As you know, temperament is an inborn personality trait. Some of its manifestations can be corrected, others remain unchanged, thus, the type of the nervous system becomes a determining factor for the formation of a personality. And by the behavior of people around us in everyday life, heroes of films or literary characters, it is not so difficult to determine their types of temperament. Examples of representatives of each of the four varieties will be given in this article.
Sanguine temperament
The basis of the sanguine temperament is mobile, strong,
balanced type of NS. This means that the processes of excitation and inhibition in such individuals are in balance. They are also characterized by liveliness, plasticity, quick speech with rich facial expressions and rapid movements. Sanguine people easily adapt to new conditions for them, they are energetic, efficient, the difficulties of life cause them not despondency, but the desire to resist them, to change the situation. The productivity of an activity depends on its fun: a sanguine person can do an interesting job for a long time, with pleasure and very successfully.
In communication, he is easy and pleasant: he quickly converges with people, responsive, easily finds points of contact with any interlocutor. The new environment does not confuse him, but, on the contrary, tones up. The emotional sphere is characterized by positiveness, good mood. Feelings of a sanguine person are usually not deep and not strong, they can arise quickly and change just as quickly. This property makes it easier to experience failure, which generally contributes to greater success in life.
On these grounds, one can assume that certain personalities or characters have a sanguine temperament. Examples in the literature: Steve Oblonsky ("Anna Karenina"), Sancho Panza ("Cunning hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha"), Olga Larina ("Eugene Onegin"). In history, this temperament was possessed by N. Bonaparte, P. Beaumarchais.
Choleric temperament
This is the brightest temperament. Examples to illustrate it are easiest to find, because a person with this type of nervous processes - strong, unbalanced and mobile - rarely remains in the shadows. Excitement prevails over inhibition, mental activity is very high. Behavior is unbalanced, reactions are fast, gestures are strong and energetic, sometimes feverish. The life force of a choleric, as they say, splashes over the edge. He is prone to a violent experience of any emotion, including anger, but he clearly lacks self-control. In work, such a person thinks little and acts a lot, gives himself up to the cause with full dedication, but the energy for such a pace is not enough for long.
Such is the choleric temperament. Examples from history: poet Pushkin A.S., scientist-naturalist M.V. Lomonosov, military leader A.V. Suvorov, physiologist I.P. Pavlov.
Of the literary characters: the old prince Bolkonsky ("War and Peace"), Nozdrev ("Dead Souls"), ("Quiet Don").
Phlegmatic temperament
This type of temperament is based on a strong, balanced, inert. He has a low level of mental activity, all processes proceed slowly, calmly. Low activity and reactivity are characteristic. But the resistance to stimuli is high, even strong and long-lasting - the phlegmatic is not so easy to knock off the intended course.
His feelings are constant, although they are not expressed openly, the mood is most often calm, balanced. Speech is slow, quiet, movements are expressionless, rare and weak. The phlegmatic is patient, able to endure the blows of fate, does not show his experiences to others. He is stubborn in his work, brings the matter to the end, loves order, changes his habits only in exceptional cases.
Phlegmatic people in history: I. Kant (philosopher), C. Darwin (naturalist), I. A. Krylov (fabulist), G. Gallilei (physicist and philosopher), M. I. Kutuzov (commander).
Examples from literature: Ilya Sobakevich Pierre Bezukhov ("War and Peace").
Melancholic temperament
It is based on a weak type of GNI, therefore, the definition of melancholic temperament
Not particularly difficult. These are very sensitive people, reacting even to weak stimuli, while inhibition prevails over arousal. Low level of mental activity and reactivity. The melancholic gives the impression of an anxious, fearful person, passive and inhibited, strong stimuli often knock him out of balance, they can even lead to behavioral problems.
The speech is quiet, but the facial expressions are quite expressive, as if they compensate for the low voice. Slow movements, restrained, low-energy. The melancholic gets tired quickly, he generally does not have much vitality, most often he is in a depressed mood, rarely laughs. His feelings are deep and long-lasting, but experiences have little effect on his appearance and behavior. The circle of acquaintances of such a person is limited, since he is closed and taciturn.
This is how a melancholic temperament can be characterized. Examples in history: writer N.V. Gogol, poet Zhukovsky V.A., poet Nadson S.Ya., artist Levitan I.I.
Among those worth noting are Princess Marya Bolkonskaya ("War and Peace"), Podkolesina ("The Marriage"), Tatiana Larina ("Eugene Onegin").
SOLID STATE OF SUBSTANCE. LIQUID CRYSTALS
Amorphous and crystalline states of substances
Substances in a solid state are subdivided into crystalline and amorphous according to their structure and properties. Atoms, molecules or ions of solids, in
unlike liquids or gases, they occupy a strictly defined place in space, which, as you know, is called a node. If you connect the nodes in which the particles of solid matter are located, imaginary lines, then you get a regular spatial lattice, called a crystalline lattice.
You already know four types of crystal lattices (ionic, atomic, molecular and metallic), you can name the physical properties of crystal
substances that differ markedly. However, they all have one thing in common: each has its own, strictly defined melting point. What is the amorphous state of matter? There are substances that are in a solid state, like crystalline substances, and retain their shape for a long time. However, after a long period of time, the shape of bodies made of such substances still changes, and this brings them closer to liquids. For example, a wax candle placed vertically thickens after a while at the bottom. Try doing something similar with regular chewing gum or a piece of plasticine. The result will be the same. As the temperature rises, the softening process accelerates.
There is no definite melting point for amorphous bodies, in contrast to crystalline ones. Remember how Pushkin wrote: "Water and stone, ice and fire"? The poet's stone is a symbol of hardness. Of course, you can name the reason for this property of the stone: it is a piece of rock and consists mainly of silicon oxide (IV), which has an atomic crystal lattice, and hence the great hardness. But is everything so simple in the chemical world? It turns out that silicon oxide (IV) can be not only a crystalline substance, but also amorphous. In amorphous substances, the particles forming it do not have a definite arrangement throughout the volume as in a crystal. They are packed randomly, and only nearby atoms or neighboring molecules are in some order relative to each other.
Depending on the conditions of the solidification of the melt (for example, upon cooling), substances that normally have a crystalline structure may appear in the amorphous state. So, if you melt a quartz crystal (silicon (IV) oxide), then when it is rapidly cooled, amorphous quartz is formed. It has a lower density than crystalline and is widely used for the manufacture of various products, including laboratory glassware.
The amorphous state of substances is unstable, and sooner or later they pass from this state to a crystalline state. For example, in amorphous glass, under the influence of shock loads, small crystals are formed, and the glass becomes cloudy. Frozen solid honey is candied in the same way as glassy caramel is candied during long-term storage.
Plastic sulfur (Fig. 1), which is a substance in an amorphous state, after a while turns into crystalline rhombic sulfur with a molecular lattice.
Figure: 1. Obtaining (a) and properties of plastic sulfur (b)
Thus, substances in an amorphous state in structure can be considered as highly viscous liquids, and in properties - as solids. The amorphous and crystalline states, being the two extreme poles of the solid state, nevertheless, occur simultaneously in the same substance. Many polymers, while generally amorphous, also have regions of a crystalline structure. This determines, for example, the high strength of polypropylene or nylon fibers.
The word "amorphous" - formless - carries a negative connotation in the minds of many. Obviously, this is true for characterizing the personality traits of a person.
In the world of chemicals and materials, the opposite is true. It is amorphous substances that appear to us in the shine of precious pearls, in the honey glow of amber, in a modest
the charm of semi-precious opal and chalcedony, in the magical multicolor of stained-glass windows and mosaics, in the amazing play of crystal light and the glitter of mirrored showcases (Fig. 2).
Figure: 2. Pearls (a), amber (b), chalcedony (c) - amorphous bodies created by nature. Stained glass from colored glass (d), mosaic (e), crystal (e) - examples of man-made amorphous bodies
Amorphousness is a valuable quality of polymers because it determines such their technological property as thermoplasticity. It is thanks to her that the polymer can be drawn into the thinnest thread, turned into a transparent film or cast into a product of the most intricate shape (Fig. 3).
Figure: 3. Thermoplasticity is a property of polymers, thanks to which it is possible to manufacture Lego parts of various shapes
The existence of amorphous bodies once again proves the great philosophical truth that everything in the world is relative ... Let's look at the material covered from this angle.
Regarding the division of elements into metals and non-metals. Some of the elements have borderline properties: germanium, tin, antimony. One of the most striking examples of relativity is the dual position of hydrogen in the periodic table. Each element in the periodic table is assigned a location strictly determined by the charge of its atomic nucleus. The only element, which in the table of D.I. Mendeleev has two places at once, and in sharply opposite
groups (alkali metals and halogens) is hydrogen. The reasons for such a special attitude to hydrogen can be reflected using the table (Table 1).
Table 1
Position of hydrogen in the periodic system
| Forms of existence duringchildbirth as an element | Signs of similaritysubstances with alkalinewith metals | Signs of similarityproducts with halogens |
| Atoms | Has on the outside (andthe only one)electron layer one electronand refers to s-elements.Therefore, it manifests itselfbodily properties | Until completionexternal (and only)the electron layer to the water atomkind of missing one electron. Therefore hemay exhibit oxidativeproperties |
| Simple substances | Received metallic watergenus with metal crystallattice and electronicconductivity | Under normal conditions, H2 is a gas,like fluorine and chlorine. It hasdiatomic molecule due tocovalent chemical bond |
| Complex substances | Overwhelminglycompounds in hydrogen degreeoxidation +1 (for example,+1 –1 HCl) | With some metals forms hardsalt-like substances are often ionictype - hydrides in which it hasoxidation state -1 (for example,+2 –1
CaH2) |
The division of chemical bonds into types is arbitrary, since all these types are characterized by a certain unity. The ionic bond can be considered as the limiting case of the covalent polar bond. The metal bond combines the covalent interaction of atoms with the help of socialized
electrons and electrostatic attraction between these electrons and metal ions. Limiting cases of chemical bonding are not often present in substances. For example, lithium fluoride LiF is referred to as ionic compounds. In fact, the bond in it is 80% ionic and 20% covalent. Therefore, it is more correct to speak about the degree of polarity (ionicity) of a chemical bond.
Different types of bonds can be contained in the same substances, for example:
1) in the bases - between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the hydroxy groups is covalent polar, and between the metal and the hydroxy group - ionic;
2) in salts of oxygen-containing acids - between the atoms of the non-metal and the oxygen of the acid residue - covalent polar, and between the metal and the acid residue - ionic;
3) in ammonium salts - between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms - covalent polar, and between ammonium ions and acid residue - ionic;
4) in metal peroxides (for example, Na2O2), the bond between oxygen atoms is covalent non-polar, and between metal and oxygen - ionic; etc.
Different types of bonds can transform one into another: during electrolytic dissociation of covalent compounds in water, the covalent polar bond turns into an ionic one; upon evaporation of metals, the metal bond turns into a covalent non-polar one.
The reason for the unity of all types and types of chemical bonds is their identical physical nature - electron-nuclear interaction, accompanied by the release of energy.
The relative interdependence of the physical properties of substances and the type of their crystal lattice. So, for example, there are many substances with an atomic crystal lattice, which are by no means characterized by hardness (graphite, red phosphorus). Some substances with an ionic crystal lattice are fusible, for example, nitrate - alkali metal nitrates.
About the division of substances into types according to their state of aggregation. You know about the existence of liquid crystals, which combine the structure of a crystalline substance and the properties of liquids.
Liquid crystals
Currently, there are several thousand substances that form liquid crystals. The liquid-crystalline state is inherent in such compounds, the molecules of which have an elongated linear shape. For them, the direction of the axes of the molecules is in one of three directions in space, while the centers of mass of the molecules are randomly located. The study of liquid crystals showed that their properties change depending on temperature, wavelength of external radiation, mechanical deformation, electric and magnetic fields. This determines the possibility of their wide use in information storage and processing systems, in indicators, etc.
One of the properties of liquid crystals that have found wide application is the dependence of their color on temperature. This property makes it possible to use them to detect structural defects in opaque objects: due to the unequal thermal conductivity, defects cause different color effects in the liquid crystal film.
On the basis of liquid crystals, devices have been developed that allow changing the incident luminous flux - modulators. The modulator consists of a liquid crystal film located between transparent electrodes and a diaphragm, the role of which can be played by the frame of the sensitive layer of the receiver. The voltage applied to the liquid crystal changes the amount of incident light scattered by it; in this case, the dissipation coefficient within some limits is linearly dependent on the voltage. By changing the voltage in a certain way, the transparency of the liquid crystal layer and, accordingly, the flux of the transmitted radiation change.
Liquid crystals, the optical properties of which change under the influence of an electric field, are used in digital displays (watches, calculators, etc.). The principle of operation of such indicators is as follows. The liquid crystal substance is placed between a black metal plate and a thin metal film transparent to light, applied to a cover glass. A black metal plate and a thin film form a capacitor. If there is no voltage on its plates, then the light passes through the liquid crystal and is absorbed by a black plate. The dial looks black. If voltage is applied to the capacitor plates, then the liquid
the crystal scatters light and becomes opaque. In this case, the dial will glow in the places where the electric field is generated. If the top film
has the shape of a number, then the glowing area will be in the form of a number (Fig. 4).
Figure: 4. If voltage is applied to the capacitor plates
formation, then the liquid crystal substance between them changes
their properties
Liquid crystals play an important role in the life of the human body. So, protein, which is part of muscle tissue, has the ability to form liquid crystals. Smooth and striate-transverse muscle fibers have a liquid crystal structure, due to which they can stretch and contract without collapsing. Collagen, a substance contained in supporting tissues (bones, tendons) and in the brain, is also close in structure to liquid crystals. The human brain is inherently a complex liquid crystal system. In the white matter of the brain and the pathways of the nervous system, liquid crystals play the role of dielectrics.
The form of liquid crystals is most convenient for biological processes. It combines resistance to external influences with extraordinary plasticity and flexibility.
Liquid crystal fibrous formations have significant strength, which is necessary for supporting tissues. In addition, the liquid crystal state is very sensitive to all intracellular processes. This explains why liquid crystals are found in critical functional areas of the cell.
A huge number of examples of the relativity of phenomena can be cited from biology. Let us recall just some of the 10th grade natural science course: viruses are a kind of bridge between living and inanimate nature. They show the properties of living organisms only when they enter the cell. Like living organisms, viruses, clinging to the cell membrane, dissolve it and inject their nucleic acid into the cell. This RNA or DNA causes the host cell to make multiple copies of the virus. Outside the cell, viruses are crystalline substances, resembling objects of inanimate nature. Another example is associated with euglena green. It illustrates the relativity of protozoa to animals: like plants, it contains chloroplasts, and in the light, like plants, it can
synthesize organic substances from carbon dioxide and water, i.e. A remarkable physical illustration of the relativity of truth is the theory that is called Einstein's theory of relativity. These are just some examples of the relativity of a number of key natural science
concepts. We pursued the goal of helping you, using the material of natural science, to form a conviction that there are not so many absolute truths in the world around us, this world is painted not only in black and white colors. The world in which we live is multifaceted, multifaceted, multicolored and infinitely beautiful.
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1. What is the structure of solids characterized by? What makes them different from liquids and gases?
2. What groups can be divided into solids according to the type of crystal lattice?
3. What is the difference and what is common between amorphous and crystalline substances? What do they have in common with liquids?
4. Name the amorphous substances known to you and indicate the areas of their application.
5. Prepare a report on the topic "The history of glass in human civilization" using Internet resources.
6. Describe the social and chemical meaning of the term "amorphous".
7. Prove the relativity of signs of various classifications in chemistry, biology and physics based on the previously studied material.
8. Give examples of the relativity of characteristics of literary heroes, both positive and negative.
9. Based on the materials of the media, show the relativity of the benefits of economic and political interstate unions.
10. What are liquid crystals? What types are distinguished? What unites liquid crystals with liquids, and what with solids? Where are liquid crystals used?
11. Based on last year's science course or the Internet, give other examples from biology about the relativity of truth other than those mentioned in the paragraph. Tell us in more detail about the examples mentioned in the paragraph.
12. Based on last year's science course or the Internet, provide other examples from physics about the relativity of truth.
In the process of the historical development of literature, ready-made types begin to be opposed by emerging and undefined characters; it is on this difference that the image of the literary hero is built to a large extent. Such, for example, is the discrepancy between Pushkin's heroes - Silvio and Pugachev - with the romantic role of an avenger or a noble robber.
The discrepancy between the hero and his role, inherent in the genre of the novel initially (its design is attributed to the era of Hellenism), from the 19th century. characteristic of other literary genres.
Thus, the heroes of Pushkin's novel represent certain literary and life (social) types, but at the same time they do not coincide with these types. And the county young lady “With a sad thought in her eyes, / With a French book in her hands”, and the “legislator of the hall”, and the heroines of Tatyana's “favorite creators” are all types.
Numerous "masks" of Onegin - "a gloomy eccentric", as well as Childe Harold and Melmot - by no means evidence that he is just "other people's whims of interpretation" or "words of fashionable full lexicon."
The dramatic character is especially solid. The more artistically significant is the influence of self-awareness on him, already comprehended by Shakespeare. It has long been noticed and appreciated that Laertes and Hamlet, being in essentially the same position (the need to take revenge on their father's murderer), behave profoundly differently: one naturally coincides with his role, the other reflects. In Chekhov's The Seagull, the problem of self-identification is at the center of the plot: the relationship between literature and life here for the heroes is a subject of reflection.
In the epic literature of the XIX century. it becomes possible to reveal the character entirely through self-consciousness: in the form of a confession or a diary (the poem "Mtsyri" and the novel "A Hero of Our Time" by Lermontov, "Hamlet of the Shchigrovsky District" and "Diary of an Extra Man" by Turgenev, "Kreutzer Sonata" by L. Tolstoy etc.).
The possibility of the dominant of self-awareness, demonstrated by all of Dostoevsky's work, means that even the traditional type of "little man" becomes the subject of his own reflection of the character belonging to him, and the attempts of others in this case, as in any other, to predict and predetermine his behavior raise doubts ( a conversation between Alyosha Karamazov and Liza Khokhlakova about Staff Captain Snegirev).
Now we can pay attention to the relativity of the opposition of cases of coincidence and non-coincidence of the hero with the type or character, the permeability of the border between them in the living process of literary development. There is a transformation of life types into literary ones (that is, generalization and at the same time schematization of the first ones), for example, a “poor official” becomes a “little man”.
There is also a reverse process of "deshematization" of the literary type, in which the self-consciousness of the literary hero plays a decisive role. Thus, Bazarov, finding himself in the traditional situation of a “Russian person for a rendezvous,” ironically comprehends the behavior of a “superfluous person” in it: “Eh! Yes, I see, Arkady Nikolaevich, you understand love like all the newest young people: chick-chick chicken, and as soon as the chicken starts to approach, God give your feet! I'm not like that. "
We find other examples of a similar phenomenon in Dostoevsky. Marmeladov correlates himself with the type of “wise drunkard” (Lyubim Tortsov) in Ostrovsky: “... poverty is not a vice - this is the truth. I know that drunkenness is not a virtue, and this is even more so ”; Svidrigailov is aware of his outward resemblance to the demonic criminal of romantics, as if referring to the formula of the Queen of Spades that designated this type: “I see that I can really seem to someone like a romantic person”.
Dostoevsky, as MM Bakhtin showed, introduces into the horizons of the heroes not only their social and psychological certainty (their own characters and types), but also their literary prototypes. Raskolnikov very persistently asks Razumikhin what exactly he was raving about, to which he receives the following surprising answer (noted in the research of A. L. Bem): “Is it not for some secret that you are afraid? Don't worry: nothing has been said about the Countess "(no countess is mentioned anywhere else in the novel: she obviously came straight from The Queen of Spades).
Let's summarize. The considered concepts are designations of various types (varieties) of a literary hero. It is clear that we have before us a certain repertoire of possible ways of portraying heroes (or characters). Hence the question of the character system as one of the forms of expressing the author's position - assessing a person and reality.
Theory of Literature / Ed. N. D. Tamarchenko - M., 2004