Economic development of ancient states

Ancient countries, like the ancient Eastern ones, are traditionally called slaveholding, but the types of production in these states differed significantly. In the Ancient East, there was the so-called Asian mode of production, based on patriarchal slavery (from the word patriarch - head of the family) - a relatively mild type of slavery that arises in the early stages of development of ancient states. In the ancient Eastern countries, slaves were not the main producers of material goods, this role belonged mainly to various categories of communal peasants who were, to one degree or another, dependent on the state, which owned most of the land fund.
In ancient countries, at first there was also patriarchal slavery, but as production developed, commodity-money relations it gave way to the so-called classical slavery, which is characterized by high degree exploitation of slaves, the desire to get the maximum benefit from their labor. Unlike patriarchal slaves, for whom certain rights of the human person were recognized, slaves of the classical type were deprived of all rights and were considered living instruments of labor. In ancient society, it was slave labor that was the basis of production. Another characteristic feature of the ancient economy is the existence of polis ownership of land, which was a kind of combination of communal and private property.

7. Economy of Ancient Greece

7.1. Economic development of the Greek lands in the III-II millennium BC e.

III-II millennium BC e. in Greece is usually called the Bronze Age.During this period, bronze tools of labor spread to the islands of the Aegean Sea and the mainland, contributing to the acceleration of economic development and the creation of the first states. Throughout the III millennium BC. e. the most developed were Cyclades Islands,located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea. From the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. the island becomes the most influential among others Crete,located at the intersection of ancient sea routes. The Cretan (or Minoan) civilization reached its heyday around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e.
Development of mainland Greece in the III millennium BC e. went not so fast, but in some coastal areas, already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. rather developed cultures emerge. At the end of the III millennium BC. e. Greek tribes move south from Northern Greece (Achaeans),which in most areas drove out the pre-Greek population (Pelasgians) and by the middle of the II millennium BC. e. created their own states, which flourished in the XV-XIII centuries. BC e., and from the XFV century. BC e. the most influential among them was the city Mycenaein Argolis (northeast of the Peloponnese peninsula).
Around the XII century. BC e. from North Balkan Peninsula a new wave of immigrants is approaching, among which the Greek tribe played the leading role dorians.Most of the centers of Achaean culture were destroyed.

Throughout the III millennium BC. e. significant progress metallurgyand ceramic production,where from about the XXIII century. BC e. the potter's wheel began to be used. In agriculture, the leading positions are held by the so-called mediterranean triad:cereals (especially barley), grapes, olives.
The most active in the III and the first half of the II millennium BC. e. the Greek islands developed, on which the sea \u200b\u200bcrafts, trade, crafts,including artistic ones. Cycladic seafarers maintained contacts with the lands located in the basins of the Aegean and Adriatic seas, reached the shores of Spain and the Danube.
The economy of Crete and the Achaean states was based on agriculture,the leading branch of which was agriculture, however, animal husbandry (especially sheep breeding) played an important role. Among the crafts, metallurgy and ceramic production were of primary importance. Crete and the Achaean states maintained foreign trade relations with Egypt, Cyprus, and the Eastern Mediterranean; from these areas, raw materials, some luxury goods were mainly brought in, mainly ceramics, metal products, including weapons, were exported. In addition, the Achaeans developed trade with the peoples inhabiting the north of the Balkan Peninsula, with Italy, Sicily, as well as with the western coast of Asia Minor, where in the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. Achaean settlements appear.
Socio-economic layer
The basis of the socio-economic structure of the economic Crete and the Achaean states were palaces- build huge complexes, including residential and religious premises, many storerooms, workshops, etc. It is difficult to judge land relations in Crete due to insufficient sources, however, most likely, the land was in communal and state ownership. In addition, it can be assumed that temple and private farms also existed on state land. In the Achaean states, the palaces disposed of all land, which was divided into two main categories: public land (partly owned by territorial communities, partly allocated for the performance of any work) and land owned by individuals. Both categories of land were actively leased out, including to slaves, but the slave could not become the owner of the land. Slaves, as in Crete, were relatively few, most belonged to the palace, and, in addition, to private individuals and temples. Free community members were mainly employed in production.
All categories of the free population (nobility, community members, etc.) were in varying degrees of dependence on the palace. The head of state was king,performing political and religious functions. Real management was in the hands of the palace administration, which was involved in the organization of military affairs, the tax system, oversaw the work of various groups of the population directly subordinate to the palace (artisans, shepherds, etc.), provided them with the necessary materials and products. Territorial communities were also under the control of officials.
Almost all groups of the population and, above all, territorial communities were taxed on various types of products. Some social groups were exempted from paying taxes, mainly playing a special role in the existence of the state (blacksmiths, rowers, warriors).
Foreign economic activity was probably controlled by the kings; in Crete, special attention was paid to the security of trade and the fight against pirates.

7.2. Economic development in the XI-VI centuries. BC e.

This time span covers two stages of history Ancient Greece: so called dark ages(XI-IX centuries BC) and archaic period(VIII-VI centuries BC). The dark ages are often called homeric period, since along with archaeological data, the main source for the study of this time is the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" attributed to Homer.
Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage, at which, on the one hand, compared with Achaean Greece, the level of development decreases, but, on the other hand, with the beginning of the production of iron tools, the prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states.

The archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: 1) this is the Great colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, Azov seas, 2) the design policy *as a special type of community.

* Policy(c. city, state) - a special type of state, which arose as a collective of citizens-landowners, is a city with an adjacent rural area.

Sectoral structure of the economy
In the XI-IX centuries. BC. the Greek economy was dominated by natural typefarms, handicrafts were not separated from agriculture. As before, the main agricultural crops were cereals (barley, wheat), grapes, olives. As before, irrigation systems were created, soil fertilization was applied. There was some improvement in the tools of labor, in particular, there was plow with metal(especially iron) opener.Livestock also played an important role in agriculture; livestock was considered one of the main types of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, ceramics were especially developed, but production, as in agriculture, was focused only on meeting the basic needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the economic situation in ancient Greece has changed significantly. During this period, the craft separated from agriculture, which remains the leading sector of the economy. Weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage, inability to provide food for the growing population of policies became one of the main reasons greek colonization.The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was the supply metropolises *bread. In many Greek policies, they refuse to grow cereals, and focus on crops, the cultivation of which is more consistent with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of vegetable and horticultural crops; as a result, agriculture is becoming more market-oriented. This is also facilitated by the wider distribution of iron tools.

* Metropolis(c. mother of cities) - the main city in relation to the colonies he created.

Craftsmanship is also gaining commoditycharacter, and, as in agriculture, Greek colonization played an important role in this, which contributed to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city-states are becoming large craft centers, with entire quarters of craftsmen appearing in them. In Chalcis, Miletus, Corinth, Argos, Athens, it was especially developed metallurgy,the improvement of which in the archaic era was facilitated by the discovery of the technique of iron soldering and bronze casting. Important centers ceramic productionwere Corinth and Athens, here from the turn of the VII-VI centuries. BC e. serial production begins. Manufacturing textilesthe Greek city-states of Asia Minor were famous, as well as Megara.
Greek trade in the era of the Great colonization is developing very actively. Constant ties are being established between the metropolises, which export mainly handicraft products, and the colonies supplying various types of raw materials (especially metal, timber) and agricultural products (especially grain). In addition, the colonies become intermediaries between Greece and the remote barbarian periphery. In the most developed Greek city-states sea \u200b\u200btradebecomes one of the most important sectors of the economy. From the end of the VI century. BC e. Navklers, the owners and captains of merchant ships, are beginning to play a significant role.
Land ownership. Organization of production
During the Dark Ages, the land was the property of a territorial community, the main production unit was oikos(from c. house) - a household of a patriarchal family. Each family in the community was assigned a piece of land that was inherited; however, it is possible that land redistributions were carried out from time to time. Slavery in the XI-IX centuries BC e. still had a patriarchal character, the main producer was a free farmer.
The Archaic period brought about great changes in property relations. The leading form of land ownership is becoming polis(or antique) - only citizens had the right to own land on the territory of the policy; personally free people who were not citizens (meteki) did not have this right. Citizens could sell, mortgage land, lease it.
In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. there is also an important change in the organization of production - it begins to form slavery of the classical type.This process was associated with the development of commodity production and a significant increase in the number of foreign slaves coming from the colonies. Cheap slave labor made it possible to receive more income and was more actively used in the main branches of production.
Monetary relations

At the turn of the II-I millennium BC. e. due to the predominance of subsistence farming and the weak development of trade, there was no money as such, their role was played mainly by cattle. In the era of the Great colonization, metal ingots, bars were increasingly used as money, and, finally, around the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. begins coinage.By the VI century. BC e. there were two main monetary systems in Greece - aeginianand euboean *.The basis of each system was talent -weight unit, which on Evia was 26.2 kg, and on Aegina - 37 kg. 6 thousand were minted from one talent. drachmas- silver coins. The Aeginian standard was spread over most of Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Euboean standard on the island of Euboea, in many western Greek colonies, as well as in the two largest cities - Corinth and Athens.

* From the names of the islands of Aegina and Euboea - important shopping centers Aegean Sea.

Corinthian stater (c. 320 BC)

Tetradrachm from Tarsus (323 BC)

In the archaic period, along with monetary circulation, developed usury,and insolvent debtors, as a rule, were turned into slaves and could even be sold abroad.

The main distinguishing feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in the government, and this feature largely determined the internal policy of the policies. In particular, many Greek city-states had laws restricting the acquisition and sale of land and aimed at protecting the land ownership of individual citizens. However, despite this, in most parts of Greece, the development of commodity production and the lack of land led to an increase large land tenure, increased social differentiation and aggravation of the conflict between aristocracyand demos(by the people). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment tyranny- a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. However, the tyrants constantly needed money and in various ways siphoned it out of the population; in the end, tyranny was overthrown in most city-states.
An important role in the further socio-political and economic development of Greece was played by reforms,carried out during the archaic era. The most famous and interesting reforms in Athens and Sparta, most clearly representing two main types of polis - trade and craftand agrarian.
One of the largest Athenian reformers - Solon -politician and poet, considered one of the seven Greek sages. In 594 BC. e. Solon was endowed with extraordinary powers and began transformations aimed at restoring the unity of the civilian collective. First of all, he spent seisakhteyu(gr. shaking off the burden): all debts made on the security of land, and the accrued interest on them, were declared invalid. Slavery for debts was abolished, the debtor Athenians sold abroad were bought out at the expense of the state. Seysakhteya, as well as laws prohibiting the acquisition of land in excess of a certain rate, prevented the ruin of the peasants and contributed to the development of mainly medium and small landholdings in Attica. To facilitate the trade of Athens with Asia Minor and the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, the unification of weights and measures was carried out, and the previously dominant Aeginian monetary system was replaced by a lighter Euboean one. Measures were also taken to enhance the marketability of agriculture: the development of horticultural crops was encouraged, the export of olive oil abroad was allowed. Much attention was also paid to the craft: in particular, it was established that if the father did not teach his son any craft, he could not apply for filial support in old age. In addition, the export of raw materials was prohibited; foreign artisans were attracted to Athens, and Athenian citizenship was granted to many metecs who were involved in crafts.
Important transformations of Solon, indicating the achievement high level commodity-money relations in Athens VII-VI centuries. BC e., there was the introduction of freedom of wills and the replacement of family privileges with property: depending on land income, all citizens were divided into four categories.

In Sparta, the legendary legislator who laid the foundations state structurewas considered Lycurgus.The land in Sparta was actually state property, the allotments of individual families were inalienable, their number changed only with the annexation of new territories, in particular, with the conquest of Messenia, a rich region in the southwest of the Peloponnese peninsula, at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. the redistribution of land was carried out: approximately nine thousand allotments were allocated according to the number of citizens. The land was cultivated attached to it helots -the population of Laconia * and Messenia, conquered by the Spartans, turned into state slaves. The helots paid the owner of the allotment a fixed amount in kind annually.

* Region in the southeastern part of the Peloponnese, center - Sparta.

Citizens of Sparta were considered equal in everything to each other - both in everyday life, and in political, and in economic sphere... Lycurgus is credited with establishing a ban on the use of gold and silver coins, only extremely inconvenient and cumbersome iron coins were allowed. The main occupation of the Spartans was military affairs, craft and trade were considered shameful for a citizen. These activities have been provided periekam- deprived of political rights, but personally free residents of Laconia. The Spartan system practically did not change for several centuries (until the 4th century BC) and caused the economic and cultural lag of this polis from others.

7.3. Greek economy of the classical period (V-IV centuries BC)

V century BC e. - the time of the highest rise of Greek civilization. During this period, classical slavery was finally formed, the polis reached its heyday. A huge role in the development of Greece was played by the victory in the Greco-Persian wars (500-449 BC), which for a time turned Athens into the leading state of the Greek world. The last decades of the century were marked by the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) between the eternal opponents - Athens and Sparta, which accelerated the development of commodity-money relations and contributed to the onset of the crisis of the polis in the 4th century. BC e.
Sectoral structure of the economy
The main sector of the Greek economy was still agriculture: it employed the majority of the population, agriculture,as before, it was considered the only kind of practical activity worthy of a citizen. Processes that began in agriculture in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., receive further development: the marketability of production increases, regional specialization deepens (for example, the Greek policies of the Northern Black Sea Region and Sicily were grain suppliers, Athens - olive oil, the islands of Chios and Thasos - wine, etc.). However, completely subsistence farming was not supplanted. The principle remained attractive to both individuals and policies autarchy -independence from the outside world, political and economic independence, self-sufficiency. True, unlike the archaic era in the 5th century. BC e. it is recognized that everything necessary for the policy can be provided through trade.
Due to the general economic recovery, widespread use of slave labor, development tradein Greek craft in the 5th century. BC e. happens expansion of production, the division of labor deepens.The industries associated with shipbuilding and navigation, mining, and ceramics are developing especially actively.
Even more important than in the previous era is acquiring foreign sea trade.In this respect, of the ancient peoples, only the Phoenicians could compare with the Greeks, and at a later time only Holland of the 16th-17th centuries. can be compared with Ancient Greece of the classical period in terms of its contribution to the development of trade of its era. It is characteristic that if the Phoenicians and the Dutch were mainly engaged in intermediary trade, then the ancient Greeks, without neglecting intermediation, widely exported their agricultural and especially high-quality handicraft products.
Main articles exportin other countries were olive oil, wine, metal products, ceramics. To Greece importedmostly food (especially grain, salted fish), slaves, various types of raw materials (iron, copper, timber, resin, fur, leather, flax, ivory, etc.). In the trade of individual Greek policies with each other, handicraft products prevailed, in the production of which this or that area specialized. The main centers of Greek foreign trade were Athens, Miletus, Corinth.

Wine jug (c. 470 BC)

Domestic trade in the Greek city-states was much less developed. Peasants from the surrounding villages mainly came to the city market and sold agricultural products in exchange for handicrafts.
Organization of production
The most important characteristic feature of the Greek production economy of the 5th century. BC e. - wide use classic slavery.Wars, piracy, the slave trade (the main sources of slavery) provided a sharp increase in the number of slaves. In the V century. BC e. slaves are used in all spheres of production, become the main labor force and are finally deprived of all rights. It is believed that in the most developed region of Greece - Attica - slaves made up about one third of the population. Slave labor was especially actively used in craft workshops - ergasteria.Among the handicraft workshops, small ones prevailed (from two to ten slaves), but there were also quite large ergasterias, in which the labor of about 50-100 slaves was used. The use of slave labor in mining was especially widespread. For example, in the development of the Lavrion silver mines (in the southern part of Attica), individual individuals used the labor of 300-1000 slaves.

Greek miners are lowered food on a ropeVI in. BC.

In the agriculture of Greece, slave labor played a relatively small role, which is associated with two main factors: in the cultivation and cultivation of labor-intensive crops (grapes, olives, vegetables), it was unprofitable to widely use low-productivity slave labor, and the predominance of medium and small peasant farms excluded the large-scale use of slave labor. Greek peasants, as a rule, worked the land with the whole family, using one to seven slaves as auxiliary labor; hired labor was also used, especially during seasonal work.
Slaves were very actively used as domestic servants, secretaries, etc. Slaves could be leased (mainly cooks, dancers, artisans), some were let go for rent - in such cases, a slave could start his own workshop, be hired for any job - the owner in his life did not interfere. Along with private ones, there were state slaves,for example, in Athens, they carried out police service, filled minor positions in the city administration: secretaries, scribes, bailiffs, etc.
Monetary relations

In the V century. BC e. coinagecovers the entire Greek world. As a result of the development of retail trade, minting begins at this time bronzesmall bargaining chip. All independent Greek policies enjoyed the right to mint their own coins, so it is not surprising that the development of trade in the 5th century. BC e. gave rise to a special profession changed (meals *).Gradually (mainly from the end of the 5th century BC) change shopsbegin to perform some functions characteristic of banks: storing money, transferring various amounts from one client's account to another, issuing cash loans. The usual loan interest on the security of land, a city house was about 15%, the interest on sea loans (against more unreliable collateral of ships and goods) could exceed 30%.

* From gr. table, change shop.

Trapezites also performed some of the functions of notary offices - they concluded deals, drew up a bill of sale, kept documents.
The role of the state in economic life
In most Greek policies, there was no organized state economy that brought a constant and significant income, there was no direct taxation of citizens. The lack of a stable source of replenishment of the state treasury was partly offset by voluntary donations and liturgies -taxes from wealthy citizens for the needs of the state. During the wars, an extraordinary military tax was levied on all citizens - esfora.Many policies had other sources of replenishment of the treasury, so in Athens, state revenues were replenished at the expense of Lavrion's silver mines. For example, during the period of the Greco-Persian wars in 482 BC. e. Themistocles proposed to build warships... Later, these mines were leased to private individuals - citizens of Athens.
Bread supply was the most important issue economic policy most Greek city-states. Special officials took care of the uninterrupted supply of grain, and special norms for its transit were established. At the end of the 5th century. BC e. in many policies, commissions for the purchase and distribution of grain among citizens were elected from the richest citizens. In a number of cases, similar regulation also applied to building materials, firewood, flax, oil, etc.
To maintain order in the domestic markets, many policies appointed special officials - agoranomas (market rangers) who collected duties, monitored the quality of products, the correctness of weights and measures, etc.
New phenomena in the economy of Greece in the IV century BC
Currently IV century. BC e. viewed as a period crisis of classicIV century before greek polis.This process was a direct consequence of the development of the Greek economy. The manifestations of the uisis of the traditional polis structure were primarily changes in land relations. From the end of the V century. BC e. very widespread land purchase and sale transactions,which in the IV century. BC e. is no longer regarded as the basis of a citizen's life, but as one of the sources of income. In addition, in the IV century. BC e. the exclusive right of citizens to own land is increasingly violated - those who have distinguished themselves by any merit are given privileges, including the opportunity to acquire land and a house. In addition, from the end of the 5th century. BC e. spreads rent of private property,and since the cultivation of someone else's land was considered shameful for a citizen, the tenants are mainly meteki and freedmen. Thus, the non-civilian population penetrates into the sphere of agriculture, which was previously practically closed to it.
Along with this, many citizens are starting to engage in more profitable than agriculture, activities that were previously considered unworthy of a citizen: sea trade, interest-bearing loans, mining, etc.
All this, as well as the rapid development of crafts and trade, which were mainly engaged in by meteki, objectively leads to an increase in the role of the free non-civilian population in the economy, the socio-political life of the polis, to the gradual destruction of the traditional polis structure; become the main measure of value money,it is they who determine the position of a person in society.
In connection with the crisis of the policy, significant changes have occurred in the sphere of slavery. Since the Peloponnesian War, the number of Greek slaves has increased, which was previously almost unthinkable. In addition, as more profitable, the practice of leave of slaves for rent.The number of freedmen - slaves who managed to save money and redeem themselves free - is sharply increasing. In general, in the GU in. BC e. classical slavery continues to develop, the number of slaves is increasing.
The crisis of the Greek polis in the IV century. BC e. was not associated with economic decline. On the contrary, the crisis phenomena, starting with changes in the land relations fundamental for the policy, are closely related to the development of commodity-money relations, the desire for enrichment, the development of interpolis economic ties. It was these processes that contributed to the weakening of the close connection between the citizen and his policy, created the preconditions for the development of contradictions between private and state interests, for the collision of various social groups within the civil society.
The loss of close polis unity became one of the important reasons for Greece's loss of independence and submission in 338 BC. e. Philip the Great, whose son and heir, Alexander, created in the 30s-20s of the 4th century. BC e. the largest ancient power in the world. From that time on, the policies ceased to be the leading force in the Greek world, they were replaced by hellenistic monarchies.

7.4. Economic development during the Hellenistic era (late 4th-1st centuries BC)

The state of Alexander the Great after his death fell apart into a number of states: Greco-Macedonian Kingdom; Egypt,in which the Ptolemaic dynasty ruled; the Seleucid state;the central core of which was Syria and Mesopotamia; Pergamonand Pontic kingdomin Asia Minor, etc. In these Hellenistic states a synthesis of Greek (Hellenic) and Eastern elements takes place; this applies to the economic, socio-political, and cultural spheres.
The development of the economy during the Hellenistic era was favorably influenced by the transformation of the eastern Mediterranean into the inner sea of \u200b\u200bthe Greek world. In addition, in most of the Hellenistic states was preserved monetary system, unificationwhich began under Alexander the Great: the weight standard adopted in Athens was taken as a basis, along with silver began to be minted golden coins.
A very important role in economic development was played by the exchange of experience between the Greeks and the Eastern peoples, which contributed to the improvement of agrotechnical methods, the cultivation of new agricultural crops, as well as the development of technology and further specialization in handicrafts. All this had a huge impact on the growth of marketability and the increase in trade turnover.
During this period, science and technology underwent significant development: the famous scientist Archimedes discovered the hydraulic law, the law of the lever, invented the bolt, the screw water-drawing machine and much more.

Archimedes screw that allows pumping water from bottom to top

During the Hellenistic era, the center of economic life shifted from mainland Greece and the Aegean Sea to the south and east, where many new cities were founded on the coasts of the seas and on caravan routes. Major trade and craft centers were Alexandriain the Nile delta in Egypt, Pergamumin the northwest of Asia Minor, Antiochon the Orontes river in Syria, Selsvkiaon the Tigris River in Mesopotamia, etc. In the III-II centuries. BC e. Hellenistic city-states were in their prime.

Alexander lighthouse

The cities were administrative units, in most cases self-government bodies were retained in them, land owned by the city and individuals was attributed to them. The rest of the land fund was considered state: there were actually tsarist lands, as well as lands granted to the tsar's associates, temples, transferred to the holding of the soldiers.
In the Hellenistic states, classical slavery gradually spread, but along with it there was a characteristic of the eastern economy debt slavery.In agriculture, the number of slaves increased, but most of the land was cultivated by members of rural communities, who were in varying degrees of dependence on the state. In the craft, along with private workshops, there were workshops, whose workers were also dependent on the state.

Review questions
1. Name and compare the stages of development of the ancient Greek economy.
2. Describe the features of the economy of Ancient Greece.
3. Tell us about the reforms of Lycurgus and Solon and their impact on the economic development of Sparta and Athens.
4. Explain the reason for the crisis of the policy in the IV century. BC e.

The economic development of both policies was dependent on the policies pursued by other rulers of these lands.

So, in Sparta, for most of its historical path, it was mainly observed "the ancient form of ownership as a collective property of fellow citizens - Spartiats" [№4 - 44], only the perieks had the right of private property (as mentioned above). The elite (Spartiats) did not engage in productive activities, because for citizens, occupation in agriculture, craft or trade was shameful. The helots had some economic independence, despite their low social status, and the perieks were the main entrepreneurial force of the polis (for example, only they were in contact with foreign merchants).

The main difference between the Spartan socio-economic system is that the population was constrained by the narrow framework of the so-called "laws of Lycurgus", which regulated the entire life of the Spartans to the smallest detail, prohibited any luxury, it was prescribed to live in a Spartan way, without excesses. In order to make property stratification impossible, the state forbade the Spartiats to engage in craft and trade. It is interesting that the Spartans even deliberately hindered the development of commodity-money relations - inside the polis, instead of convenient coins, heavy iron circles (obols) were used. In other words, in Sparta, an incredibly large state intervention in the economy took place.

The situation was different in Athens - here the ideas of private property prevailed. Even not at all noble people (for example, meteki) could become rich here, engaging in craft, trade or usury. Nevertheless, the matter here did not go to an insurmountable stratification between the rich and the poor, the activities of many political figures - Solon, Cleisthenes - were aimed at ensuring social justice, "leveling", but by no means as tough as in Sparta. It is worth remembering the liturgies - special duties imposed only on rich people who, at their own expense, had to build warships, arrange theatrical performances, etc.

Citizens had the right to own land, engage in any kind of economic activity (in contrast to Sparta with its state bans). Despite the increase in the number of slaves as the polis structure became more complex, their labor was not decisive for the development of Athens. Slaves mainly worked on large estates and craft workshops.

Separately, it should be said about the development of the Athenian sea trade. The largest maritime trade center in the ancient world was the Athenian harbor of Piraeus. Piraeus imported grain, wool, carpets, all sorts of spices, fragrant oils and other luxury goods from the countries of the East, linen fabrics, bronze items, ship timber, resin, hemp and a number of other goods. Slaves were brought from various regions to Piraeus. The Athenians themselves consumed only a small portion of all these items. The bulk of the goods were resold to other cities and countries, which brought fabulous income to the policy.

To summarize, it must be repeated that the main difference between the economies of the two states is their attitude to private initiative. Its suppression in Sparta led to the economic backwardness of this policy, and attention to the private owner and his needs in Athens led to their economic prosperity.

In June 2010, the current Minister of Culture of Greece, Tina Birbili, presented a project for the final stage of unification of the historical center of the city: thanks to the restructuring of Koroleva Olga Avenue, the pedestrian zones will connect the Zappeyon and National Gardens with the Temple of Olympian Zeus; a pedestrian connection with a total length of 4 km from the Panathinaikos stadium with Keramikos, Gazi Square will be completed. The project cost is 4 million euros. A long-term plan for the development of the Athens-Attica 2014 region was presented, which also provides for a ban on the growth of the urbanized zone, improvement of transport infrastructure and general improvement of housing and communal services in the areas of Agios Panteleimonas, Teatralnaya Square and Kolone.

Since 1971, Athens Tower 1 remains the highest among the modern architectural structures of the capital, which at the time of construction was the tallest building in the Balkan region, it is also the only skyscraper in Greece.

Economy

The rapid economic growth of Athens began in the second half of the 19th century, after the end of the Greek Revolution and the final formation of the Greek state. The transformation of Athens into the capital, the emergence of industrial enterprises made the city the center of urbanization processes in Greece.

The favorable economic and geographical position of the city, which connects the main land routes of the country with latitudinal sea routes, is a favorable factor. It is here that important railways cross, there are the "sea gates" of Greece - the port of Piraeus, and the internationally important airport "Eleftherios Venizelos". The growth of the city's population was also facilitated by the flow of refugees after the Greek-Turkish war of 1919-1922.

More than 50% of those employed in the country's manufacturing industry are concentrated in Greater Athens. At the same time, the capital's industry consumes about 80% of the total electricity produced and provides about 70% of the total Greek industrial output. In Greater Athens, enterprises of the textile, clothing, leather and footwear, food, metalworking and metallurgical, chemical, printing and other industries are based. In the vicinity of Athens, industrial objects of the post-war years stand out - the Aspropyrgos Refinery in Aspropyrgos, the Hellenic Shipyards in Scaramangas, metallurgical plant in Elefsina, etc.

Athens is the largest trade, distribution and financial center of the country, in particular, more than 2.5 million tons of oil are processed in Athens annually. Greater Athens passes up to 70% of imports and 40% of exports of Greece. The largest banking institutions in Greece are based in Athens - the Central Bank of Greece, National Bank of Greece, Emporiki Bank, Piraeus Bank, etc.

At the end of 2009, the economy of Athens, like Greece as a whole, found itself in a very difficult situation. The Yorgos Papandreou government's anti-crisis program has triggered a wave of nationwide strikes. Throughout 2010, Athens remains the main site of almost continuous nationwide strikes, riots and terrorist attacks.

Climate

The climate of Athens is subtropical semi-desert (Köppen climate classification: BSh). In winter, there are occasional frosts, sometimes snow falls. Summers are very hot and dry. Any significant precipitation may be absent for several months. Due to the influence of the Mediterranean Sea, autumn is very long and spring comes a little later.

The expulsion of the Persians from the northern coast of the Aegean Sea, the liberation of the Greek policies in the Black Sea straits and western Asia Minor led to the creation of a rather extensive economic zone, including the Aegean Basin, the Black Sea coast, southern Italy and Sicily, within which strong economic ties have developed that feed the economy of individual policies ... As a result of the victories over the Persian troops, the Greeks seized rich booty, including material values \u200b\u200band prisoners. For example, after the Battle of Plataea (479 BC), the Greeks, according to Herodotus, “found tents, decorated with gold and silver, gilded and silver-plated beds, golden vessels for mixing wine, bowls and other drinking vessels. On the carts, they found bags of gold and silver cauldrons. They removed wrists, necklaces and golden swords from fallen enemies, and no one paid attention to the colorful embroidered robes of the barbarians. So much gold was taken that it was sold as if it were copper. "

The slave markets of Hellas were filled with numerous prisoners. In a relatively short time (50 years), more than 150 thousand people were sold. Part of the slaves and rich booty were sent to production, went to the organization of new craft workshops, slave estates, new construction.

The war gave rise to new needs and created additional incentives for economic development. It was necessary to build a huge fleet (several hundred ships), erect powerful defensive structures (for example, a system of Athenian fortifications, the so-called "long walls"), it was necessary to equip armies, which the Greeks had never exhibited before, with defensive and offensive weapons (armor, shields, swords, spears, etc.).

Naturally, all this could not but move forward the Greek metallurgy and metalworking, construction, leatherworking and other crafts, could not but contribute to the general technical progress.

Under the influence of these factors in Greece in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. an economic system was formed, which existed without significant changes until the end of the GU century. BC e. It was based on the use of slave labor.

The Greek economy as a whole was not homogeneous. Among the numerous policies, two main types can be distinguished, differing in their structure. One type of polis is agrarian with an absolute predominance of agriculture, weak development of crafts and trade (the most striking example is Sparta, as well as the policies of Arcadia, Boeotia, Thessaly, etc.). And another type of polis, which can be conditionally defined as trade and craft, - in its structure, the role of craft production and trade was quite significant. In these policies, a commodity slave economy was created, which had a rather complex and dynamic structure, and the productive forces developed especially rapidly. An example of such policies were Athens, Corinth, Megara, Miletus, Rhodes, Syracuse, a number of others, usually located on the sea coast, sometimes having a small chora (agricultural area), but at the same time a large population that needed to be fed, occupied productive labor. Polis of this type set the tone for economic development, were the leading economic centers of Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e.

The most striking example is Athens. The study of the economic structure of Athens allows you to get a general idea of \u200b\u200bthe peculiarities of the trade and craft policies of Greece in the classical period.

The definition of the leading type of Greek city-states as trade and craft does not mean that agriculture in them has receded into the background, has ceased to be an important industry. Not at all. Agriculture in trade and craft policies was leading along with trade and handicrafts, was the basis of the entire economic system. That is why the characterization of the economic life of trade and craft policies must begin with a description of agriculture as the most important foundation of their economy.

For trade and craft policies of the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. characterized by the introduction of slavery in many areas of life and production. The total number of slaves is increasing. According to rough estimates (due to the lack of statistical materials, accurate calculations are impossible), in Athens, the total number of slaves reached one third of the total population. Male slaves employed in production prevailed (among the slaves there were few old people, children, and a few slaves), so the importance of slaves as a category of the independent population in society and production was significantly higher than their arithmetic number.

Slave labor is widely used in the household: grinding grain, cooking, making clothes and shoes, repairing them, not to mention personal services. Slaves were used by elective officials as secretaries, couriers, executioners, policemen. In some Greek policies, slavery was actively introduced into agriculture, for example, in Chios, but in most of the trade and craft policies, slaves were used mainly in handicraft workshops, mining, shipping services, and construction. Thus, a significant proportion of the slaves were concentrated in the city.

The main contingent of Greek slaves of the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. consisted of people of non-Greek origin, whom the Greeks began to call barbarians - Thracians and Scythians, Carians and Paphlagonians, Lydians and Sicilians. There are three main regions that have become suppliers of slaves

to the markets of Hellas, - the Northern Black Sea region, Thrace with neighboring regions and Asia Minor. At the end of the V-IV century. BC e. among the slaves are the Greeks, who were sold into slavery during frequent civil strife. For example, the Athenians were sold into slavery, defeated in Syracuse in 413 BC e .; during the defeat of Thebes in 335 BC. e. Alexander the Great ordered the sale of 30 thousand Thebans, including women and children, into slavery, having received 440 talents for this sale.

The main sources for the replenishment of slaves at this time were: 1) prisoners of war and, in part, civilians captured. So, during the Greco-Persian wars, apparently, up to 150 thousand captives were sold in slave markets. After the Battle of Gimer (480 BC), the winners - the Sicilian Greeks - made a division of the Carthaginian prisoners of war, and some of the soldiers got 500 people each. During the successful wars of the Syracuse tyrants Dionysius I and Agathocles against the Carthaginians and local tribes of southern Italy, many prisoners of war were also enslaved; 2) tribesmen sold by the ruling aristocracy of the Thracians and Scythians. As a result of wars, the tribal elite establishes power over neighboring, including kindred, tribes and willingly sends their enslaved fellow tribesmen to Greece in exchange for luxury goods; 3) the slave contingent was replenished through the self-reproduction of slaves. According to Greek law, slaves did not have the right to start a family, but nevertheless, marital relations between slaves are not uncommon. In addition, the slaves were potential concubines of their master. Children born into slaves were also considered the property of the owner. In some estates in Sicily, slaveholders even set up a kind of nursery, in which slaves were raised from birth and then sold with great profit.

By the smelting furnace

hijackers of free people. Athenian laws punished with death the illegal enslavement of a free citizen. The role of piracy and other methods of abducting free people for the purpose of turning them into slavery increased in the turbulent atmosphere of the middle of the 4th century. BC e.

People who were enslaved in various ways were sold in special slave markets. Such markets existed in every polis, for example Aristophanes speaks of slave markets in Thessaly; in Athens, in the central square, the agora, there was a special place where the slaves were examined, evaluated and sold.

In trade and craft policies, slaves were used mainly in production, and therefore one of the tasks of the slave owner was the rational organization of slave labor. The labor of slaves had to be organized so that the slave could bring an income that would allow him to recoup the means spent on his purchase, the cost of daily maintenance (food and clothing) and at the same time bring some net profit. One of the forms of increasing exploitation and, at the same time, the productivity of slave labor in Athens was the release of a slave on a quitrent. The master provided a smart and energetic slave with small funds, premises, allocated him from his farm and settled separately. The slave opened a small workshop, worked to a certain extent independently, did business with customers, traded in the products of his

labor, could have a family. But for this independence he had to make a certain quitrent in favor of his master, and the master often established a quitrent that was higher than the profit brought by his slaves in the house. A slave put on a quitrent willingly agreed to such conditions, since this allowed him to a certain extent to feel like a man.

True, there were few slaves on the quitrent, their legal status did not change from this, they were still in the complete power of the master. At any time, the master could close the slave's workshop, but this was not in his interests. Due to his diligence, economy, hard work, a slave on a quitrent could save a certain amount and redeem himself free. But even in this case, the slave owner did not lose anything, he set a high ransom price and more than compensated for his costs for this slave.

If there were many slaves in the household of the slave owner, if he did not have the opportunity to rationally organize their work, then he rented them out for a certain period to a more enterprising person and received rent for this. In the IV century. BC e. the exploitation of a slave brought a fairly high income: on average, a slave engaged in a craft brought up to 2 obols a day (2 obols

it was possible to feed a family of 3-4 people). If the slave was rented out, then the owner of the slave received 1 obol per day as rent, and 1 obol was the profit of the tenant. The high income brought by slaves is an indicator of the intensive exploitation of slave labor, its rational organization, and a certain increase in the productivity of slave labor.

In connection with the increase in the exploitation of slave labor in commodity farms, the social position of slaves is worsening in comparison with the previous era. The slave is considered both by law and public opinion as a speech-gifted instrument of production, as a being of a lower order, as a half-man. In the IV century. BC e. the corresponding theory of slavery was created, especially fully developed by Aristotle. Reflecting the widespread practice of his time, Aristotle substantiated the need for slavery by the needs of life and production, considered slaves to be creatures with a different physical and mental organization than free people. “Nature arranged it so,” wrote Aristotle, “that the physical organization of free people is also different from the physical organization of slaves: the latter have a powerful body, suitable for performing the necessary physical laborfree people, however, hold themselves straight and are incapable of performing this kind of work: but they are suitable for political life ... Some people are free by nature, others are slaves, and it is useful and fair for the latter to be slaves.

The slave was the property of the master, the latter belonged to him working time, his life. Using uncontrolled power, the owners could starve their slaves, subject them to any punishment, up to and including murder. But on the other hand, buying a slave, paying a certain (and considerable) amount of money for him, and then killing him or starving him to death was not profitable for the slave.

That is why Sparta is characterized by a low level of development of slave relations and the predominance of various forms of dependent labor. The Spartan society was also characterized by the incompleteness of internal social differentiation.

citation, which left an imprint on the nature of social relationships and contradictions, which most often manifested themselves in the form of organized uprisings of helots or a struggle for power between small cliques, which was of a top nature.

Greek economy of the classical period (5th - 4th centuries BC)

The classical period in Greek history is also called the heyday of the polis system. The formation of Greek city-states, accompanied by violent social and political upheavals, was completed by the end of the 6th century. BC e. The internal situation in Balkan Greece stabilized, economic life revived in numerous policies, the political position of the middle strata of citizenship was strengthened, and conditions were created for the development of culture. This is the time of the highest rise of Greek civilization.

At the same time, classical slavery took shape to the end.

Ancient Greece knew two options for slavery:

• - polis or Athenian, was characteristic of economically developed regions, the main source of slaves was trade. Polis slavery was peculiar in terms of forms of ownership. State slavery did not receive much development due to the fact that large types of work requiring the use of a large amount of labor were carried out not by the state, but by private individuals. State slaves could start a family, own property. The state owned a small number of slaves who were very rarely used in the production process. Slaves, owned by various private individuals, were used in urban industrial production, including ergasteries. The forms of exploitation of slaves were also peculiar. The bulk of slave labor was used in the cities in handicraft production. Slaves were often rented and rented as profitable property. Debt slavery was not widely developed;
• - the Spartan version of slavery, which by its nature was closer to the Egyptian and Roman. The main source of slaves was wars. In addition, slaves, like land, were considered public goods in Sparta. Each Spartan received a land allotment and a certain number of slaves only for temporary use. The sale of slaves was prohibited. Provided for the equality of land allotments, which excluded the individual concentration of land and slaves. The main form of slave exploitation was agriculture. At the same time, slaves could possess some property, tools of production, could run their own household and start families. Their duty was to obey the masters and hand over a certain amount of food. A queen-rate relationship arose, typical of the Roman colonial and medieval serfdom.

The Greek city-states were developed trade and craft cities, quite populated, with a high culture, so Persia drew attention to them.

The reasons for the Greco-Persian wars were:

• 1) The apparent weakness of the Greek city-states fueled Persia to start the war;
• 2) The capture of Balkan Greece is important from a strategic point of view, since it gave the entire Eastern Mediterranean into the hands of Persia.

Reflection of the Persian invasion became possible thanks to the unification of the Greek city-states and, above all, Sparta, Corinth and Athens into the so-called Organization of the Delian Symmachy (First Athenian Maritime Union).

The victory in the Greco-Persian wars led to the creation of a vast trade zone. As a result of the victories over the Persian troops, the Greeks seized rich booty, including material values \u200b\u200band prisoners. ancient greece economy international

Under the influence of these factors in Greece from the middle of the 5th century. BC e. an economic system was formed, which existed without significant changes until the end of the 4th century. BC e. It was based on the use of slave labor. The Greek economy as a whole was not homogeneous. Among the numerous policies, two main types can be distinguished, differing in their structure. One type of polis is agrarian with an absolute predominance of agriculture, weak development of crafts and trade (the most striking example is Sparta, as well as the policies of Arcadia, Boeotia, Thessaly, etc.). And another type of polis, which can be conditionally defined as trade and craft - in its structure, the role of craft production and trade was quite significant. In these policies, a commodity slave economy was created, which had a rather complex and dynamic structure, and the productive forces developed especially rapidly. An example of such policies were Athens, Corinth, Megara, Miletus, Rhodes, Syracuse, a number of others, usually located on the sea coast, sometimes having a small chora (land allotment), but at the same time a large population that needed to be fed, occupied productive labor. Polis of this type set the tone for economic development, were the leading economic centers of Greece in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC e.

The most striking example is Athens. The study of the economic structure of Athens allows you to get a general idea of \u200b\u200bthe features of the trade and craft policies of Greece in the classical period.

The definition of the leading type of Greek city-states as trade and craft does not mean that agriculture in them has receded into the background, has ceased to be an important industry. Agriculture in trade and craft policies was leading along with trade and handicrafts, was the basis of the entire economic system. That is why the characterization of the economic life of trade and craft policies must begin with a description of agriculture as the most important foundation of their economy.

Cities during this period were the life centers of economically developed regions. Industry and trade were concentrated in the city, their growth reflected the most progressive trends in economic development. Handicraft activity mainly existed in the form of small-scale production based on manual labor with low productivity. The sectoral structure of production was becoming more complex, and the social division of labor was developing.

Along with handicrafts, forms of large-scale production - ergasteria - appear in policies, mainly in metalworking, arms business, and leather production with the number of employed 20-30 people. The division of labor within the ergasteria was only outlined and emerged sporadically.

Trade was developing intensively, professional merchants and wholesale trade existed, temporary companies arose to equip trade expeditions. To control the organization of trade and maintain order in the markets, a special supervisory administration was created, speculation was persecuted, especially in bread.

In the IV century. Greece was in decline. The crisis of slavery, the development of its internal contradictions associated with the lack of interest of this economic system in improving the tools of labor, accelerated this process. An extraordinary flourishing of culture was combined with a low technical level of production. Difficulty in the reproduction of slaves - the main productive force in this period - inevitably leads to the aggravation of the problems of economic development.