uprisings and social and economic crises. The question of strengthening the tsarist power, creating national idols of statesmen was acute. One of them was destined to become Guan Yu, who turned into the mythological hero Guan Di.

Guan Yu (Guan-di) - the warlord of the kingdom and one of the main characters of the medieval. In the novel, he is depicted as the ideal of nobility, a kind of oriental Robin Hood.

Biography

The novel reflects the legend of the Peach Orchard Oath, according to which Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Liu Bei vowed to stand up for each other as a mountain after the straw sandal maker Liu Bei broke up Guan Yu's fight with the butcher Zhang Fei in the peach orchard. Subsequently, Liu Bei founded the kingdom of Shu, and Guan Yu became the head of his army.

In fact, Guan Yu and Liu Bei's relationship was not so idyllic. Around 200, the former fought in Cao Cao's army, and the latter sided with his chief enemy, Yuan Shao. In 219, the real Guan Yu, along with his son and squire, was captured by Sun Quan and executed, after which his head was sent to Cao Cao, who honored her burial.

Deification

Soon after Guan Yu's death, numerous legends began to overlap with the facts of his life. It was said that, after killing an unscrupulous judge, Guan Yu passed the guards unrecognized, as his face had inexplicably changed color. In the 17th century, the worship of Guan Yu spread to Korea, where it was believed that it was Guan Yu who saved the Koreans from the Japanese invasion in ancient times.

Already during the Sui dynasty, Guan Yu was perceived as a deity, and in 1594 he was officially deified as the god of war under the name Guan-di. Thousands of temples have appeared in his honor throughout the Middle Kingdom. In such temples, a sword was usually kept with which criminals were executed. It was believed that the spirit of the deceased would not dare to take revenge on the executioner if he performed cleansing rites in the Guan-di temple.

Picture

Guan di it is customary to depict accompanied by a squire and a son, with a red face, in green vestments and with a glaive invented by him -. In his hand he holds a historical treatise, according to legend, which he has memorized by heart. This attribute allows Guan-di to be considered the patron saint of not only warriors, but also writers.

In the Tibetan tradition, this image of a warrior, which is relatively rare in Chinese iconography, has come to be associated with Geser (Gesar), who for the Tibetans is both a cult image and a historical head of the Ling historical region. Following the Tibetans, this association was accepted by the Mongols and Buryats, for whom Geser is the central epic hero.

Uprising of the end of the 1st century BC BC - early 1st century. n. e. were an indicator of the extreme aggravation of class contradictions in the Han Empire and the maturing of a deep internal crisis.

Liu Xiu's activities and the policies of the emperors that followed him in the new dynasty, called the Younger Han Dynasty, were ultimately determined by the profound changes that took place in the socio-economic foundation of the empire.

Domestic policy of Guang Wu-di

Immediately after his establishment on the imperial throne, Liu Xiu, known in history as Guan Wu-di (25-57), proclaimed an era of peace and announced that he would follow the example of his ancestor Liu Bang. He understood that in an atmosphere of uprisings and economic chaos flaring throughout the country, one cannot act only by force. While decisively and brutally cracking down on popular movements, Liu Xiu at the same time issued decrees that somewhat alleviated the situation of the oppressed masses. During the uprisings of 18-28. many slaves were freed by rebels or fled from the masters themselves. After suppression popular movement Guan Wu Di not only made no attempts to return slaves to their former owners, but also repeatedly issued decrees to limit slavery and alleviate the situation of slaves. A number of decrees of 26-37. were declared free people who were sold into slavery due to hunger during civil wars, as well as people forced into slavery at this time. The "law on the sale of people" issued by Guang Wu-di was an attempt to restrict the practice of forcibly taking and selling the free into slavery. In 31, a decree was issued on the release of certain categories of state slaves. It read: "Those officials and people from the people who during the time of Wang Man were captured and turned into slaves for disagreeing with the previous laws, must be set free and become free." In 36-39 years. Guan Wu-di issued several decrees freeing certain categories of private slaves in several areas of the empire. In 36 C.E. a decree was issued limiting the right of slave owners to kill slaves. A year earlier, an imperial decree prohibited the stigma of private slaves.

By the time of the reign of Guan Wu-di, the economic significance of the regions in the basin of the river. Weihe, which were the main granary of the state in the 2nd century - the middle of the 1st century. BC, significantly decreases due to the neglect and destruction of the Weibei irrigation system and gives way to areas located east of Chanan - on the territory of the modern provinces of Henan, Shandong and South Hebei. In these areas, even in the second half of the 1st century. BC e. local authorities created irrigation facilities that contributed to their economic recovery. At the beginning of the 1st century. p. e. regions located on the territory of the Great Plain of China have become the most economically developed. Due to the increased economic importance of these areas and the decline of areas in the Weihe Valley, Guan Wu-di moved the capital of the empire to the east, to Luoyang. Both Guang Wu-di and his successors paid great attention to supporting irrigation facilities in the lower and middle Yellow River basin.

Under Guan Wu-di, the government took energetic measures to improve the country's economy. Officials were given orders to encourage agriculture and silkworm breeding. The poor people who did not have land were given state land (gun-tian) on preferential terms. The settlers were exempted from taxes and duties for several years. Large holdings of the disgraced landowners were partially distributed among the people who lost their homes. The state administration was restored and adjusted. In a long-term intense struggle against the decentralizing tendencies of large aristocratic families, which intensified during uprisings and civil strife, Guan Wu-di managed to achieve the strengthening and centralization of the empire. Restoration of foreign policy power of the Han Empire

In the 1st century. n. e. the Han empire once again became a strong power. From the middle of the 1st century. n. e. the Han emperors again began to pursue an active policy of conquest.

In the late 30s - early 40s, uprisings against the Chinese authorities began in the southwest of the Han Empire, in the northern part of Vietnam. The rebels killed the Han officials, and for several years the area retained its independence from the Han Empire. In 43, Chinese troops were sent here, led by the commander Ma Yuan, who inflicted a decisive defeat on the rebels, after which the northern part of Vietnam (Bakbo) recognized its dependence on the Han Empire.

Soon, the Chinese took active military action in the northwest. As already indicated, the Huns at the end of the 1st century. BC BC - early 1st century. n. e. subjugated the Western Territory to their influence and interrupted trade along the "Great Silk Road". In 73, in a distant campaign against the Huns, strong armyled by commander Dou Gu. The wars with the Huns were primarily aimed at restoring Chinese influence in the Western Territory and establishing China's foreign trade with Western countries along the "Great Silk Road". As a result of the victorious campaigns of the Han generals, among whom Ban Chao (32-102) particularly distinguished himself, the Huns were ousted from East Turkestan, and the states of the Western Territory again recognized the power of the Han emperor. Closed to China for 65 years, the "Great Silk Road" was re-conquered by the Han Empire. As a result of the wars in the south-west, and especially with the Huns, a large number of prisoner-of-war slaves came to China. According to the "History of the Younger Han Dynasty", only in one campaign 89g. 200 thousand Huns were captured.

The successful struggle of the Chinese for East Turkestan and their advance to the west led to a clash of interests of the Han empire with its closest neighbor in the west, the Kushan Empire. In 90 A.D. e. In a battle with the troops of Ban Chao, the Kushan army sent to East Turkestan suffered a complete defeat, after which Ban Chao forced the king of the Kushans Kanishka to recognize nominal dependence on the Han Empire. "From that time," reports the "History of the Younger Han Dynasty," "the Yuezhi (Kushans - Ed.) Were in great fear and sent tribute and gifts every year."

In reward for the brilliant victories, the emperor granted Ban Chao the title of governor of all the territories of the Western Territory conquered by him. Ban Chao's activities were not limited to successful campaigns of conquest. Having been in the Western Region for over 25 years, he became famous not only as a brilliant commander, but also as a talented diplomat. Ban Chao sent his emissaries far west to establish trade and diplomatic relations with various countries. One of them with his companions reached the shores of the Persian Gulf.

international trade

At the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. The Han Empire established extensive ties with outside world... The subjugation of North Vietnam, through which the trade route to India passed, opened up for China the possibility of establishing more regular ties with Western countries along the southern route. Here there was a sea route leading to India and further west, right up to the Roman Empire. China's trade ties with the Roman Empire along the southern route began in the last decades BC. e. Around 166, Chinese sources report the arrival of the first embassy from Rome to Luoyang. A brisk trade was carried on along the "Great Silk Road" As well as in the 1st century. BC e., China's trade and cultural ties with Central Asia... Chinese traders brought silk, ceramics, iron and varnish products to the west. Through Bactria and Parthia, Chinese goods entered the Roman Empire. Foreign merchants brought mules, horses, camels, woolen things, carpets, leather, glass, precious stones and art products, grapes, pomegranates, saffron, and alfalfa to China.

In the foreign trade of the Empire of the Younger Han, the slave trade occupied a significant place. In the biography of one of the "assistants of the governor of the Western Territory, placed in the" History of the Younger Hen Dynasty ", there are indications that at that time slaves were brought to China from the west. Slaves were also acquired from the border northeastern tribes. Thus, according to the same source , traders with slaves and other goods from the Wuhuan tribes repeatedly arrived in Luoyang.There is information about the import of slaves from Japan at that time.

Changes in the economic structure of China in the 1st-2nd centuries.

The first decades of the reign of the Younger Han Dynasty were marked not only by the restoration of the empire's foreign policy power, but also by some recovery in the country's economy. The most important irrigation facilities on the Yellow River were restored. Handicraft production and trade revived. However, since the main socio-economic contradictions were not resolved, the Han Empire, after a short-term rise, entered a period of protracted internal crisis. Deep changes are ripe for the entire social structure of ancient China.

After those shifts in the development of the productive forces that occurred during the Zhanguo period (V-III centuries) and formed the basis further development slave-owning relations, over the next centuries there was no noticeable progress in the development of tools of production and techniques of agriculture and handicrafts. Those improvements that have appeared in China since the 1st century. BC e., did not receive any significant distribution. Judging by the archaeological materials and written sources, very primitive tools were in wide use. For grinding grain, for example, hand mills such as grain graters were widely used. Neither plow nor plowing on oxen, even in North China, were really widespread and widespread. About general level The development of productive forces during this period may be evidenced by the fact that before the beginning of our era, along with iron weapons, bronze weapons were still in use. For example, under Wu, according to sources, there were large state arms workshops, where weapons were made from bronze. Archaeological finds also testify to the fairly widespread use of bronze weapons during the Elder Han Dynasty.

From the 1st - 2nd centuries. in China, significant shifts in the development of the productive forces are again outlined. Plow farming and ox plowing are becoming more widespread, especially in the southeast, in the Yangtze River basin. If in the sources of the 1st century. BC e. we find only a brief mention of the introduction of a bed culture and a system of variable fields, then from the middle of the 1st century. n. e. there is evidence of their distribution and development. A number of improvements have been made in the area of \u200b\u200biron production. In particular, at this time, a method was invented for driving the blowing bellows using a water wheel with a vertical shaft. After that, the power of water began to be used for grinding grain - a primitive water mill appeared. At the end of the Younger Han Dynasty, a water-lifting machine was invented - a pump that lifts water to the surface of the earth, which played a large role in irrigating fields. In the III century. n. e. the loom was improved.

Although the aforementioned improved tools of production began to come into use during this period, they became noticeable only starting from the 3rd-4th centuries. n. e. However, the very fact of their appearance and their gradual introduction into handicrafts and agriculture testified to profound changes in the economy and social relations and had far-reaching consequences.

In the Empire of the Younger Han, slave labor continued to find fairly widespread use, but slavery as a whole was already becoming obsolete.

The demand for slaves was still quite high. Sources referring to the 1st-2nd centuries cite data on slave owners who had a thousand or even more slaves, and on the existence of large slave holdings at that time. In The History of the Younger Han Dynasty, Fan Zhong's biography describes the slave economy of one of the aristocratic families. The family purchased over 300 qing (1,383.9 ha) of uncultivated land on which they irrigated. The extensive agriculture was the main source of wealth for the Fan Zhong family, but in addition to this, she owned fisheries, pastures and plantations where camphor and lacquer trees were grown. Having a large number of slaves (tun-li), this family used them all in their household, as a result of which its wealth, according to the "History of the Younger Han Dynasty," doubled annually.

However, the improvement of the tools of production and progress in the technique of agriculture and handicrafts made it ever less profitable to use slave labor in the main branches of the economy. It is significant that even in the treatise of 81 BC. e. "Yan te lun" complains about the unproductiveness of slave labor; it notes that slaves in state workshops make extremely poor agricultural implements, since "they are in a depressed state and use their strength far from fully."

The development in ancient China of a culture of field cultivation, based at this time, as a rule, on artificial irrigation, required very hard and careful work. This in itself should have limited to a certain extent the possibility of using slave labor in this industry. agriculture... The higher the technique of farming rose, the more obvious the advantages of free labor over slave labor became.

Along with slave farms of the Fan Zhong type, complex farms of the largest landowners developed at that time, where the labor of tenants and dependent farmers was used on an ever-increasing scale.

The process of concentration of private land ownership, which caused serious concern among contemporaries at the end of the 1st century. BC e., now took on enormous proportions. The amount of land owned by individual landowners was estimated at many hundreds of qing. According to sources, their lands stretched "from region to region." Although they did not have official positions, their influence and power was stronger than that of many high-ranking officials.

These largest farms of land magnates, which appeared at the end of the Elder Han Dynasty, became extremely widespread during the Younger Han Dynasty. They were called "strong houses". Strong houses were owned by thousands of slaves. Many of them had craft workshops based on slave labor. They carried on an extensive trade, including the slave trade, and engaged in usury. “Their fertile fields,” says the “History of the Younger Han Dynasty,” “occupy all the land, and their slaves and slaves (nu-bei) are counted in thousands of crowds ... Their boats, carts and tradesmen travel throughout the country ... and the valleys are not enough for herds of their horses, for herds of cows, rams and pigs. " Farm on vast lands These magnates were not possible by the forces of slaves, if only because on such vast estates it was difficult to exercise the necessary supervision over the labor of slaves, without which it was not in the slightest degree productive.

The farms of the "strong houses" were farms of a new type. Although slave labor continued to be used in them, it was used mainly in handicrafts, while in the field of agriculture the bulk of the producers of these estates were various categories of dependent farmers.

At this time, more and more ripening of various forms of dependence of communal farmers. At the end of the 1st century. BC e. bonded rent became widespread. Sources say, for example, that official Ning Cheng, having received his resignation, returned to Nanyang, where he rented out more than 1,000 qing (about 4,613 hectares) of land, forcing thousands of poor families to work in their fields - invisibly their debtors. By 9 A.D. e. refers to the decree of Wang Man, announcing that the strong and rich take over the fields of the poor, who are forced to cultivate the land of the rich for half the harvest. Paying half of the product was the easiest condition. There is evidence of payment of six, seven and eight tenths of the harvest.

However, in the I-II centuries. new forms of dependence were also developed. Large owners began to use the labor of the so-called ke, or bing-ke, bu-qui and other workers on their farms to a considerable extent. Ke, or bin-ke, literally meant "guest", "embrace". Hundreds of ke lived with large owners. Among them were educated people, whose advice the owners listened to, and numerous servants who served in the house, entertained the owners and carried out various assignments. Information about these "guests" is available in sources from the 3rd century onwards. BC e. In the II-I centuries. in a number of cases in the sources there are expressions nu-ke, tun-ke, where ke is equated with slaves. However, from the II century. n. e. the concepts of ke and bin-ke are already clearly embedding new content. Ke and bin-ke now mean dependent farmers planted on the land. In a similar way, large landowners begin to plant on the ground and bu-qu - personal guards, among which there were slaves. These categories of producers were not free, but at the same time their position was different from that of slaves. It is known that ke and bu-qu could be inherited and donated, but unlike slaves, they could not be sold. At the same time, sources of even later times contain information about decrees freeing ke and slaves, as if they were in the same position.

Later, the position of dependent farmers - ke, i-gii-ke (ke, receiving, clothing and food) and dian-ke (ke, cultivating or leasing land) - began to move small and medium-sized free producers facing the threat of complete ruin.

As new forms of exploitation developed, the position of slaves gradually changed. In the II century. some measures are taken to mitigate the slave's living conditions. These include, first of all, the legislative acts of Guan Wu-di, prohibiting the murder and stigma of private slaves.

Historians - supporters of the existence of the slave system during this period - believe that these acts of Guan Wu-di, along with such phenomena as the spread of share rent, bonded rent and other forms of dependence, the appearance of complaints about the unproductiveness of slave labor and symptoms of further naturalization of the economy, were one from the signs of the decomposition of slave relations and the imminent crisis of the slave system. As an analogy, they draw attention to the slave laws of the Roman emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century. n. e., which took place during the beginning of the decomposition of the Roman slave society. However, a number of researchers, who believe that during the reign of both Han dynasties, a feudal society existed in China, consider the laws of Guang Wu-di on slaves as evidence of the final abolition of slavery, which, in their opinion, since that time, even as a way of life has ceased to play any significant role.

He understood that in an atmosphere of uprisings and economic chaos flaring throughout the country, one cannot act only by force. While decisively and brutally cracking down on the popular movements, Liu Xiu at the same time issued decrees that somewhat alleviated the situation of the oppressed masses ...

During the uprisings of 18-28. many slaves were freed by rebels or fled from the masters themselves. After the suppression of the popular movement, Guan Wu-di not only made no attempts to return the slaves to their previous owners, but also repeatedly issued decrees to limit slavery and alleviate the situation of slaves.

A number of decrees of 26-37. were declared free people who were sold into slavery because of hunger during the civil wars, as well as people who were forcibly converted into slavery at that time. The "law on the sale of people" issued by Guang Wu-di was an attempt to restrict the practice of forcibly taking and selling the free into slavery.

In 31, a decree was issued on the release of certain categories of state slaves. It read: "Those officials and people from the people who during the time of Wang Man were captured and turned into slaves for disagreeing with the previous laws, must be set free and become free."

In 36-39 years. Guan Wu-di issued several decrees freeing certain categories of private slaves in several areas of the empire. In 36 A.D. e. a decree was issued limiting the right of slave owners to kill slaves. A year earlier, an imperial decree prohibited the stigma of private slaves.

In these areas, even in the second half of the 1st century. BC e. local authorities created irrigation facilities that contributed to their economic recovery. At the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. regions located on the territory of the Great Plain of China have become the most economically developed.

Due to the increased economic importance of these areas and the decline of areas in the Weihe Valley, Guan Wu-di moved the capital of the empire to the east, to Luoyang. Both Guang Wu-di and his successors paid great attention to supporting irrigation facilities in the lower and middle Yellow River basin.

Migrants were exempted from taxes and duties for several years. Large holdings of the disgraced landowners were partially distributed among the people who lost their homes. Recovered and on. the state administration screwed up.

In a long-term tense struggle against the decentralizing tendencies of large aristocratic families, which intensified during the uprising and civil strife, Guan Wu-di succeeded in strengthening and centralizing the empire.