Independent study of Latin from scratch. Getting started learning Latin

Good afternoon! Today we will get acquainted with the Latin language, find out why a doctor needs it in any country, and also try to learn several important Latin terms.

So, Latin. To be honest, I really enjoyed teaching him for a number of reasons:

• On couples on this subject, the feeling was created that I was touching some secret ancient knowledge. This is understandable, because we are talking about the language spoken by the great doctors of antiquity;
• you will learn exactly in Latin. Therefore, a good knowledge of Latin will make memorizing anatomy relatively easy for you;
• Latin terms (especially medical) sound very, very cool;
• To the point, the term used in Latin in the course of a conversation or report eloquently indicates your erudition. It may not be quite true, but I always got that impression.

What is Latin for? Doctors need it so that doctors who speak different languages \u200b\u200bcan always understand each other. Of course, anatomy cannot be imagined without Latin. Biologists, chemists and pharmacists need it because of the use of a single terminology, which greatly facilitates the classification of drugs, animal species, etc.

Clinical terminology is also based on Latin. For example, if the name of a medicine ends with “in”, we can assume with a high degree of probability that it is an antibiotic - amoxicillin, ciprofloxacIN. If the name of the disease has the suffix "Oma", then they say, of course, about a tumor - hemengiOMA, sarcoma, lipOMA. If the suffix "it" is present, it is inflammation. For example, stomatitis, bronchitis, colitis.

Learning Latin for doctors has its own specifics. After completing a course in this subject at a medical university, you are unlikely to be able to converse in Latin with your friend over the phone. You will also most likely not be able to easily pronounce phrases in your newly learned language in your arsenal like “Although I am a fan of the Marvel comic book universe, but director Zach Snyder is so good that I loved the films about Superman and Batman more than anyone else.” All you need from this subject is to be able to understand and name from memory anatomical terms, diagnoses of diseases, and also be able to write prescriptions in Latin.

From my own experience, I will say that Latin terms memorized in advance, before starting to study at a medical university, give several advantages at once:

1. Firstly, you master the subject much faster and new topics are much easier for you.
2. Secondly, you will quickly gain a good teacher's attitude towards you. Your Latin teacher will definitely consider you a capable student if you answer best in the first couples.
3. And thirdly, having a good vocabulary, you will to some extent be able to compensate for your lag in grammar if this happens. This is exactly what happened with me - in terms of vocabulary I was very good, but grammar was given very hard. But I got on the list of applicants for the coveted “automaton” precisely because of my vocabulary - at least that's what the teacher told me.

When I created this collection latin words, I was guided, first of all, at the very beginning of the first semester of the first year. Therefore, if you have already entered for sure, but wanted to know how to prepare for a medical university in advance, this article is for you. After all, it is best in such a situation to start your preparation with Latin.

Actually, the Latin lesson

Let's try to remember a few simple words with pronunciation. I will make a reservation right away that in our first collection I will not indicate the gender, the variation of the spelling of the word in the genitive case or in the plural, as is customary to do in dictionaries.

For our first lesson in Latin, I propose to remember two simple rules that we will use right now:

1. In Latin, the stress on the last syllable is NEVER placed;
2. The sound of the letter "L" is always softened. The word "clavicula" will never sound "clavicula". We will read it as "klyavikulya". Just like "scapula" (scapula) - it will sound right like this: "scapula".

So, let's start learning Latin for doctors. Our lexical minimum for this lesson:

• Caput (kaput) - head;
• Cranium (cranium) - skull. Quite a common word. There is even the science of craniology, which studies the structure of the human skull in normal conditions;
• Basis cranii (basis crani) - the base of the skull;
• Fornix cranii (fornix crani) - the vault of the skull, that is, the lid of the skull;
• Maxilla (maxilya) - upper jaw. Do not forget our second rule and read it as "maxil";
• Mandibula (mandibula) - lower jaw. “Mandible” will sound right;

I used Da Vinci's classic illustration to show you what it was about. With a red dotted line, I marked the border between the fornix cranii and its base (basis cranii). The rounded part on top is the vault. Below is the basis.

I highlighted the upper jaw (maxilla) in blue, and the lower jaw (mandibula) in green.

• Cervix (tserviks) - neck;
• Vertebra (vertebra) - vertebra;
• Columna vertebralis (kolyumna vertebralis) - the spinal column. It is he who consists of the vertebrae;
• Corpus vertebrae (corpus vertebre) - vertebral body. It is very easy to memorize Latin using associations - often, especially in sports, the human body is called "corpus". Boxers say so: "blow to the body";
• Arcus vertebrae (arcus vertebre) - vertebral arch. It is also not without reason that an architectural figure in the form of an arc is called an "arch";

This is what the spinal column looks like:

The next block of words:

• Thorax (thorax) - chest. The same term is called the chest - an anatomical formation, inside which is the chest cavity.
• Cavum thoracis (kavum toratsis) - chest cavity. It is bounded by the sternum, ribs and vertebrae, that is, the chest.
• Sternum (sternum) - sternum. One of the coolest bones to learn. Just a few elements need to be remembered, the main one is ...
• Corpus sterni (corpus stärni) - the body of the sternum. I think you already know the translation of this word, by analogy with the vertebral body;
• Costa (kosta) - edge;
• Caput costae (kaput koste) - the head of the rib. Yes, at first I myself thought that the human head and the head of some anatomical formation have different names, it turns out not
• Corpus costae (corpus coste) - rib body. I think you already remember well what corpus is;

In this illustration, you can see the front view of the ribcage. The sternum is the long, vertical bone located in front. The body of the sternum is even signed here, only in English - the body of sternum. By the way, Latin and English have a large number of similar words.

And the last block of Latin words for today.

• Сingulum membri superioris (cingulum membri superioris) - upper limb belt. The word superior, like its opposite, inferior, will be very common throughout anatomy.
• Superior (superior) - upper. Simple association. "Super" - above all others;
• Inferior (inferior) - lower. It's also easy to remember. Inferno is another name for hell. "Infernal" - hellish, devilish. The stereotypical hell is always below;
• Scapula (skapulya) - the word already parsed today. As you remember, this translates to "scapula";
• Clavicula (klyavikulya) - collarbone. We analyzed this too. By the way, for me in anatomy it was very surprising that the upper limb belt consists of only two bones - the scapula and the clavicle. I thought it was full of bones.

I highlighted the collarbone in red, and the shoulder blade in green.

Here's a list. I would recommend that you teach it in parts. Write each term several times, say it aloud, and then tell a few learned terms with translation into Russian to your household or a friend on the phone (I periodically told the cat).

This concludes our first (hopefully not the last) Latin lesson for doctors. If you teach a few expressions a week before starting your studies, you will become a very skillful student in pairs in Latin. Good luck to everyone, study and love science!

1. History of the Latin language

Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the II-I centuries. BC e., and he achieved the greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or "golden", Latin. He was distinguished by the richest vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific-philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.

This period was followed by postclassical, or "silver", Latin (1st-2nd centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally consolidated, spelling rules were determined. The last period in the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and folk-spoken language began to grow.

In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the II century. BC e. Latin conquered the position of the official state language.

Since 43 AD e. and until 407, the Celts (British) inhabiting Britain were also under the rule of Rome.

If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its colloquial form spread, almost without meeting the resistance of tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages \u200b\u200bthat had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than the Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language was widely spread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.

From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and the Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced in the economic, state, social and spiritual spheres of life the constantly growing influence of a highly developed Greek culture.

Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. The colloquial and literary Latin language included borrowed Greek words, especially after being ruled by Rome in the II-I centuries. BC e. hit Greece and the Hellenistic countries. From the II century. BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts and terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.

At the same time, another process developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, that is, terms.

When comparing the two classical languages, one can see their significant differences.

The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-formation potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to clothe in linguistic forms the phenomena, facts, facts, ideas of biological and medical content that were being described for the first time, easily create more and more new names that are almost transparent in meaning through various methods of word formation, especially by constitution and suffixation.

2. Term and definition

The word "term" (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning of "limit, border". A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common noun, the term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - "designating"), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).

Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, the terms denote special scientific concepts.

The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: "Thought reflecting in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them." The concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is a combination of the attributes of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has attributes that make up the content of the concept.

Unlike ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, laws are formulated. The term is often a messenger of a new scientific discovery, a phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a definition that is necessarily attributed to it.

Definition(lat. definitio) is a formulation in a concise form of the essence of the terminated, that is, designated by the term, concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - "being", "being" + genesis - "generation", "development") - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of an organism from its inception to the end of life; aerophiles (lat. aёr - "air" + philos - "loving") - microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation of oxygen in the environment.

As you can see, the definition does not just explain the meaning of the term, but sets this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is tantamount to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, in textbooks, the concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in learning programs by discipline is a mandatory requirement for a student.

3. Medical terminology

Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macro-term system. The totality of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body in health and in pathologies on different stages their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and vectors of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic regulation and assessment; methods of diagnostics, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; operative approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; apparatus, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.

Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each sub-term reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macro-term system.

This reflects a dual trend of progress: further differentiation of medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the XX century. the number of highly specialized subterm-systems expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases affecting mainly individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.) has significantly increased. Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached impressive sizes.

Within the framework of the macro-thermal system, almost the leading role belongs to the following subsystems:

1) anatomical and histological nomenclatures;

2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical terminological systems;

3) pharmaceutical terminology.

4. General cultural humanitarian meaning of the Latin language

However, in order to master any language, you need to improve your cultural and educational level, broaden your horizons.

In this respect, useful are Latin aphorisms, sayings expressing in a laconic form a generalized, complete thought, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - "Fate helps the brave"; Non progredi est regredi - "Not going forward means going back."

There are also interesting proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - "I carry everything with me"; Festina lente - "Hurry slowly", etc. Many aphorisms are separate lines, sayings of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to scientists of the New Age: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, K. Linnaeus and others.

Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs included in the material of individual lessons and presented in the list at the end of the textbook have long become catch phrases... They are used in scientific and fiction, in public speaking. Certain Latin aphorisms and sayings relate to issues of life and death, human health, doctor's behavior. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - "due" + logos - "teaching") commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - "The well-being of the sick is the highest law of doctors"; Primum noli nocere! - "First of all, do not harm!" (the first commandment of the doctor).

Latinisms occupy a significant place in the international vocabulary of many languages \u200b\u200bof the world, especially European ones: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertation candidate, audience, communication, credit, discrediting, decree, credo, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, ply, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, graduation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intellect, intellectual, colleague, college, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, preserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, invalid, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.

Only in the last few years, new words of Latin origin for our political life have flashed on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies: pluralism (pluralis - "plural"), conversion (conversio - "transformation", "change"), consensus (consensus - "agreement", "agreement"), sponsor (sponsor - "trustee"), rotation (rotatio - "circular movement"), etc.

5. Alphabet

Latin alphabet used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries, consists of 25 letters.

Table 1. Latin alphabet

In Latin, proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them are written with a capital letter. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to write the names of plants and medicinal substances with a capital letter.

Notes.

1. Most of the letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced in the same way as in various Western European languages, however, some letters in these languages \u200b\u200bare called differently than in Latin; for example, the letter h is called "ha" in German, "ash" in French, "h" in English, and "ha" in Latin. The letter j is called "ji" in French, "jay" in English, and "iot" in Latin. The Latin letter "c" in English is called "si" and so on.

2. It should be borne in mind that one and the same letter can denote a different sound in these languages. For example, the sound indicated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [f] or [dj]; in English, j is read as [j].

3. Latin orthography is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [latina], eng. latin - Latin.

The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced in the same way as the corresponding vowels in Russian.

4. As a rule, names not from Latin, but from other languages \u200b\u200b(Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are romanized, that is, they are drawn up in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.

6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)

In Latin, "E e" reads as [e]: vertebra [ve "rtebra] is a vertebra, medianus [media" nus] is a median.

Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants soften before the sound [e]: anterior [ante "rior] - front, arteria [arte" ria] - artery.

"I i" reads as [and]: inferior [infe "rior] - lower, internus [inte" rnus] - internal.

At the beginning of a word or syllable before vowels i reads like a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugul "rice] - jugular, iunctura [yunktu" ra] - connection, maior [ma "yor] - large, iuga [yu" ha] - elevation.

In these positions in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j - iot is used: jugularis [yugul "rice], juncture [yunktu" ra], major [ma "yor], juga [yu" ha].

The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since there was no sound [y] in it: iatria [ia "tria] - healing, iodum [io" dum] - iodine.

To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ue], [yu], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.

Y y (upsilon), in French "igrek", reads like [and]: tympanum [ty "mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi" rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to represent the letter of the Greek alphabet upsilon, which read German [and]. If the Greek word was written through i (Greek iota), read as [and], then in Latin it was transcribed through i.

In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which "upsilon" is written:

dys- [dis-] - a prefix giving the term the meaning of a disorder, disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon - "bone") - dysostosis - disorder of bone formation;

hypo- [hypo-] - "under", "below": hypoderma (hypo + + derma - "skin") - hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo- + gaster - "stomach", "stomach") - hypogastrium - hypogastrium;

hyper- [hyper-] - "over", "over": hyperostosis (hyper + + osteon - "bone") - hyperostosis - pathological growth of unchanged bone tissue;

syn-, sym- [syn-, sym-] - "with", "together", "together": synostosis (syn + osteon - "bone") - synostosis - connection of bones through bone tissue;

mu (o) - [myo-] - the root of the word indicating the relation to muscles: myologia (myo + logos - "word", "teaching") - myology - the teaching about muscles;

phys- [phys-] - the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relationship to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis - diaphysis (in osteology) - the middle part of the tubular bone.

7. Diphthongs and peculiarities of reading consonants

In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [and], in Latin there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, au, ee.

Digraph ae reads as [e]: vertebrae [ve "rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone" mind] - peritoneum.

Digraph oe reads like [eh], more precisely, like German o or French oe: fetor [fetor] - bad smell.

In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, were used to convey the Greek diphthongs ai and oi in Latin. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - edema, oesophagus [ezo" phagus] - esophagus.

If in the combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above the "e" and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploё [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull ; aёr [aer] - air.

Diphthong au reads as: auris [ay "rice] - ear. Diphthong eu reads as [eu]: ple" ura [ple "hurray] - pleura, neurocranium [nurokra" nium] - cerebral skull.

Features of reading consonants

Accepted double reading of the letter "C with": as [k] or [c].

How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku "bitus] - elbow, clavicula [klyavi" kulya] - collarbone, crista [kri "hundred] - crest.

How [c] reads before the vowels e, i, y and digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervica "fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu" ra] - tenderloin, coccyngeus [koktsinge "mustache] - coccygeal, coelia [tse" lia ] - abdomen.

"Н h" reads as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - a person, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - a gap, a cleft, humerus [gume "rus] - a humerus.

"K k" occurs very rarely, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where it is necessary to preserve the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [and]: kyphosis [kypho "zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine" to -cytus] - kinetocyte - a mobile cell (Greek words of origin).

"S s" has a double reading - [s] or [h]. As [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [sous "lkus] - groove, os sacrum [wasps sa" krum] - sacrum, sacrum bone; dorsum [do "rsum] - back, back, rear. As [z] is read in the position between vowels: incisura [incisu" ra] - notch, vesica [vezi "ka] - bubble. Double s reads as [s]: fossa [pho "cca] is a pit, ossa [o" ssa] is bones, processus is a process. In the position between vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin s reads as [z]: chiasma [chia "zma] - cross, platysma [dance" zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra "dix] - root, extremitas [extra" mitas] - end.

"Z z" occurs in words of Greek origin and reads as [z]: zygomaticus [zygoma "ticus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trape" zius] - trapezoidal.

8. Letter combinations. Accents. Brevity rule

In Latin, the letter "Q q" occurs only in conjunction with u before vowels, and this combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [kvadra" tus] - square.

The combination of letters ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li "ngwa] - language, lingula [li" ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa "ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" Luce] - angle.

The combination of ti before the vowels reads as [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article" tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine "ntsia] - elevation.

However, ti before vowels in combinations sti, xti, tti reads like [ti]: ostium [o "steum] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi" kstio] - mixture.

In words of Greek origin, there are digraphs ch, ph, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph reads as one sound:

сh \u003d [x]; ph \u003d [f]; rh \u003d [p]; th \u003d [t]: nucha [well "ha] - vyya, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa" lianx] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [that "rax] - chest taphole, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.

The combination of letters sch reads as [cx]: os ischii [wasch and "schii] - ischial bone, ischiadicus [ischia" dikus] - sciatic.

Stressing rules.

1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, it is placed on the first syllable.

2. In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.

Stressing depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Therefore, to put stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for the length or brevity of the penultimate syllable.

Two rules of longitude

Longitude of the penultimate syllable.

1. The syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona "eum - peritoneum, perona" eus - peroneal (nerve), dia "eta - diet.

2. The syllable is long if the vowel comes before two or more consonants, as well as before the double consonants x and z. This longitude is called positional longitude.

For example: colu "mna - column, pillar, exte" rnus - external, labyri "nthus - labyrinth, medu" lla - brain, medulla, maxi "lla - upper jaw, metaca" rpus - metacarpus, circumfle "xus - envelope.

Brevity rule

A vowel before a vowel or an h is always short. For example: tro "chlea - block, pa" ries - wall, o "sseus - bony, acro" mion - acromion (brachial process), xiphoi "deus - xiphoid, peritendi" neum - peritendinium, pericho "ndrium - perichondrium.

9. Cases and types of declensions

Inflection of nouns in cases and numbers is called declension.

Cases

There are 6 cases in Latin.

Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).

Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (who, what?).

Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, what?).

Accusativus (Аcc.) - accusative (who, what?).

Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, instrumental (by whom, by what?).

Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

For nomination, that is, for naming (naming) objects, phenomena and the like in medical terminology, only two cases are used - nominative (im. N.) And genitive (gen. N.).

The nominative case is called direct case, which means there is no relationship between words. The meaning of this case is the actual naming.

The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.

There are 5 types of declensions in Latin, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).

A practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension) is the genitive singular in Latin.

Forms genus. n. units hours in all declensions are different.

Distribution of nouns by type of declension, depending on the end of the gender. n. units h.

Endings genitive all declensions

10. Determination of the practical basis

Nouns are given in a dictionary and memorized in a dictionary form, which contains 3 components:

1) the form of the word in them. n. units h;

2) the end of the genus. n. units h;

3) gender designation - masculine, feminine or neuter (abbreviated with one letter: m, f, n).

For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i (n); pars, is (f), margo, is (m); os, is (n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us (m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).

Some nouns have III declension before the ending gender. n. units h. -is is also assigned the final part of the stem.

Full form genus. n. units hours for such nouns are found as follows:

corpus, \u003d oris (\u003d corpor - is); foramen, -inis (\u003d fora-min - is).

For such nouns, the practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to the gender. n. units h. by discarding its end.

If the basics are in them. n. units h. and genus. n. units h. coincide, then in the dictionary form only the ending genus is indicated. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. n. units hours without ending.

Examples of

The practical basis is the basis to which the endings of the indirect cases are added during the word change (declension); it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.

For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form gender is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., for example, pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.

11. Determination of the gender of nouns

In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and middle (neutrum - n).

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of equivalent Russian words, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.

It is possible to determine the belonging of a Latin noun to a particular genus only by the endings characteristic of this genus in them. n. units h.

For example, words in -a are feminine (costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words in -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).

The declension of a noun is the ending gender. n. units h; gender trait - a characteristic ending in them. n. units h.

Determination of the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -а, -um, -on, -en, -and, -us

There is no doubt that nouns ending in -а are feminine, and nouns ending in -um, -on, -en, -u are neuter.

All nouns ending in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:

lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;

ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.

If a noun in -us refers to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain genus should be clarified with the help of such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in the genus. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is r, then the noun refers to the neuter gender, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then to the feminine gender.

tempus, or-is; crus, crur is;

corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.

12.III declension of nouns

Nouns of the III declension were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodical approach was absolutely justified. The III declension is the most difficult to learn and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.

1. The third declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in genus. n. units h on -is (sign of the III declension).

2. In them. n. units h. words not only of different genders, but even of the same genus have different endings characteristic of a particular genus; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -eg, -ex, -es.

3. Most nouns have III declension bases in them. n. and genus. etc. do not match.

For such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., but by genus. by discarding the -is ending.

1. If in the dictionary form of any noun before the ending gender. n. units h. -is the end of the stem is attributed, which means that the stem of such a word is determined by gender. P.:

2. If in the dictionary form before the end of the genus. n. units h. -is there is no postscript, which means that the basis of such a word can be determined by them. n. units h., dropping the ending to them. p .: pubes, is the basis of pub-.

3. Nouns III declension, depending on the coincidence or non-coincidence of the number of syllables in them. n. and genus. n. units h. are equally complex and non-complex, which is important for the exact definition of the genus in a number of cases. Equosyllabic Nom. pubes canalis rete Gen. pubis canalis retis. Unequal Nom. pes paries pars Gen. pedis parietis partis.

4. For monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form in the genus. n. the word is written in full: vas, vasis; os, ossis.

The genus is determined by the endings to them. n. units hours, characteristic of a certain genus within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun III declension, 3 points must be taken into account:

1) know that this word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;

2) know what endings are in them. n. units hours are characteristic of this or that genus III declension;

3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of a given word.

13. Adjective name

1. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, are divided into qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote the attribute of an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects: true rib - costa vera, long bone - os longum, yellow ligament - ligamentum flavum, transverse process - processus transversus, large hole - foramen magnum, trapezoidal bone - os trapezoideum, wedge-shaped bone - os sphenoidale, etc.

Relative adjectives indicate the sign of an object not directly, but through a relation to another object: the spinal column (a column of vertebrae) - columna vertebralis, the frontal bone - os frontale, the sphenoid sinus (cavity in the body of the sphenoid bone) - sinus sphenoidalis, the sphenoid crest (site the front surface of the body of the sphenoid bone) - crista sphenoidalis.

The predominant mass of adjectives in the anatomical nomenclature are relative adjectives indicating that this anatomical formation belongs to a whole organ or to another anatomical formation, such as the frontal process (extending from the zygomatic bone upwards, where it connects with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) - processus frontalis ...

2. The categorical meaning of the adjective is expressed in the categories of gender, number and case. The genus category is an inflectional category. As in Russian, adjectives vary by gender: they can be masculine, feminine or neuter. The gender of an adjective depends on the gender of the noun with which it is agreed. For example, the Latin adjective with the meaning "yellow" (th, th) has three forms of the genus - flavus (m. P.), Flava (f. P.), Flavum (c. P.).

3. Inflection of adjectives also occurs in cases and numbers, that is, adjectives, like nouns, are inclined.

Adjectives, unlike nouns, are declined only in I, II or III declension.

The specific type of declension by which this or that adjective is changed is determined by the standard dictionary form in which it is written in the dictionary and in which it should be memorized.

In the dictionary form of the vast majority of adjectives, endings characteristic of one kind or another are indicated in them. n. units h.

Moreover, some adjectives have endings in them. items for each genus are completely different, for example: rectus, recta, rectum - straight, straight, straight; other adjectives for masculine and feminine have one common ending, and for the neuter gender it is different, for example: brevis - short and short, breve - short.

Adjectives are given in different ways in dictionary form. For example: rectus, -a, -um; brevis, -e.

The ending is -us m. replaced in f. R. to -a (recta), but cf. R. - to -um (rectum).

14. Two groups of adjectives

Depending on the type of declension by which the adjectives are inclined, they are divided into 2 groups. Membership in a group is recognized by standard vocabulary forms.

The 1st group includes adjectives that are inclined according to I and II declensions. They are easily recognizable by their endings. n. -us (or -er), -a, -um in dictionary form.

The 2nd group includes all adjectives that have a different dictionary form. Their inflection occurs according to the III declension.

Memorizing the dictionary form is necessary in order to correctly determine the type of declension and use the corresponding endings in indirect cases.

1st group adjectives

If there is a dictionary form with endings in them. n. units h. -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -um adjectives in the form of f. R. incline according to I declension, in the form of m. and cf. R. - according to the II declension.

For example: longus, -a, -um - long; liber, -era, -erum - free. In the genus. they have, respectively, endings:

Some adjectives that have a m. the ending -er, the letter "e" drops out in m., starting with genus. n. units h., and in. R. and on Wed. R. - in all cases, without exception. Other adjectives do not. For example, the dictionary forms ruber, -bra, -brum, liber, -era, -erum.

Group 2 adjectives

Group 2 adjectives are declined according to the III declension. Their dictionary form differs from the adjectives of the 1st group.

By the number of generic endings in the dictionary form, adjectives of the 2nd group are divided into:

1) adjectives with two endings;

2) adjectives of the same ending;

3) adjectives with three endings.

1. Adjectives of two endings in anatomical-histological and in general in medical terminology are found most often. They have them. n., singular only two generic endings - -is, -e; -is - common for m. and w. r., e - only for Wed. R. For example: brevis - short, short; breve is short.

The predominant number of adjectives of two endings found in the nomenclature is characterized by the following word-formation model.

2. Adjectives of one ending have for all genders one common ending in them. n. units h. Such an ending can be, in particular, -x, or -s, etc. For example: simplex - simple, -th, -th; teres - round, th, th; biceps - biceps, th, th.

3. Adjectives of three endings have endings: м. Р. - -er, g. p. - -is, cf. R. - th. For example: ce-ler, -eris, -ere - fast, -th, -th; celeber, -bris, -bre - healing, th, th.

All adjectives of the 2nd group, regardless of the dictionary form, are inclined according to the III declension and have a single base in indirect cases.

15. Adjective - Agreed Definition

Another type of subordinate connection, when the function of definition in a noun phrase is performed by a non-noun in the gender. etc., and the adjective is called agreement, and the definition is agreed.

When agreed upon, the grammatically dependent definition is likened to gender, number and case with the main word.

With a change in the grammatical forms of the main word, the forms of the dependent word also change. In other words, as in Russian, adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case.

For example, when agreeing the adjectives transversus, -a, -um and vertebralis, -e with the nouns processus, -us (m); linea, -ae (f); ligamentum, -i (n); ca-nalls, -is (m); incisura, -ae, (f); foramen, -inis (n) the following phrases are obtained:

As in Russian, Latin qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (gradus positivus), comparative (gradus comparativus) and excellent (gradus superlativus).

The comparative degree is formed from the stem of the positive degree by adding the suffix -ior to it for m. and w. p., suffix -ius - for cf. R. For instance:

1. The main grammatical feature of adjectives in the comparative degree are: for m. and f. R. - suffix -ior, for cf. R. - suffix -ius.

For example: brevior, -ius; latior, -ius.

2. In all adjectives, the base coincides with the form of m. and w. R. in them. n. units h .:

3. Adjectives are declined in a comparative degree according to the III declension. Form genus. n. units h. in all three genera is the same: it is formed by joining the ending -is to the stem.

4. Adjectives are comparatively consistent with nouns in gender, number, and case, that is, they are consistent definitions: sutura latior; sulcus latior; foramen latius.

16. Nominative plural

1. Any case endings, including endings by them. n. pl. h. are always attached to the base.

2. For the formation of word forms them. n. pl. h. different declensions must adhere to the following provisions.

If the noun refers to cf. r., then it declines in accordance with the rule cf. r., which reads: all words cf. R. (both nouns and adjectives of all degrees of comparison), regardless of which declension they belong to, end in them. n. pl. hours on -a. This applies only to the words cf. p., for example: ligamenta lata - broad ligaments, crura ossea - bony legs, ossa temporalia - temporal bones, cornua majora - large horns.

Word endings in m. and f. R. in them. n. pl. hours easier to remember, taking into account each individual declension. In this case, it is necessary to remember the following correspondences: nouns I, II, IV declensions have in them. n. pl. h. exactly the same ending as in the genus. n. pl. h. The same correspondence is observed for adjectives of the 1st group, because they are inclined like nouns of I and II declensions, for example:

Nouns of the III and V declensions, as well as adjectives of the III declension and comparative adjectives (they are also declined according to the III declension) have in them. n. pl. h .. the same ending -es.

Generalization of data on the endings of nouns and adjectives in them. n. pl. h.

17. Genitive plural

Continuing the study of the inflection of nouns and adjectives in the plural, it is necessary to note the genitive case of the plural.

To learn how to quickly and accurately form terms in the form of genus. n. pl. h., you must be able to:

determine by the dictionary form of a noun its belonging to a certain declension; highlight the basis;

recognize the genus by the characteristic endings to them. n. units h; to establish in the dictionary form, the adjective belongs to the 1st or 2nd group; to establish by which of the three declensions (I-II or III) the given adjective is declined, consistent with the noun in gender, number and case.

Genitive plural endings (Genetivus pluralis)

The -um ending has:

1) non-simple nouns of all three genders, the stem of which ends in one consonant: tendinum (m), regionum (f), foraminum (n); 2) adjectives in the comparative degree of all three genders (they also have a base of one consonant): majorum (m, f, n).

The -ium ending has:

1) all other nouns with a stem for more than one consonant; equivalent to -es, -is; nouns R. on -e, -ai, -ar: dentium (m), partium (f), ossium (n), animalium, avium, retium;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group of all three genders: brevi-um (m, f, n).

Notes.

1. Noun vas, vasis (n) - vessel in singular. h. declines according to the III declension, and in plural. hours - on II; Gen. pl. - vasorum.

2. The term os ilium (ilium) uses the form genus. n. pl. hours from the noun ile, -is (n) (lower abdomen); them. n. pl. hours - ilia (iliac region). Therefore, it is wrong to change the ilium form to ilii (ossis ilii).

3. The noun fauces, -ium - pharynx is used only in plural. h.

4. Nouns of Greek origin larynx, pharynx, meninx, phalanx end in them. pl. h. to -um.

18. Morphemic analysis

In a linear sequence, the composition of the word is divided into minimal, indivisible neither in form nor in meaning of the part: prefix (prefix), root, suffix and ending (inflection). All of these minimal significant parts of the word are called morphemes (Greek morphe - form). The core of the meaning is contained in the root, for example: sweat, sweat, sweat, effusion, etc. The prefix and suffix, distinguished by their position to the root, are called together by word-formation affixes (Latin affixus - "attached").

By joining them to the root, derivatives are formed - new - words. The ending - an affix with grammatical meaning is not used for word formation, but for inflection (in cases, numbers, gender). Dividing a word into morphemes is called compositional analysis, or morpheme analysis.

All the unchanging part of the word preceding the ending, which carries the basic lexical meaning, is called the base of the word. In the words vertebr-a, vertebral-is, intervertebral-is, the bases are, respectively, vertebr-, vertebral-, intervertebral-.

The stem can in some cases be represented only by the root, in some others - by the root and derivational affixes, that is, by the root, suffix and prefix.

Morphemic analysis shows what minimal significant parts (morphemes) the studied word consists of, but does not answer the question of what is the actual mechanism of word formation. This mechanism is revealed with the help of derivational analysis. The meaning of the analysis is to isolate two direct components in a word: that single segment (generating basis) and that (those) affix (s), due to the combination of which the derived word is formed.

The difference between derivational and morphemic analysis can be shown in the following example.

The adjective interlobularis (interlobular) from the standpoint of morphemic analysis consists of five morphemes: inter- (prefix), -lob- (root), -ul-, -ar- (suffixes), -is (ending); from the standpoint of derivational analysis, two direct components are isolated: inter- - between (prefix) + -lobular (is) - lobular (producing stem, or word).

The real mechanism of formation: inter- (prefix) + -lobular (is) (producing base, not divisible in this case into morphemes).

Consequently, the producing one is the one from which another, more complex derivative basis is formed by attaching the affix (s) to it.

The derivative base is more productive by at least one morpheme.

19. Productive stem of the word

To highlight the generating basis in the word in question, it should be compared with two rows of words:

a) cholecyst-itis, cholecyst-o-graphia, cholecyst-o-pexia;

b) nephr-itis, vagin-itis, gastr-itis, etc. The producing base is not only the material backbone of the derived word, but also motivates, that is, determines its meaning. In this sense, one can judge about motivating and motivated words or about motivating and motivated bases. For example, derivatives - the names of diseases of the heart muscle - myocarditis, myocardiofibrosis, myocardosis, myocardtodystrophia - are motivated by the motivating basis myo-card (ium).

The motivated word differs from the motivating one in greater semantic (in meaning) complexity, for example: the histological term myoblastus (myoblast), consisting of two root morphemes myo- - "muscle" + blastus (Greek blastos - "sprout", "embryo"), means a poorly differentiated cell from which a striated muscle fiber develops. The same word served as a motivating basis for the formation of the motivated word myoblastoma (myoblastoma) - the name of a tumor consisting of large cells - myoblasts.

There are times when the concepts of the productive and motivating words do not completely coincide. This happens if the motivating factor is not a single word, but a whole word combination (adjective + noun), and only the adjective is used as a productive basis. Such, for example, are the word-terms choledocho-piastica, chcledocho-tomia, choledocho-scopia, mastoid-itis, mastoido-tomia, for which the motivating phrases are ductus choledochus (common bile duct) and processus mastoideus (mastoid process), and producing basics - choledoch- (Greek chole - "bile" + doche - "vessel", "container") and mastoid- (Greek mastos - "nipple" + -eides - "similar", "similar"; "mastoid") ...

The names or surnames of persons who first discovered or described this or that phenomenon are also used as productive bases in clinical and pathological terms. Such "family" terms are called eponymous, or eponyms. The motivation for each such term is usually a phrase - an anatomical name, which includes its own name.

For example: in the term highmoritis (sinusitis) the producing base is haimor- on behalf of the English physician and anatomist N. Highmore, who described the maxillary sinus, named after him the maxillary sinus. In the international Parisian anatomical nomenclature approved in 1955, all eponyms (names of authors) were removed and replaced with informative terms indicating the main morphological features of the corresponding formation. For example, instead of the eponym "Bartholin's gland" the term glandula vestibularis major was introduced, instead of "Cooper's gland" - glandula bulbourethralis, instead of "Virungian ducts" - ductus pancreaticus major, instead of "maxillary sinus" - sinus maxiliaris, etc.

20. Articulation of terms

Members are words, at least one part of which is repeated in any other words that are related to the data by meaning. The articulation of different words can be complete or incomplete. Those derivatives are fully articulated, all of whose constituent parts (individual morphemes or a block of morphemes) are repeated in other derivatives. If not every significant part is found in other modern medical terms, then the derivative is incompletely segmented. For example, the following words:

1) with full articulation: pod-algia (Greek pus, podos - "leg" + algos - "pain"), neur-algia (Greek neuron - "nerve"), as well as my-algia (Greek mys, myos - "muscle"), kephal-o-metria (Greek kephalos - "head"), thorac-o-metria (Greek thorax, thorakos - "chest", "chest"), etc .;

2) with incomplete articulation: pod-agra (Greek podagra - "trap"; aching legs; from pus, podos - "leg" + agra - "seizure", "attack"). If the first part is isolated, as it is found in a number of modern terms, then the second part - agra - is practically singular.

Almost all terms are derived words that arose naturally in ancient Greek and Latin, or artificially created from morphemes and the generative stems of these languages, are fully segmented. This means that they are also fully motivated within the framework of modern terminology. The remarkable property of complete articulation becomes even more important for the master of the basics of medical terminology due to the fact that a significant number of morphemes and morpheme blocks are frequent.

Frequency should be considered those morphemes and blocks that are repeated in different words at least 2-3 times. It is clear that the greater the frequency, that is, the greater the number of uses, the parts of the derivatives have, the more significant they play in terminology. Some high-frequency morphemes and blocks are involved in the formation of dozens of terms.

Many morphemes of the ancient Greek and Latin languages \u200b\u200bacquired specific, sometimes new, meanings in the terminology that were previously unusual for them in the ancient source language. Such meanings are called terminological. So, for example, the Greek word kytos (vessel, cavity) in the Latinized form cytus began to be used as a regular root morpheme in the structure of dozens of terms - derived words - meaning "cell". The suffix of ancient Greek adjectives -itis, which gave them the general meaning of "belonging, belonging", became a regular part of noun terms with the meaning of "inflammation".

21. Term element

Any part of a derived word (morpheme, block of morphemes) that is regularly reproduced in finished form when using existing or creating new terms and retaining a certain meaning assigned to it in terminology is called a term element.

Term elementis a component that recurs regularly in a series of terms and has a specialized meaning. At the same time, it is not of fundamental importance in the form of what transcription, Latin or Russian, the same international term element of Greek-Latin origin appears: infra- - infra-; -tomia - -tomy; nephro- - nephro-, etc. For example: the term cardiologia - the science of diseases of the cardiovascular system consists of the initial term cardio - heart and the final -logia - science, a branch of knowledge.

Dividing a word-term into term elements does not always coincide with dividing it into morphemes, since some term elements represent a whole block - a union of 2-3 morphemes in one whole: prefix + root, root + suffix, prefix + root + suffix. In such a regular formal and semantic fusion, these blocks of morphemes are distinguished in a number of similarly formed derivatives, for example, in terms of asthen-o-spermia - asthen-o-sperm, asthen-opia - asthen-opium, asthen-o-depressivus - asthen-o- depressive, asthen-isatio - asthenization, the block term element asthen (o) - (asthen (o) -), from the Greek. asthenes - "weak": negative prefix a- - "not, without" + sthenos - "strength".

High-frequency term elements tom-ia (-to-miya) (Greek tome - "cut"), rhaph-ia (-raphia) (Greek rhaphe - "seam"), log-ia (-logy) (Greek logos - "science") - the final parts of the derivatives - are two-morphological in their composition: root + suffix -ia, giving the words a general meaning "action, phenomenon". The high-frequency term -ectomia (-ectomy) - the final part of the derivatives - consists of three ancient Greek morphemes: the prefix ec- + root -tome- - "incision" + suffix -ia - "excision", "removal".

Terminology elements of Greek-Latin origin constitute the international "golden fund" of biological and medical terminology.

With the help of frequency term elements, numerous series of terms of the same type in their structure and semantics (meaning) are formed. Interacting with each other, the term elements all together form a complex formal-semantic term system, which remains open for the inclusion of new term elements and new series of terms in it, and in which each term element has a certain place and meaning.

A huge number of medical terms are formed by adding stems, combined with a suffix. In this case, the suffix of Greek origin -ia is used more often than others. For example, haemorrhagia in ancient Greek is produced by adding two stems: haem - "blood" + rhagos - "torn, torn" + suffix -ia.

22. Greco-Latin doublets

The division of term elements into bound and free should be constantly taken into account. For example, when comparing anatomical meanings in normal anatomy, on the one hand, with similar meanings in pathological anatomy and in a complex of clinical disciplines, on the other, the following pattern emerges: one and the same organ is denoted in two ways - different not only in its linguistic origin, but also in grammatical registration with signs. In the nomenclature of normal anatomy, this is an independent and usually Latin word, and in pathological anatomy, it is a related term element of Greek origin. Much less often in both disciplines, the same name is used, borrowed from one language that is the source, for example, the Greek hepar, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, urethra, thorax, ureter, encephalon and the Latin appendix, tonsilla and others that were used even in ancient medicine, as well as complex-suffix derivatives on -turn, created in modern times; for example, myocardium, endothelium, perimetrium, etc. These words are included in the structure of compound words in clinical terminology as free terms: hepatomegaly, endothelioma, encephalopathy, myocardiopathy, appendectomy. In the anatomical nomenclature, there are designations of the same entity both as an independent Latin root word and a Greek component in the derivative; for example, chin - lat. mentum, but "chin-lingual" - genioglossus (Greek geneion - "chin"); language - lat. lingua, but "sublingual" - hypoglossus; "glossopharyngeal" - glossopharyngeus (Greek glossa - "language"), etc. Latin and Greek designations of anatomical formations, which have exactly the same meaning, are called Greco-Latin doublet designations (or doublets). The following fundamental position can be formulated: as a rule, Greco-Latin doublets are used to designate the majority of anatomical formations (organs, body parts), and in the anatomical nomenclature - mainly Latin words, in clinical terminology - related terms of Greek origin.

Scope of doublets

23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure of a derived word

Term elements are mostly unambiguous, but some of them have two or more meanings.

So, for example, the term element оnсo- (Greek onkos - "pile, mass, volume, swelling") in some complex words means "volume, mass" (oncogramma - oncogram - a curve reflecting volume changes; oncometria - oncometry - measurement of volume tissue or organ), in others - "tumor" (oncogenesis - oncogenesis - the process of the emergence and development of a tumor; oncologist - a doctor, specialist in the treatment and prevention of tumors, etc.).

The final component-lysis (Greek "untie, decomposition, dissolution"; lyo - "untie, release") in some compound words means "decomposition, decay, dissolution" (autolysis, karyolysis, hemolysis, etc.), in others - "surgical operation of release from adhesions, adhesions" (cardiolysis, pneumo (no) lysis, etc.).

Usually, the place of the motivating single-root stem in the structure of words does not affect its meaning: whether it is megalo- or -megalia (increase), gnatho- or -gnathia (jaw), blepharo- or -blepharia (eyelid), the meaning of the term elements will remain unambiguous. Some term elements, like the above, can act both first and final. Others can occupy only one permanent place, for example, as final (-cele, -clasia, -le-psia, -peaia), some can only be the first components (auto-, brady-, bary-, laparo-).

1. It should be borne in mind that, depending both on the specific meaning of the other component involved in the addition, and on the place occupied in the complex word, some shades may arise that affect the general meaning of the motivated word. Thus, the term elements haemo-, haemato- and -aemia with the same root term have the general meaning "related to blood." At the same time, the final term element -aemia, which is preceded by the designation of a substance, indicates blood as an environment in which substances are found, the presence and concentration of which in this environment are pathological (azotaemia, uraemia, bacteriaemia, etc.). If the term elements haemo- or haemato- are combined with the designation of the organ, then the general meaning of the compound word is the accumulation of blood in the cavity of the organ, hemorrhage (haematomyelia - hemorrhage into the substance of the spinal cord, haemarthrosis - accumulation of blood in the joint cavity).

2. For a logical understanding of the general meaning of a derived word, it is advisable to start the semantic analysis of its constituent term elements from the final term element. For example, gastro / entero-logia: logia - "science about ...": gastro- - "stomach", entera- - "intestines".

3. The general meaning of a motivated word is always somewhat more voluminous, fuller, deeper than a simple addition of the meanings of the motivating components: for example, gastrojejunoplastica (Greek gaster - "stomach" + Latin jejunum - "jejunum" + plastike - "formation, plastic") - surgery to replace the stomach with a segment of the jejunum.

24. Formal-linguistic types of clinical terms

Formal linguistic types of clinical terms are different.

1. Unmotivated simple words:

1) simple root words of Latin or ancient Greek origin: for example, stupor - stupor (numbness), tremor - tremor (tremor), thrombus - thrombus (blood clot), aphthae - aphthae (rash);

2) simple derivatives (in the source language) - prefix and affix: for example, insultus (Latin insulto - "attack") - stroke, infarctus (Latin infarcio - "fill, stuff") - heart attack, aneurysma (Greek aneuryno - "expand") - aneurysm.

The given simple root and simple derivative words and many other similar clinical terms turn out to be indistinct in the framework of modern terminology and, therefore, unmotivated. Most often they are not translated, but borrowed, transcribed by means of national languages \u200b\u200b(Russian, English, etc.) and are internationalisms.

2. Terms and phrases. Nominal phrases occupy a significant place in clinical terminology. For their education, no special knowledge is required, except for grammar. In each phrase, the pivotal word is the defined word - the noun in it. n. units or pl. h. Usually this is a generic term, ie, the name of a higher, more general concept in the classification.

Defining words are most often represented by adjectives. Their role is to clarify in a certain respect the generic (general) concept: for example, pneumonia adenoviralis - adenoviral pneumonia, p. apicalis - apical pneumonia, p. haefflorrhagica - hemorrhagic pneumonia, etc.

The most common meaning of the defining words is the localization of the lesion: abscessus appendicis, ab. femoris, ab. parietis arteriae, ab. mesenterii, ab. poliicis, ab. bronchi, ab. peritonealis; ulcus pharyngis, etc.

Some internationalist phrases are traditionally included in the text in national languages \u200b\u200bin Latin grammatical form and transcription, for example genu valgum (curved knee inward).

3. Fully severable motivated word terms. Among the formal linguistic types of clinical terms, they are of greatest interest in teaching the basics of medical terminology. The first motivating bases in complex words are Greek or, less often, Latin terms with anatomical meaning. Final components carry the main semantic load, perform (like suffixes) a classifying function.

Some of them relate this concept with a certain group, a class of pathological phenomena (signs, conditions, diseases, processes), others - with surgical operations or diagnostic techniques, etc. For example, terms with the initial term cardio- (Greek kardia - "heart"): cardiosclerosis, cardioneurosis, cardiomegalia, cardiolysis, cardiotomia, cardiographia, cardiotachometria, cardiovolumometria.

25. Ways of word formation. Deminutives

The main ways of word formation are affix and non-affix.

Affixal means are ways of forming derivatives by adding derivational affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to the generating stems.

Non-affix methods are used mainly for the formation of complex words.

A complex word is a word that consists of more than one productive stem. A compound word is formed by the way of constitution.

A word, in the structure of which there is only one productive base, is called simple: for example, costoarticularis is a compound word, and costalis and articularis are simple words.

There are also mixed ways of word formation: prefixing + suffixing, addition + suffixing, the way of creating compound words, etc.

Deminutives- nouns with a general derivational meaning "diminutiveness".

A motivated diminutive noun (deminative) retains the gender of the motivating word from which it is derived. These motivated words are inclined only according to the I or II declension, regardless of which declension the motivating word belongs to: for example, nodus, -i (m); nodu-lus; vas, vasis (n) vasculum.

1. Some artificially formed terms do not have a diminutive meaning; these are the designations of the stages of development of the embryo: gastrula, blastula, morula, organella.

2. The nouns macula (spot), acetabulum (acetabulum) and some others also do not have a diminutive meaning.

26. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "action, process"

In Latin there are nouns that have certain suffixes with the general meaning "action, process".

1. Nouns of this very productive derivational type denote operations, methods of examination, physiological functions, treatments, theoretical concepts in various disciplines: for example, auscultatio - auscultation, listening; percussio - percussion, tapping; palpatio - palpation, feeling.

All three terms refer to methods for examining internal organs.

There are derivatives on -io, denoting not only an action, a process, but also the result of this action, for example, decussatio - a cross (formation in the form of X); impresso - impression; terminatio - end, end.

2. Among the artificially formed words in -io, some do not come from the verb, but from the nominal stem, for example decapsulatio - decapsulation, the operative removal of the shell of the organ; hepatisatio - hepatization, compaction of lung tissue.

3. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "an object (organ, instrument, device) that performs an action; a person carrying out the activity".

4. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "result of action".

27. Adjective suffixes

I. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "characterized or rich in a feature indicated by the generating stem".

II. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "belonging to or related to what is called the generating stem".

III. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "similar to what is called the stem of the word."

IV. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "carrying that which is called the generating basis."

V. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning:

1) "generating, producing, causing what is called the basis" (active meaning);

2) "generated, caused, due to what is called the basis" (passive meaning).

28. Features of foundation

1. As the most common derivational means, with the help of which two or more generating stems are combined into a single word, an interfix, or a connecting vowel, is used. In medical terminology, the most common interfix is \u200b\u200b-o, less often -i- is used. In the original words of the ancient Greek language, only the interfix -o is used, Latin - -i-: for example, lat. aur-i-scalpium (auris - "ear" + scalpo - "scrape, cut") - ear cleaning; viv-i-ficatio (vivus - "live" + facio - "to do") - revival.

However, in artificial neologisms, this linguistic pattern has ceased to be observed. Regardless of the origin, the interfix -o- is used (neur-o-cranium, cary-o-lysis, lept-o-meniux, lat.auropalpebraiis, lat.nasolacrimal, etc.). The first components of addition are usually indicated in dictionaries and reference books along with the interfix: thoraco-, spondylo-. Non-interfix connection of components usually takes place, although not always, if the first component ends with a vowel or the second component begins with a vowel: for example, the terms brady- (Greek bradys - "slow"): brady-cardia; brachy- (Greek brachys - "short"): brachy-dactylia; rhin- (Greek rhis, rhinos - "nose"): rhin-encephalon.

2. The variability of the producing base. In Latin and Greek there are nouns and adjectives (III declension), in which the bases of the word forms of the nominative and genitive cases differ: for example, cortex, cortic-is; Greek som-a, somat-os - "body"; Greek meg-as, megal-u - "big"; Greek pan, pant-os - "everything", etc. The base of the genitive case acts as the productive stem of Latin words: pariet-o-graphia, cortic-o-visceralis; in Greek words, the genitive stem is also more often the generative stem. At the same time, sometimes the generating stem appears in a variant form - either nominative or genitive, for example: pan-, pant - "everything" (pan-demia, pant-o-phobia), mega- - "big" (megacolon, megal -o-biastus).

There are also three-variant forms of the same term element: initial - haemo-, haemato-, final -aemia with the general meaning "related to blood" (haemo-glоbinum, haemato-logia, an-aemia).

3. Phonetic-graphic variance of the foundations. Some Greek stems have experienced varying degrees of Romanization. In some cases, a pronunciation close to the Greek language was preserved, in others there was a convergence with the norm of the Latin language. As a result, one and the same morpheme can be spelled differently: Greek. cheir - "hand" - cheir and chir; Greek koinos - "common", "joint" - coenosis, koino-. Various transcriptions of the Greek word neuron - "nerve" in Russian terms are used: neurology, but neurosurgery; neuritis (axon) and neuritis (nerve inflammation).

29. Prefix

Prefixing, that is, attaching a prefix morpheme (prefix) to the root, does not change its meaning, but only adds to this value some component indicating localization (above, below, front, back), direction (approach, distance), flow in time (before something, after something), on the absence or denial of something.

Prefixes developed mainly from prepositions, so their direct meanings coincide with the meanings of the corresponding prepositions.

Some prefixes have developed secondary, portable ones based on direct meanings. So, the Greek preposition-prefix para- ("about, next to") developed a figurative meaning "retreat, deviation from something, inconsistency of the external manifestations of the essence of this phenomenon": for example, para-nasalis - paranasal, but para-mnesia (Greek . mnesis - "memory") - paramnesia - the general name for distortions of memories and deceptions of memory.

In descriptive names used in morphological disciplines, prefix term elements have a direct meaning. In terms expressing the concepts of pathological conditions, diseases, impaired functions of organs, and the like, prefix term elements are often used with secondary meanings. In various subsystems of medical terminology and in biology, the Greek and Latin prefixes are extremely widespread.

As a rule, Latin prefixes are attached to Latin roots, Greek ones to Greek roots. However, there are also exceptions, the so-called hybrids, for example, in the words epi-fascialis - suprafascial, endo-cervicalis - Greek intra-cervical prefixes, and the producing stems are Latin. When prefixed, the whole word acts as a productive basis: intra-articularis - intra-articular.

Antonymic prefixes. An important role in the functioning of medical terms is played by antonymic prefixes, that is, those whose meanings are opposite: for example, lat. intra- - "inside" and extra- - "outside", "outside", etc.

Latin-Greek doublet prefixes. The meanings of a number of Latin prefixes are the same as or very close to certain Greek prefixes:

lat. media- - Greek. meso- - "in the middle", "between".

When attaching prefixes to stems, changes may occur in the console, influenced by the initial sound of the stem.

This is mainly manifested in assimilation (lat. Assimilalio - "assimilation", "similarity"): the final consonant in the prefix is \u200b\u200bfully or partially assimilated to the initial sound of the generating stem. For some Latin prefixes, elision may occur, that is, the loss of the final consonant. In the Greek prefixes ana-, dia-, cafa-, meta-, para-, and-, epi-, apo-, hypo-, meso-, elision is manifested in the falling off of the final vowel before the initial vowel of the stem. This eliminates possible gaping (vowel with vowel).

30. Infinitive

Depending on the nature of the stem - the final sound of the stem - verbs are divided into IV conjugation.

In I, II, IV conjugations, stems end in a vowel, and in III - most often in a consonant.

The infinitive is an indefinite form. To correctly highlight the stem and determine by its final sound which of the four conjugations a particular verb belongs to, you must remember the infinitive of this verb. Infinitive - the original form of the verb; it does not change in persons, numbers and moods. The infinitive feature in all conjugations is the ending -re. In I, II and IV conjugations, it is attached directly to the stem, and in III - through the connecting vowel -.

Samples of the infinitive of verbs I-IV conjugations

In II and III conjugations, the vowel [e] differs not only in brevity or length: in II conjugation it is the final sound of the stem, and in III it is a connecting vowel between the stem and the ending.

The stem of the verb is practically determined from the infinitive form by separating the ending -re for I, II, IV conjugations and -ere for III conjugation verbs.

Unlike the usual full dictionaries of the Latin language in educational dictionaries for medical students, the verb is given in an abbreviated dictionary form: the full form of the 1st person singular. the present tense of the indicative mood of the active voice (ending -o), then the ending of the infinitive -re is indicated together with the preceding vowel, that is, the last three letters of the infinitive. At the end of the dictionary form, a digit denotes conjugation, for example:

31. Imperative and subjunctive mood

In prescriptions, a doctor's appeal to a pharmacist about the manufacture of a medicine has the character of an order, an inducement to a specific action. This meaning of the verb is expressed by the imperative or subjunctive mood.

As in Russian, the order is addressed to the 2nd person. The recipe uses only the 2nd person singular imperative. This form completely coincides with the stem of verbs I, II, and IV of conjugations, and -e is added to the stem of verbs III of conjugation.

In practice, to form an imperative, it is necessary to discard the infinitive ending -re from verbs of all conjugations, for example:

The imperative mood in the form of the 2nd person pl. ch. is formed by attaching the ending -te: in verbs I, II, IV conjugations - directly to the stem, in verbs III conjugation - using the connecting vowel -i - (- ite).

Subjunctive mood

Value. The recipe uses only one of the many meanings of the Latin subjunctive mood - command, urge to action.

In Russian, conjunctival forms with this meaning are translated by a verb in combination with the word "let" or an indefinite form of the verb, for example: let it be mixed or mixed.

Education. The conjunctiva is formed by changing the stem: in I conjugation -a is replaced by -e, in II, III and IV - -a is added to the stem. The personal endings of the verbs are added to the modified stem.

Conjunctival base formation

Latin verbs, like Russian, have 3 persons; in medical terminology, only the 3rd person is used. Personal endings of verbs in the 3rd person are shown in the table.

32. Conjunctiva. Accusative

Examples of conjugation of verbs in the conjunctiva of the active and passive voice.

Accusative

For the correct writing of recipes, it is necessary to master the endings of two cases - the accusative and the so-called ablative - in five declensions of nouns and adjectives I, II and III declensions. Accusativus (vin. P.) Is the direct object case; as in Russian, it answers the questions "who?" So what?" For convenience, first, the endings of this case, which have neuter nouns and adjectives, are separately memorized, and then the endings of masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives. Neuter rules. All neuter nouns and adjectives, regardless of their declension, obey the following rules.

1. End of Ass. sing. matches the ending Nom. sing. given word: for example, linimentum compositum, semen dulce.

2. End of Ass. pl. matches the ending Nom. pl. and regardless of the declension, always -a (-ia): for example, linimenta composita, semina dulcia.

Only nouns have the ending -ia. R. on -e, -al, -ar (III declension) and all adjectives of the 2nd group (III declension).

Male and female gender. Masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives in Ass. sing. have a common final element -m, and in Acc. pl. - -s; they are preceded by certain vowels depending on the declension.

The -im ending in Acc. sing. take Greek nouns in -sis like dosis, is (f) and some Latin nouns: pertussis, is (f).

33. Ablative. Prepositions

Ablativus- this is the case corresponding to the Russian instrumental case; answers the questions "by whom?", "by what?". In addition, it performs the functions of some other cases.

The endings of the ablative are shown in the table

The -i ending in Abl. sing. accept:

1) nouns ending in -e, -al, -ar;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group;

3) equivalent nouns of Greek origin in -sis of the dosis type.

All prepositions in Latin are used with only two cases: the accusative and the ablative. The control of prepositions in Russian is not the same as in Latin.

1. Prepositions used with the accusative case.

2. Prepositions used with the ablative.

3. Prepositions used with either the accusative case or the ablative.

The prepositions in - "in", "on" and sub - "under" control two cases, depending on the question posed. Questions "where?", "What?" require the accusative case, the questions "where?", "in what?" - ablative.

Examples of the use of prepositions with dual control.

34. Form - cyclical, terminological

Pharmaceutical terminology is a complex consisting of a set of terms of a number of special disciplines, united under the general name "pharmacy" (Greek pharmakeia - creation and use of drugs), which study the research, production, use of medicinal products of plant, mineral, animal and synthetic origin. The central place in this terminological complex is occupied by the nomenclature of drugs - an extensive set of names of drugs and drugs officially approved for use. The pharmaceutical market uses tens and hundreds of thousands of names of medicines. The total number of medicines and their combinations available in different countries exceeds 250 thousand. Every year, the pharmacy chain receives more and more new drugs.

To have an idea of \u200b\u200bhow the names of medicines are created, which affects the choice of certain methods of word formation and structural types of names, it is necessary to familiarize yourself at least in the most general terms with some general pharmaceutical terms.

1. Medicinal product (medicamentum) - a substance or a mixture of substances permitted by the authorized body of the relevant country in the prescribed manner for use for the purpose of treating, preventing or diagnosing a disease.

2. Medicinal substance (materia medica) - a medicinal product that is an individual chemical compound or biological substance.

3. Medicinal herbal raw materials - herbal raw materials permitted for medical use.

4. Dosage form (forma medicamentorum) - a condition that is given to a medicinal product or herbal raw materials, convenient for use, in which the necessary therapeutic effect is achieved.

5. Medicinal product (praeparatum pharmaceuticum) - a medicinal product in the form of a specific dosage form.

6. Active ingredient - a component (s) of a medicinal product providing (s) a therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic effect.

7. Combined medicinal products - medicinal products containing more than one active substance in fixed doses in one dosage form.

35. Trivial names of medicinal substances

Some chemical compounds used as medicinal substances retain the same traditional semi-systematic names that they received in the chemical nomenclature (salicylic acid, sodium chloride).

However, in a much larger volume in the nomenclature of drugs, chemical compounds are presented not under their scientific (systematic) names, but under trivial (Latin trivialis - "ordinary") names. Trivial names do not reflect any uniform principles of scientific classification adopted by chemists, do not indicate composition or structure. In this respect, they are completely inferior to systematic names. However, the latter are unsuitable as names for medicinal substances due to their cumbersomeness and complexity for use in prescriptions, on labels, in pharmacy trade.

Trivial names are short, convenient, available not only for professional, but also for ordinary communication.

Examples of trivial names

Ways of word formation of trivial names

Trivial names of medicines are derivatives of various derivational structures. A word or a group of words, which are often the systematic names of chemical compounds or the names of the sources of their production, are used as generators. The main "building" material for the formation of trivial names - words, derivational elements, roots and just the so-called verbal segments of ancient Greek and Latin origin. So, for example, a preparation from the herb of the spring adonis (Adonis vernalis) is called Adonisidum - adonisid; a substance (glycoside) obtained from some species of the foxglove plant (Digitalis) is called Digoxinum - digoxin. The name Mentholum - menthol is given to a substance obtained from mint oil (oleum Menthae).

Among the various methods of word formation used to create trivial names, the most productive is abbreviation (lat. Brevis - "short") - abbreviation. This is a way of creating complex abbreviated words, so-called abbreviations, by combining word segments, arbitrarily selected from the corresponding generating words or phrases. As such, the systematic names of chemical compounds are often used.

The abbreviation is also used to form the names of combination medicines. Instead of listing the names of all active substances contained in one dosage form, the drug is assigned an abbreviated name. It is placed in quotation marks and is an appendix to the name of the dosage form.

36. General requirements for the names of medicinal products

1. In Russia, the name of each new drug is officially approved in the form of two intertranslational equivalents in Russian and Latin, for example: solutio Glucosi - glucose solution. As a rule, the Latin names of medicinal substances are nouns of the II declension cf. R. The Russian name differs from the Latin only in transcription and the absence of the -um ending, for example: Amidopyrinum - amidopyrine, Validolum - validol. The trivial names of combined drugs, which are inconsistent applications to the name of the dosage form, are also nouns of the II declension cf. p .: for example, tabulettae "Haemostimulinum" - tablets "Hemostimulin".

2. The name of medicines should be as short as possible; easy to pronounce; have a clear phonetic-graphic distinction. The latter requirement is of particular importance in practice.

Each title should be noticeably different in its sound composition and graphics (spelling) from other titles.

After all, it is enough to at least slightly inaccurately memorize the sound complex and write it down incorrectly in Latin letters in the recipe for a serious mistake to occur. A large number of drugs are supplied to the domestic market under original brand names. They are designed orthographically and grammatically most often in some national language, that is, they do not have Latin grammatical design. Often the names do not contain the ending -um completely (German) or partially (English) or the ending -um is replaced by -e (English and French), and in some languages \u200b\u200b(Italian, Spanish. , rum.) - on -a.

At the same time, firms assign names to their drugs with the traditional Latin ending -um. In domestic prescription practice, in order to avoid discrepancies, commercial names of imported drugs should be conventionally romanized: substitute the ending -um instead of the last vowel or add the ending -um to the final consonant, for example: instead of Mexase (mexase) - Mexasum, instead of Lasix (lasix) - Lasixum, etc. ...

Exceptions are allowed only for names ending in -a: Dopa, Nospa, Ambravena. They can be read and viewed by analogy with nouns of the 1st declension.

In modern commercial names, the traditional scientifically approved transcription of derivational elements (verbal segments) of Greek origin is often neglected; their graphic simplification is cultivated; to facilitate pronunciation ph is replaced by f, th - by t, ae - by e, y - by i.

37. Frequency segments in trivial names

A huge number of abbreviations, as noted, is formed by a combination of segments arbitrarily selected from the composition of the generating words - systematic names.

At the same time, the nomenclature contains many such names, the sound complexes of which include repeating frequency segments - a kind of pharmaceutical termoelements.

1. Frequency segments, very conditionally and approximately reflecting information of anatomical, physiological and therapeutic nature.

For example: Corvalolum, Cardiovaienum, Valosedan, Apressinum, Angiotensinamidum, Promedolum, Sedalgin, Antipyrinum, Anaesthesinum, Testosteronum, Agovirin, Androfort, Thyrotropinum, Cholosasum, Streptocidum, Mycoseptinum, Enteroseptolum.

2. Frequency segments carrying pharmacological information. Over the past decades, the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO) has spread to include in the trivial names of medicinal substances (namely substances!) Frequency segments that carry not random and vague characteristics, like the above segments, but stable information of a pharmacological nature.

For this purpose, it is recommended to include in the names frequency segments indicating the belonging of a medicinal substance to a certain pharmacological group. To date, several tens of such frequency segments have been recommended. For example: Sulfadimezinum, Penicillinum, Streptomycinum, Tetracyclinum, Barbamylum, Novocainum, Cortico-tropinum, Oestradiolum, Methandrostenolonum.

Trivial names for vitamins and multivitamin combination medicines

Vitamins are known both by their trivial names and by letter designations, for example: Retinolum seu Vitaminum A (also known under another name - Axerophtholum); Cyanocobalaminum seu Vitaminum B12; Acidum ascorbinicum seu Vitaminum C. The names of many multivitamin preparations include the frequency segment -vit- - -vit-, for example Tabulettae "Pentovitum" (contains 5 vitamins), Dragee "Hexavitum" (contains 6 vitamins), etc.

Trivial names for enzyme preparations

Often the names contain an indication that the drug affects the enzymatic processes of the body. This is evidenced by the presence of the suffix -as- - -az-. Such names are usually romanized by general rule, that is, get the ending -um. However, there are also deviations from this rule: for example, Desoxyribonucleasum (or Desoxyribcnucleasa) - deoxyribonuclease, Collagenasum - collagenase.

38. Dosage forms

Aerosolum, -i (n)- aerosol - dosage form, which is a dispersed system, obtained using a special package.

Granulum, -i (n)- granule - solid dosage form in the form of grains, grains.

Gutta, -ae (f)- drop - a dosage form intended for internal or external use in the form of drops.

Unguentum, -i (n)- ointment - a soft dosage form with a viscous consistency; intended for external use.

Linimentum, -i (n)- liniment - liquid ointment.

Pasta, -ae (f)- paste - ointment with a powdery substance content of over 20-25%.

Emplastrum, -i (n)- patch - a dosage form in the form of a plastic mass that softens at body temperature and sticks to the skin; intended for external use.

Suppositorium, -i (n)- suppository, candle - a dosage form that is solid at room temperature and expands or dissolves at body temperature; injected into the body cavity. If it is introduced per rectum (through the rectum), it is called a candle. If the suppository is in the form of a ball for insertion into the vagina, then it is called globulus vaginalis - a vaginal ball.

Pulvis, -eris (m)- powder - a dosage form intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta, -ae (f)- dosage form obtained by pressing medicinal substances

substances or mixtures of medicinal and auxiliary substances; intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta obducta- coated tablet - a coated tablet intended to localize the site of action, taste; preservation, improvement of appearance.

Dragee (fr.)- dragee (not skl.) - solid dosage form obtained by layering drugs and excipients on granules.

Pilula, -ae (f)- pill - a solid dosage form in the form of a ball (weight 0.1-0.5 g) containing drugs and excipients.

Species, -ei (f)(usually in the plural Species, -erum) - collection - a mixture of several types of crushed or whole medicinal raw materials for the preparation of infusions and decoctions.

C. amylacea seu oblate- dosage form, which is enclosed in a shell (from gelatin, starch or from another biopolymer) drugs; intended for indoor use.

Seu lamella ophthalmica- eye film - a dosage form in the form of a polymer film that replaces eye drops.

39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs

Solutio, -onis (f)- solution - a dosage form obtained by dissolving one or more medicinal substances; intended for injection, internal or external use.

Suspensio, -onis (f)- suspension - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system in which solid suspended in liquid; intended for internal, external or injection use.

Emulsum, -i (n)- emulsion - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system consisting of mutually insoluble liquids; intended for internal, external or injection use.

Tinctura, -ae (f)- tincture - a dosage form representing an alcoholic, alcohol-ether, alcohol-water transparent extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.

Infusum, -i (n)- infusion - dosage form, which is an aqueous extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.

Decoctum, -i (n)- a decoction - an infusion with a different extraction mode.

Sirupus, -i (m) (medicinalis)- syrup is a liquid dosage form intended for internal use.

Extractum, -i (n)- extract - dosage form, which is a concentrated extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.

Drug names.

1. If the dosage form given to a medicinal substance or herbal raw material is indicated in the name of the drug, then the name begins with its designation, followed by the name of the medicinal substance or raw material.

Tabulettae Analgini - analgin tablets, Pulvis Ampicillini - ampicillin powder, etc.

2. The name of a combination medicinal product accompanying the designation "dosage form" is a noun in it. etc., placed in quotes as an inconsistent appendix to the designation "dosage form", for example: Tabulettae "Urosalum" - tablets "Urosal", Unguentum "Calendula" - ointment "Calendula", etc.

3. In the names of infusions and decoctions between the designations "Dosage form" and "Plants" stands in the genus. the name of the type of raw material (leaf, grass, bark, root, flowers, etc.), for example: Infusum florum Chamomillae - infusion of chamomile flowers, Infusum radicis Valerianae - infusion of valerian root, etc.

4. The agreed definition characterizing the dosage form takes the last place in the name of the drug: for example, Unguentum Hydrargyri cinereum - mercury (mercury) gray ointment, Solutio Synoestroli oleosa - synestrol solution in oil (oil), Solutio Tannini spirituosa alcoholic tannin solution, Extractum siccum - dry belladonna extract.

40. Recipe

Recipe(receptum - "taken" from recipio, -ere - "to take", "to take") is a written prescription from a doctor to a pharmacist, drawn up in a certain form, about the manufacture, dispensing and method of using the medicine. A prescription is an important legal document that must be drawn up in accordance with official rules. Prescriptions are written out on a standard 105 x 108 mm letterhead clearly and legibly, without blots and corrections, in ink or ballpoint pen. Doctors who have the right to issue prescriptions are obliged to indicate their position and rank in them, put a signature and certify it with a personal seal.

The following parts are usually distinguished in a recipe.

1. Inscriptio - stamp of a medical institution and its code.

2. Datum - the date the prescription was issued.

3. Nomen aegroti - the patient's surname and initials.

4. Aetas aegroti - the patient's age.

5. Nomen medici - doctor's surname and initials.

6. Praescriptio - "prescription" in Latin, which consists of invocatio - a standard treatment to a doctor, Rr .: - Recipe - "take" and designatio materiarum - designations of substances indicating their quantity.

7. Subscriptio - "signature" (lit. "written below" designation of substances) - the part in which some instructions are given to the pharmacist: about the dosage form, the number of doses, the type of packaging, about the delivery of the medicine to the patient, etc.

8. Signature - a designation, a part that begins with the verb signa or signetur - "designate", "designate". Then an instruction to the patient about the method of taking the medicine follows in Russian and (or) the national language.

9. Nomen et sigillum personaie medici - a doctor's signature with a personal seal.

Each drug is prescribed on a separate prescription line and with a capital letter. The names of medicinal substances and plants inside the line are also written with a capital letter.

The names of medicinal substances or preparations are grammatically dependent on their dose (quantity) and are placed in the genus. P.

Prescribing rules

41. The use of the accusative case when prescribing tablets and suppositories

There are various approaches to naming pills and suppositories.

1. Medicinal preparations of a combined composition are assigned a trivial and most often abbreviated name, placed in quotation marks: for example, tabulettae "Codterpinum" - tablets "Codterpin"; suppositoria "Neo-anusolum" - candles "Neo-anusol".

The trivial names of tablets or suppositories are in them. n. units h. and are inconsistent applications. The dose is usually not indicated because it is standard.

2. If suppositories consist of one active medicinal substance, then its name is appended to the name of the dosage form using the preposition cum and is placed in the ablative indicating the dose; for example: Suppositoria cum Cordigito 0.0012 - candles with cordigite 0.0012.

3. If the tablets consist of one active medicinal substance, then after indicating the dosage form, its name is put into the genus. item with dose designation; for example: Tabulettae Cordigiti 0.0008 - Cordigit tablets 0.0008.

4. When prescribing tablets and suppositories in an abbreviated way, the name of the dosage form is put in wines. n. pl. hours (tabulettas, tabulettas obductas, suppositoria, suppositoria rectalia), since it grammatically depends on the Recipe, and not on the dose.

It is customary to call the Latin language dead, but nevertheless its knowledge is mandatory for those who associate themselves with the profession of a biologist, physician or lawyer, and it is interesting for those who want to know the origin of many famous words and expressions. Knowledge of Latin is a serious assistant in the study of any modern European language. Quite often you can find a word in Russian, which in one way or another is interpreted using a Latin dictionary.

To help those who are interested in All Courses, Kom has made a selection of the most useful and free youtube channels for learning Latin.

Latin for all

The channel contains over twenty meaningful Latin lessons. The teacher will introduce students to the alphabet, sounds and letters, Russian words with Latin roots, word order in Japanese sentences, Roman numerals, Latin cases, and a Latin verb. Everyone will be able to learn nouns, adjectives and declensions, verb forms, tenses, learn to build phrases correctly, learn more about Roman life, and much more.
The channel also contains useful educational videos on Spanish, English grammar, and there is a section on psychology, physics and legal law.

Latin with Ilyas Gimadeev

The author of the channel and the project manager is a Latin language teacher from Moscow.
The constantly updated channel at the moment can provide more than ten informative lectures for the free study of Latin, which touch on the topic of nouns and adjectives, declensions, and verbs. Pupils will be able to get acquainted with the alphabet, master the rules of reading in the Latin alphabet. Suitable for beginners and will replenish the knowledge in the minds of those continuing to learn.

Latin with Peter Makhlin

The author of the project, who is also a channel teacher, is a philologist by education, a novelist, author of books on linguistics, as well as scientific and about a hundred popular science articles on linguistics, foreign language teacher Petr Makhlin conducts language lessons in Kiev, as well as remotely. His channel contains about 70 Latin lessons, and the material presented accurately and in detail is suitable for beginners and those who continue to learn the language.
Also, using the materials of the channel, you can master or improve knowledge in English, Italian, Latin, Ancient Greek, French, German or spanish.

Latin with Svetlana Golovchenko

The disadvantages of some videos include not very good sound quality, which slightly interferes with the perception of text. The material is presented in detail and with attention to the topic.
The channel contains a number of helpful videos to help Latin learners. Pupils will be able to get acquainted with a noun, prepositions, inconsistent definitions, peculiarities of writing recipes, adjectives, declensions and much more. Simple and clear about Latin for doctors.

Latin in lectures

A series of open lectures on the Latin language from the teacher Dmitry Novokshonov. Despite the fact that the video was filmed from the lecture hall, the level of video and sound allows you to get the required knowledge qualitatively. Dmitry will help you understand the noun, adjective, declension, verb and other principles.

Latin for Medicine Students

The video is a detailed two-hour lecture for those wishing to master the basics of the Latin language with medical terminology, the field is optics. The teacher explains in great detail and meaningful, the lecture consists of presentations.
During the webinar, the history of the language, clinical terminology in ophthalmology, and the creation of terminology are presented. Prefixes, roots, doublets, suffixes in Latin, terminal elements, the topic of naming muscles by their functions are discussed in detail. In addition to dry information, there are also topics such as interesting origins of terms and famous expressions.

WikiHow works like a wiki, which means that many of our articles are written by multiple authors. To create this article, 15 people, some anonymous, worked to edit and improve it over time.

You can learn Latin on your own if you approach this issue correctly. All you need is a set of correct textbooks, exercises, and writing practice in Latin. Your family and friends will most likely not be able to speak Latin with you, but practicing the oral language will help you improve your general Latin skills. If you try, you can speak Latin as well as the Pope, and in no time.

Steps

1. Pick up a beginner's book with lots of exercises and answers. The answers are important because there is no one to check you.

   • Wheelock "s Latin is a well-known book of answers. This is perhaps the best choice for self-study. The book contains a huge number of exercises, as well as online training groups.
   • There are several publicly available books with answers, for example:
     • Choosing the right vocabulary is important for what you will read. If you are interested in classical Latin, use Elementary Latin Dictionary or Oxford Latin Dictionaryif you can buy it. If you are interested in Late Latin, Middle Ages, Renaissance and Neo-Latin, you are better off using the Lewis and the Short "s Latin Dictionary, although it is expensive. Otherwise, you have to use Cassell, which is not very useful and not small in size. Unfortunately, choosing the right and inexpensive dictionary will not be easy. If you understand French, then the dictionary Grand gaffiot would be a good choice.
     • While you are still studying from the textbook, you will have to memorize a lot: declensions, conjugations, vocabulary. There is no shortcut. In this case, your morale is very important.
     • Latin is a poor vocabulary language, in other words, one word can have multiple meanings. This also means that there are many idioms in Latin that you will also need to memorize. You will get to the point where you understand every word, but the meaning of the sentence as a whole will not be clear to you. This is because you ponder the meaning of each word individually. For example, the expression hominem e medio tollere means "to kill a person", but if you do not know this phrase, then literally it translates to "remove a person from the center."
     • Avoid poetry while studying prose. You wouldn't recommend reading Shakespeare to someone who is learning English before they can read a newspaper. The same goes for Latin.
     • Learn words. Carry a word list or flashcards with you to look on the bus, toilet, or wherever.
     • Write in Latin. Even if you want to learn how to read, don't avoid the English to Latin translation exercise.
     • Do not hurry. One lesson every few days is enough. If you are in a hurry, you will not have time to remember the information you need. On the other hand, don't hesitate. Try to exercise at least once a week.
     • If your answers do not match the answers in the tutorial, you are most likely missing something. Return to class and reread.

Languages. The new collection includes free sites for those who are going to master Latin and Ancient Greek through ancient literature, news releases, video podcasts and communities on social networks.

Latin

For those who have decided to learn Latin from scratch, we recommend this series of short lessons in English. Each episode lasts three to four minutes, and during this time it is possible to memorize several phrases and grammar rules at a calm pace. There is nothing superfluous about rendering this podcast: just simple slides illustrating the teacher's words. Now on YouTube, 160 lessons of this course are already uploaded in open access, but for additional materials you can also go to the home page of its creators.

Students foreign language it is often advised to read newspapers in that language or listen to the radio. Thanks to the Finnish broadcaster YLE, those who have decided to master Latin also have this opportunity. Once a week, a short overview of world news is published on this site. Since 1989, the authors of the program have been developing a new Latin vocabulary to cover current events - in some issues, we still left the ancient Romans far behind. You can read and listen to this newsletter - however, in the latter case, Latin takes on a slight Finnish accent.

If you want to learn Latin and spend a lot of time on Vkontakte, be sure to subscribe to this group. Firstly, there are several proven tutorials, tutorials, and dictionaries for free download. Secondly, community members post a lot of pictures - for those who better remember new words with illustrations attached to them. And thirdly, here sometimes you come across not only Latin demotivators (it's better to go after them after all here), but also real masterpieces - for example, Latin comic "Asterix and Obelix" ... And, finally, in a special thread here you can even discuss tattoos.

Perhaps, someone, like Onegin, learns Latin only in order to "put vale at the end of the letter", while someone strives to read ancient literature in the original. This site contains many works of the classics of Ancient Rome - from the historian Tacitus and the encyclopedic scientist Varro to the architect Vitruvius. All texts are posted here with a translation into English - although there is no way to see the translation of each specific word separately, but the translation of an entire paragraph is visible.

Ancient greek

This channel is well suited for those who decided to master the ancient Greek language using materials in Russian. In the grammar course of the philologist Peter Makhlin, 29 short lessons are currently presented - from explaining the ancient Greek alphabet to the classification of verb forms. The only thing you will have to get used to while watching them is that the board does not always accurately fall into the sharpness of the camera lens, which, however, almost does not interfere with following the teacher's oral explanations. If you are adapting to this option, do not miss a series of interesting videos about history of European languages by the same author.

To keep up with the popularizers of the Latin language, the Spanish philologist Juan Coderch began publishing weekly news in ancient Greek. In a sense, he had to be a little easier - he can directly borrow the vocabulary for describing current events from modern Greek. But difficulties arose in something else: only recently, the ancient Greek font began to be adequately displayed in Chrome, and the site creator finally managed to load news text as text, and not as pictures.

If you compare this public with similar language communities, the difference is immediately noticeable: a lot of links to useful, serious resources - and no funny pictures. An attempt at a scientific reconstruction of the pronunciation of the ancient Greek language using the example of Aesop's fables or a tutorial on calligraphy - you will find many similar materials here, not to mention textbooks and translated literature. By the way, if you still want to add funny pictures with ancient Greek signatures to your feed, go to