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Who built the first metallurgical plants. Demidov

Fri, 03/04/2011 - 16:51

Bespalova N.Yu.

B.V. Johanson. "At the old Ural plant"


Emperor Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov


Plan of the Pyskor plant, 1747


Plan of the Kamensk plant, 1741


Kamensky plant, view of the office and the monastery

In the XVII century. Russia's metallurgical base was very poorly developed, and the country was entirely dependent on exports, although the presence of the richest ore deposits in the Urals was not a secret. Metallurgical production has long been represented here by the so-called "muzhik factories" - small handicraft workshops. Such a "plant" was the only stove belonging to a separate peasant family, which served it in their free time from agricultural work (mainly 3-4 winter months). It took two people to maintain the oven, one of whom was blowing the bellows, and the other pouring in charcoal. All family members were engaged in ore digging, firewood preparation, coal burning. Information about the scale of the activity of handicraftsmen is very vague, it was established, however, that at the end of the XVII century. there were 45 such "factories" in the Kungur district. The annual production of each of them was slightly below 50 poods (0.82 tons). There were also buyers of semi-finished products - unprocessed pieces of iron bars. These were the same peasants who kept special water hammers on the rivers. In their free time from agricultural work, they reforged the kritsa into strip and rod iron.

The first two state-owned metallurgical plants appeared in the Urals in the 1630s, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty. The Nitsyn Iron Works was located on the eastern slope of the Ural Range, as it mainly provided the needs of the colonizers of Siberia. The Pyskor Copper Plant was located on the European slope, since the main consumer of its products was the Moscow Mint and state-owned foundries.

The staff of the Nitsyn Iron Plant consisted of 16 peasant families, forcibly settled in the newly formed Rudnaya Sloboda. Production took place from September 1 to May 9. In their free time at the plant, the factory workers were engaged in arable farming, and were freed from the usual peasant duties. In addition, they were entitled to a salary of 5 rubles. in year. But the perks did not appeal to the peasants, and escapes were common. According to rough estimates of historians, the average annual iron smelting at the Nitsyn plant should have been 45 tons, i.e. slightly exceeded the total production of all handicraft farms in the Kungur district. Archaeological research shows that the plant has been operating for about 50 years.

During the construction of the Pyskor plant, many technical mistakes were made, which made it necessary to start work from the beginning several times. The construction was carried out by civilians. A worker with a horse received 12 kopecks. per day, on foot - 6 kopecks. There were 15 foreigners among the management of the plant. The production workers were of two categories. The first category is local peasants, apparently civilians. The source uses the phrase "eager businessmen". The second category is convicted counterfeiters sent from the center as specialists in copper business. It is assumed that the average annual smelting of the Pyskor plant was 10 tons. The figure is negligible in comparison with the needs of the country. In 1656 the plant was stopped due to the mobilization of all qualified specialists for the siege of Riga. As you can see, the great Emperor Alexei Mikhailovich did not consider its functioning extremely important. In the 1660s, the enterprise was leased to private entrepreneurs Tumashev, who soon ceased production due to the depletion of deposits. However, in the 18th century. the factory was rebuilt. The development of technology has made it possible to extract metal from ore that was previously dumped.

In the second half of the 17th century. ferrous metallurgy is on the rise in the European part of Russia. Russian entrepreneurs and Dutch concessionaires are founding more than 20 iron plants - near Moscow, near Tula, in the Olonets and Vologda regions. The share of Russian (not imported) iron on the Russian domestic market at this time is quite large. The Urals are most of all interested in the government as a potential source of non-ferrous and precious metals. Searches for deposits are encouraged in every possible way, but so far they do not bring the desired results.

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310 years ago, on June 4, 1705, Tsar Pyotr Alekseevich allowed Nikita Demidov to build metallurgical plants in the Kungur region in the Urals. Since that time, the rise of the Demidov family - famous industrialists and landowners - began. The Demidovs became one of the founders of the mining and metallurgical industry in Russia.

From Russian metallurgy

Iron production on the territory of Russia has been known since ancient times. Archaeologists have found in the areas adjacent to Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Vyshgorod, Murom, Ryazan, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod and other ancient Russian cities, as well as Lake Ladoga and other areas, hundreds of places with the remains of smelting pots, syringes (i.e., no. . "Wolf pits") and the corresponding tools for the production of metallurgy.

Developed metallurgy was also in Scythia, the direct successor of which was Russia. In one of the "wolf pits" dug for metal smelting near the village of Podmokloye in the southern part of the Moscow coal basin, a coin dated to the beginning of the 9th century was discovered. That is, metallurgy in Russia existed even before the introduction of Christianity. The names of the Russian people also speak of the ubiquity of metallurgy in Russia: Koval, Kovalenko, Kovalchuk, Kovalev, Kuznetsov. The mythology and folklore of the Russian people, where the blacksmith is one of the central figures fighting against evil and representing the heavenly forces, also confirm the fact of the development of metallurgy in Ancient Rus.

The production of metal requires two main factors: fuel and raw materials. The main fuel at that time was charcoal. The highest quality charcoal was obtained from relatively rare and hard-leaved species - oak, beech and hornbeam, as well as birch. Smelting iron required a huge amount of wood: it took almost 40 cubic meters of wood to process one ton of ore. A more technologically advanced replacement for charcoal, coke, appeared relatively recently (two hundred years). An interesting fact is that initially it was precisely the absence of significant tracts of wood that prevented England from becoming the main metal producer in Europe. The increase in iron smelting in England destroyed almost all large tracts of forests.

There was fuel in Russia. Since ancient times, wood has been the main fuel and building material on our land. But there were problems with iron. There is no available high-quality iron ore on the Russian Plain. The Kursk magnetic anomaly was discovered only in the XX century and the depth of occurrence there is 200-600 meters. The technologies of that time did not allow the development of such deposits. Mankind knows: magnetic iron ore (over 70% iron), red iron ore (55-60%), brown iron ore (limonite, 35-55%) and spar iron ore (40%). Magnetite and hematite on the Russian platform lie deep, and there is no spar iron ore at all. Therefore, only brown iron ore remained. The raw materials are bad, but its plus is that it was almost everywhere. "Marsh iron" (limonite) was mined in peat bogs. And the swamps were located among the then mighty forests of Russia. Thus, metallurgy could be developed everywhere.

True, the Europeans were more fortunate. There were rich deposits of iron and other metals in the mountains in Germany and the Czech Republic. Mass mining of metal ores by the mine method in German lands began already in the 13th century. TO early XVI century in Germany there was a powerful metallurgical industry that produced the basic metals (iron, copper, silver and gold). In the 16th century, the massive export of iron and copper from Sweden began. Sweden possessed rich deposits of iron ores and for two centuries firmly held the first place in the supply of iron and copper. Until, thanks to the Urals, Russia was ahead of it.

"Swamp iron" is formed almost everywhere where there is a transition from oxygen-containing soils to an oxygen-free layer (at the junction of two layers). In swamps, this boundary is very close to the surface; iron nodules can be dug with a shovel, removing a thin layer of vegetation and earth. The deposits of such iron are classic placers and can be mined with a minimum of effort.

For the cheese-blowing process, which was used by the metallurgists of Ancient Russia, iron-rich ore was required. And the limonite ore is poor. Therefore, the bog ore that goes into smelting was necessarily enriched. Among the methods of ore beneficiation were: drying, roasting, crushing, washing and screening. Thus, the availability of fuel and raw materials, as well as enrichment technologies, led to the fact that Russia has been a country of gunsmiths since ancient times. We can safely say that Russian metallurgy allowed Russia to withstand a thousand years in hundreds of wars of varying intensity, from local conflicts to full-scale regional wars. Military production has been the core of the Russian state since ancient times.

"Swamp iron" was the basis of metallurgy in Russia until the 17th century. At the end of existence Old Russian state whole areas appeared that specialized in the production of iron. In the modern Kursk region, iron was produced in the city of Rimov. One of the largest centers of metallurgy was in the Novgorod land. Iron was produced in Ustyug Zhelezny (Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya). Swamp iron was mined in the area of \u200b\u200bYama, Koporya, Oreshka, and brought to Novgorod. At the same time, Novgorod also bought iron through Hanseatic merchants in Germany and Sweden. In the 16th century largest center Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya remained in the metalworking and arms business of Muscovite Rus; iron was also produced in Tula, Tikhvin, Olonets and Zaonezhie.

The mining of non-ferrous metals on the territory of Russia was practically absent until the 18th century. There were small sources of copper in the Olonets Territory and in the Pechora, but they could not saturate the domestic market. Novgorod knew about the sources of silver in the Urals, but there was no way to create production at that time. Therefore, the bulk of non-ferrous metals came to Russia from Europe. Through Novgorod, not only iron came, but also the bulk of lead, tin and copper.

It is clear that this affected the military-strategic position of Russia. Iron and copper were the metals of war. As the country developed, more and more metal was required. Western opponents of Russia - Sweden and Poland, took advantage of the fact that the main flow of metal went through them to Russian state and periodically, for the purpose of political pressure and military weakening of Moscow, they restricted imports. Therefore, the attempts of the Russian government, starting with Ivan the Terrible and continuing with Petr Alekseevich, to "cut a window to Europe", that is, to put a part of the Baltic under its control, were associated with the desire to achieve free trade in the Baltic.

When the British first appeared in the Russian North under Ivan Vasilievich, Moscow was primarily interested in the possibility of supplying iron and other metals and bypassing the traditional sea route through the Baltic Sea and overland through Poland. The British then did not see a threat from Russia, they were interested in Russian goods and the passage to Persia along the Volga route, so the merchants of the "Moscow campaign" began to actively sell non-ferrous metals and weapons to Moscow. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, Arkhangelsk continued to be an important center for the supply of metal to Russia. They were supplied by English and Dutch merchants.

Under the first Romanovs, Moscow actively bought high-quality steel and non-ferrous metals, as well as finished cannons and rifle barrels. However, this was not beneficial to Russia. Foreign iron was expensive. If at the beginning of the 17th century one pound (16 kg) of Russian iron cost about 60 kopecks from the manufacturer, then the cost of a pound of Swedish iron reached 1 ruble. 30 kopecks. A pood of imported iron wire cost even more - up to 3 rubles. For comparison. An ordinary horse then cost about 2 rubles, and a slave could be bought for 3-5 rubles. "Bulatna strip" (they were used for the production of sabers) cost about 3 rubles, they were imported from Holland and Persia. Copper was brought by English, Dutch, Danish and Swedish merchants. Its cost was 1.5-3 rubles, and roofing copper (for domes of churches) - 6 rubles. Silver and gold were also imported. Silver at the beginning of the 17th century cost about 450 rubles. pood, gold - about 3300 rubles. Tin, lead and copper were brought from Germany.

However, Sweden was the main supplier of high-quality iron for Russia at that time. Russia bought almost only metals in Sweden. It is clear that as relations between Russia and Sweden deteriorated, the situation became more and more dangerous. The Swedes seized the Russian lands in the Baltic, drove the Poles back, turning the Baltic Sea into a "Swedish Lake". A powerful metallurgical base made Sweden a powerful military power that threatened Russia's future.


"Swamp iron"

Development of metallurgy under the Romanovs

As soon as Russia recovered from the Troubles, the Russian government tried to create its own metallurgy. In 1632, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich gave the Dutch merchant Vinius a certificate of gratitude for setting up an iron factory in the Tula region. Production was based on the Didilovsky mines. It was no longer "bog iron", but deposits of high-quality iron ore near the village of Didilovo. The labor force issue was resolved by attributing a whole volost to the enterprise, and this is how the category of assigned peasants began to arise. In addition, the company also employed "eager people", that is, civilian workers. Vinius' enterprise has become a real manufactory using machines.

Soon, the Dutch merchant Philemon Akema and the Dane from Hamburg, Peter Marcelis, joined Vinius. They built three more manufactories in the Tula region (Gorodishchenskie Zavody). The enterprises employed not only Russians, but also masters invited from Europe. Marselis and Akema built several more iron-making factories on the Sknige River ("Kashirskie Zavody"). These iron enterprises became the core of metallurgy in Russia. However, the attempt to start copper production in Karelia and get rid of expensive imported metal failed. Due to the small reserves of copper, high labor intensity and associated significant costs, the plant was recognized as unprofitable and closed. True, in the 1680s, they were able to open five metallurgical manufactories using water energy in Karelia (Olonets plants). Under Peter, these enterprises began to specialize in the interests of Baltic Fleet.


Andrey Denisovich Vinius, engraving by Cornelius Visher, 1650

In 1693, the first iron-smelting plant using water energy started operating in the south of Russia. The metal of the Lipetsk plant was supplied to Voronezh, where Peter was building the Azov flotilla. In 1703-1705. production was expanded here, and the Lipskie Zheleznye Zavody appeared. They became the metallurgical base of the Azov flotilla and in the early years of the Northern War gave the country half of the metal needed for military production.

However, this was not enough to create a metallurgical base capable of making Russia an advanced European power. The "swamp metal" and rare surface deposits of iron ore on the Russian Plain could not provide sufficient production. A quality breakthrough was needed. And only the Urals could provide it. Even in ancient times, the Urals were the center of metallurgy. Novgorodians have long ago discovered the "Chud mines" on its slopes.

The first developments in the Urals began in 17th century... But the remoteness of the region from the main Russian urban centers and the small number of the Russian population hindered the development of the Urals. Only at the end of this century, Tsar Pyotr Alekseevich ordered to begin regular geological surveys in the Urals. In 1700, the Nevyansk Blast Furnace and Iron Works were erected on the Neiva River. Then an iron plant was erected on the site of the current city of Kamensk-Uralsky and a metallurgical plant in Alapaevsk. In 1723, the Yekaterinburg state plant was founded.

Thus, under Peter the Great they created the basis for an industrial base in the Urals. Then the Urals will become the most important economic region of the Russian Empire for a long time. The region was an excellent place for the development of metallurgy. There were rich deposits of high-quality ores, forests for the preparation of charcoal and numerous rivers, which made it possible to use the energy of water for the operation of machines, quite close to the surface. To the beginning XVIII century The Urals have already been populated, providing the factories with labor. Already in 1750 Russia had 72 "iron" and 29 copper smelters. In the 18th century, the Ural industrial region will produce more than 80% of all iron and 95% of copper in all of Russia. Thanks to the Ural factories, Russia got rid of external dependence and itself became a major supplier of metal. The export of Russian metal began already under Peter I, and in the 1770s Russia supplied more iron to England than Sweden. For most of the century, the Russian Empire was the largest metal producer on the planet and its leading exporter to Western Europe... A powerful metallurgical base became one of the prerequisites for Russia's military and political successes in the 18th century.


Monument to Nikita Demidov and Peter I in Nevyansk
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The first metallurgical manufactories of the Tula region

The first metallurgical manufactories of the Tula region

The described technology was simple and cheap, thanks to which it received the widest distribution and was used in Russia for a very long time - until the 18th century inclusive.

Meanwhile, in Europe, back in the XII century, they learned to obtain from iron ore a fundamentally different, high-carbon alloy - cast iron. Restoration with the new technology was carried out in significantly larger furnaces (the ancestors of the modern domain) and, thanks to more intense blasting, at a higher temperature. Having disadvantages (in particular, increased brittleness in comparison with iron), cast iron also possessed valuable qualities - first of all, good casting properties. Over time, a method was developed to reduce the carbon content in the alloy, due to which it was converted into ordinary low-carbon iron. So was born fundamentally new technology processing of iron ore: in contrast to the previously existing one-stage (ore - iron) - two-stage (ore - cast iron - iron). More complex than the previous one, it had many advantages. There were two of the most important: the immeasurably higher productivity of the process and the greater homogeneity of the metal, which made it possible to ensure its more stable quality. The blast-furnace plant possessed all the hallmarks of a manufacture. This was a relatively large production. On it worked highly specialized masters in their skills - blast furnace, foundry, dam and others. Complex mechanisms operated here, which were no longer activated manually, but by the power of water, which is why such factories were called "water-operating".

The first attempts to create a blast-furnace manufactory in Russia are associated with the activities of English merchants who appeared here under Ivan the Terrible. But his permission for this was soon revoked. The first blast furnace in Muscovy appeared much later - under the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty.

The father of Russian blast-furnace metallurgy was destined to become the Dutch businessman Andreas Dionysius (in Russia Andrei Denisovich) Vinius, who was originally engaged in trade here. A couple of times, on behalf of the government, he quite successfully sold state grain abroad, thanks to which he received benefits as an incentive. In 1632, the sovereign granted the merchant again: at his request, he ordered him and his companions, his brother Abraham (Abram) Vinius and Julius Villeken (Elisha Vylkens, Vilkensen), from iron ore to "make any iron for ten years without a need for production." It was indicated to do this (it was agreed: “against their petition”) “between Serpukhov and Tula on three rivers: on the Voshan river, and on the river on Skniga, and on the river on Vorona and forward, where they ... will look for places.” Companions were instructed to "put the melters in those places and iron on all sorts of articles to melt and cast and forge cannons and cannonballs and boilers and boards and various rods and do all sorts of iron work." Mills were used to power blast-furnace blowers and cast iron hammers with water.

The factories - in fact, workshops of a single enterprise - were set up in a chain along the Tulitsa River, a tributary of the Upa River, at a distance of one or two versts from one another. (The weakness of the watercourse of small rivers did not allow them to be placed nearby.) Address: Tula uezd, Starogorodishchensky stan, according to which the factories received one of the names - Gorodishchensky (the other - Tula). It was only 12 miles from the nearest of them to the armory Tula (with which we will get acquainted). Let's pay attention: the first blast-furnace plant in Russia, which produced products already in 1636, operated near the center where weapons were made from ancient times. The link between the two branches of Russian industry - ferrous metallurgy and the production of weapons, which had existed for a long time, with the launch of the domain near Tula has become even stronger.

The Gorodishchensky factories combined the production of cast iron and its conversion into iron. Casting cannons and cannon balls for them, factories that made pans and shackles became an experimental testing ground, proving that cast iron from Russian ores can be no worse than in other countries, that iron from such cast iron in many cases completely replaces Swedish. The state, vitally interested in the presence of such an industry in Russia (which largely met the needs of the army), helped its development: it provided loans to the breeders, attributed palace peasants to the factories.

The first builder of the factories, Andrei Vinius, "dropped out" of their history just a decade after the start-up. The furnaces and hammers created by his care were transferred to his companions of the “second wave”: the Dutch merchant Philemon Akema and a native of Hamburg, the resident of the Danish king Peter Marselis. It was they who built about forty versts from the Gorodishchensky factories, the first in Russia purely processing (iron-making) complex - the Kashirsky factories on the Sknige River, which worked on cast iron, which the hammers on Tulitsa could not cope with completely. They were followed by new manufactures. So Gorodishchensky plants became the center of the Tula-Kashira metallurgical region, the oldest in the history of Russian blast-furnace metallurgy.

Most of the owners of 17th century Russian metallurgical factories were foreigners. There were exceptions, but not many. Only in the last decade of the century a new trend emerged. In 1690, all the factories of Marselis, as escheat property, were transferred to the treasury and were soon transferred to the domestic owner - the uncle of Tsar Peter Alekseevich, boyar Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin. A few years later, the construction of factories by Russian entrepreneurs began. The first of them were the founders of the plant in the city of Romanov, clerk Kuzma Borin and Nikita Aristov, who belonged to the living room of the hundred. Around the same time, a state-owned gunsmith Nikita Demidov was building his first plant in Tula.

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From the book Stone Belt, 1974 the author Ryabinin Boris

The return of the Tula plant to Demidov It is difficult to say when and why Commissioner Demidov had an intention to restore his presence directly in Tula in full. Undoubtedly, this was facilitated by the relative success of the joint work with Gregory on

From the book "Magic Places Where I Live With My Soul ..." [Pushkin Gardens and Parks] author Egorova Elena Nikolaevna

Agony of the Tula plant While at the Altai and Ural factories of Akinfia, his smelters finally received the most valuable metals that metallurgy of that era was dealing with, his Tula plant was slowly dying. Coal deficit, without which they could not operate

From the book Kandinsky. Origins. 1866-1907 the author Aronov Igor author Erlikhman Vadim Viktorovich

Vyatka Territories Remembering his early childhood, a person usually sees it as a series of changing pictures. We remember only the events, objects, colors that struck us with something. The rest is blurred, it is elusive. The first thing that the artist Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov remembered for the whole

From the book Story of my life author Carnegie Andrew

In the field ("Around from edge to edge ...") Around from edge to edge The sea of \u200b\u200brye calmly slumbers, Diving above it in the air Agile swifts are frolicking. The sun is approaching the sunset And in the sky the color of cornflower, Like the smoke of a distant censer, Clouds float and melt. And if suddenly in this

From the author's book

At the edge of the abyss In the spring of 1560, the peaceful life of the Salon, and indeed of the whole of Provence, was disrupted by clashes on religious grounds. The situation in the country was aggravated; both Catholics and Protestants behaved more and more aggressively, and the government of the young king Francis II and the regent

From the author's book

Chapter 9 Metallurgical plants and oil sources. Leaving the railway service. Traveling to Europe I have always had a special love for the Keystone factories, because everyone else owes their origin to them. Very soon after their discovery, with obviousness

What an Arab traveler made in the X century. a trip to the Volga Bulgaria and then compiled a description of the life of the peoples of Eastern Europe?

  1. Avicenna
  2. Rashid ad-Din
  3. Ibn Fadlan
  4. Ibn Battuta

Assignment 2

What year did the events described below take place?

“A nationwide struggle unfolded against the invaders. Patriotic journalism was spreading in the country ("A New Story about the Glorious Russian Kingdom", etc.). A militia was formed in early spring. Its core was the detachments of the Ryazan nobles, headed by P. Lyapunov. The militia also included nobles, townspeople and peasants of the Volga region and the north-east of the country. "

  1. 1604 year
  2. 1611 year
  3. 1612 year
  4. 1617 year

Assignment 3

The emergence of which city is associated with a metallurgical plant, built by order of Peter I?

  1. Bryansk
  2. Irkutsk
  3. Magnitogorsk
  4. Lipetsk

Answer

1 2 3
3 2 4

1 point for each correct answer.

Only 3 points for tasks 1–3

In tasks 4-6, select several correct answers from the proposed ones.

Enter the answers in the table in the work form.

Assignment 4

Indicate the names of historical figures who were contemporaries of Alexander I.

  1. Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn
  2. Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin
  3. Pyotr Alekseevich Palen
  4. Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov
  5. Alexey Alexandrovich Kurbatov
  6. Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky

Assignment 5

Which of these terms are related to architecture?

  1. zakomara
  2. filigree
  3. scapula
  4. cinnabar
  5. portal
  6. liturgy

Assignment 6

Which of the titles are related to cossack troopsthat existed in Russia?

  1. Nizhny Novgorod
  2. Donskoe
  3. Astrakhan
  4. Yakutsk
  5. Semirechenskoe
  6. Buzulukskoe

Answer

4 5 6
134 135 235

2 points for a completely correct answer to each task; 1 point for an answer with one mistake (one of the correct answers is not indicated or, along with all the indicated correct answers, one incorrect is given).

Only 6 points for tasks 4–6.

Assignment 7

The list below presents the legislative acts adopted under various rulers of Russia in the 18th – 19th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the work form, and in the bottom line - the serial numbers of legislative acts that appeared under the corresponding ruler.

  1. Certificate of Appreciation to the Nobility
  2. Institution for the management of a large active army
  3. statute of the Order of Saint George the Victorious
  4. Table of Ranks
  5. decree establishing the Governing Senate
  6. decree on the elimination of the Secret Expedition
  7. decree on single inheritance
  8. decree on the establishment of the Little Russian Collegium instead of the hetman's rule in Little Russia
  9. manifesto on the formation of the Council of State

Answer

Only 9 points.

Assignment 8

The list below contains the names of cities and territories annexed to the Moscow principality (Russian state) under various rulers in the 15th – 16th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the work form, and in the bottom line - the ordinal numbers of the cities and territories annexed under the corresponding ruler.

  1. Kazan Khanate
  2. Ugra land
  3. Smolensk
  4. Bashkiria
  5. Pskov
  6. Novgorod
  7. Ryazan
  8. Tver
  9. Astrakhan Khanate

Answer

1 point for indicating the name of the ruler. (If the name is specified incorrectly, the answer in this column will not be accepted.) 2 points for completely correct match; 1 point for compliance with one error.

Only 9 points.

Assignment 9

How are the ranks formed? Give the most accurate answer.

1. Grengam, Noteburg, Gangut, Helsingfors.

2. IN. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Soloviev, N.I. Kostomarov, N.M. Karamzin.

Answer

  • 1. Places of battles of the Northern War.
  • 2. Russian historians.

2 points for each correct answer.

Only 4 points.

Assignment 10

Arrange historical events in chronological order. Enter the answers in the table in the work form.

  • A) the creation of the Kiev Metropolis
  • B) the final victory of Yaroslav the Wise over Svyatopolk
  • C) acceptance of the Pravda Yaroslavichi
  • D) reform of pagan cults
  • E) the death of Prince Boris
  • F) the appointment of Hilarion as Metropolitan

Answer

1 2 3 4 5 6
D A D B E IN

Only 4 points.

Assignment 11

Arrange the terms in the chronological order of their occurrence. Enter the answers in the table in the work form.

  • A) military districts
  • B) provinces
  • C) Life Guards
  • D) boyars
  • E) military settlements
  • E) archers

Answer

1 2 3 4 5 6
D E IN B D A

4 points for completely correct sequence; 2 points for a sequence with one error (i.e. the correct sequence is restored by swapping any two characters); 0 points if more than 1 mistake was made.

Only 4 points.

Assignment 12

Establish a correspondence between the names of artists and the titles of their works. Write down the selected numbers in the table in the work form under the corresponding letters.

Answer

Answer

A B IN D D
2 4 5 6 1

1 point for each correct match. Only 5 points.

Task 14

Fill in the gaps in the text. If necessary, with the serial numbers, explanations are given on the nature of the required insert. Enter the necessary words, names, dates under the appropriate numbers in the table placed in the work form.

In 1735 Russia decided to transfer (1 - country name)its Caspian provinces, conquered by Peter I during (2 - name)campaign of 1722-1723. These provinces did not bring any income, and the maintenance of the army and fortresses there burdened the treasury. Turkey by (3 - name)the treaty of 1724 recognized these provinces as Russian, but she did not want to put up with the success of her main competitor in the Transcaucasus – (1). Therefore, the troops of the vassal of Turkey (4 - state name)went to the Caucasus, while violating the borders of Russia. In response, the Russian Empire declared war on Turkey. Russia's ally in this war was (5) .

In the fall of 1735, the corps under the leadership of General M.I. Leontyev tried to enter the territory (4) , but the lack of roads and poor supply of the troops did not allow this.

The following year, the Russian army under the command of a field marshal (6 - last name)passed (7) - the isthmus separating the peninsula from the mainland - and captured the capital (4) - city (8) ... Then, for fear of being locked in (4) returning from Transcaucasia by the Tatar army, (6) left the Crimean territory. In the summer of the same year, the Russians occupied the fortress (9) , and next year - a fortress (10) .

On the initiative of the Turks, in the summer of 1737, trilateral peace negotiations began in Nemirov, but they soon reached a dead end, and the war continued. Russian troops won small victories. The biggest battle they won in August 1739 under (11 - name), after which two days later they occupied the fortress (12) ... This event made such a deep impression on contemporaries that (13 - surname)wrote his famous "Ode to the taking (12) ". In the same year in (14 - city name)a peace treaty was concluded that ended this war. Unfortunately, it was unprofitable for Russia, since, according to its conditions, it did not get access to (15 - geographic feature).

Answer

1 Iran
2 Persian
3 Constantinople
4 Crimean Khanate
5 Holy Roman Empire (Austria)
6 B.K. Minich
7 Perekop
8 Bakhchisarai
9 Azov
10 Ochakov
11 Stavuchany
12 Khotin
13 M.V. Lomonosov
14 Belgrade
15 Black Sea
  • 15 correct inserts - 9 points.
  • 14 correct inserts - 8 points.
  • 12-13 correct insertions - 7 points.
  • 10-11 correct inserts - 6 points.
  • 8-9 correct inserts - 5 points.
  • 6-7 correct inserts - 4 points.
  • 4–5 correct inserts - 3 points.
  • 2-3 correct inserts - 2 points.
  • 1 correct insert - 1 point.

Only 9 points.

Task 15

Take a close look at the map and complete the tasks below.

15.1 Write down who was an ally of the Russian troops in the battle that took place south of all the battles indicated on the map.

Answer

Polovtsi (1 point).

15.2 Write the number that designates the city that has withstood the siege of Mongol troops for several weeks.

Answer

1 (1 point).

15.3 Write the name of the historical figure who defended the city indicated by the number 8 by winning the two battles indicated on the map.

Answer

Alexander Nevskiy (1 point).

15.4 Write the name of the Mongol commander who participated in the campaigns of the 1220s – 1230s shown on the map.

Answer

Subedei (1 point).

15.5 Are the statements below (“yes” - “no”) correct? Enter the answers in the table.

  • A) The defense of the city, indicated by the number 6, was led by voivode Dmitr.
  • B) In one of the battles indicated on the map, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky died.
  • C) The name of the state is signed on the map, the capital of which in the 15th century. becameKönigsberg.
  • D) Vladimir's troops took part in the battle near the city designated by the number 5.
  • E) A contemporary of all the events reflected on the map was the son of Genghis Khan Juchi.

Answer

A B IN D D
no yes yes yes no

2 points for each correct answer. Only 10 points.

Total 14 points for task 15.

Task 16

Correlate the images presented below with the data of various Russian historians about the characteristics of the Russian princes with whom these images are associated by meaning. Enter the names of these figures in the table.

In the appropriate columns, indicate the serial number of the fragment of the description of the historical figure and the numerical designation of the event in world history, of which he was a contemporary.






Characteristics of Russian historians

  1. “Modern researchers, in general, are unanimous in assessing his role in the creation of a new political system of the Russian state, based on the“ ancestral ”ownership of lands. But this is only one of the two components of the political program of the prince ... In his understanding ... the most important basis for the political structure of society was to be the "fear of God" - the feeling of responsibility of the princes ... to God, before whom each of those living on earth had to answer at the Last Judgment "( A.Yu. Karpov).
  2. “He was a man of tough disposition, cold, judicious, with a callous heart, power-hungry, unswerving in pursuit of the chosen goal, hidden, extremely cautious; in all his actions one can see gradualness, even slowness; he was not distinguished by either courage or courage, but he knew how to use circumstances admirably; he was never carried away, but he acted decisively when he saw that the business was ripe to the point that success was beyond doubt. The seizure of lands and, possibly, their permanent annexation to the Moscow state was the cherished goal of his political activities; following his ancestors in this matter, he surpassed all of them and left an example of imitation for posterity for a long time "( N.I. Kostomarov).
  3. “He acted as a domineering prince-patrimonial, unswervingly striving to expand the territory of his principality and to subordinate other Russian princes to his power. In his activities there were no motives for the national liberation struggle. The prince did not fight against the oppression of the Golden Horde, but paid off the khan by paying the “exit” in good order, giving Russia some respite from the Tatar raids ... "( L.V. Cherepnin).
  4. “By his cautious prudent policy, he saved Russia from the final ruin of the nomads' armies. Armed struggle, trade policy, electoral diplomacy, he avoided new wars in the North and West, a possible, but disastrous for Russia, an alliance with the papacy and rapprochement of the curia and crusaders with the Horde. He gained time by allowing Russia to grow stronger and recover from the terrible ruin. He is the founder of the policy of the Moscow princes, the policy of the revival of Russia "( V.T. Pashuto).

World history events

I. Convening of the States General in France

II. Excommunication of the Emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire" Frederick II from the church.

III. Unification of Castile and Aragon into a single kingdom

IV. Walking to Canossa

Answer

1 point for each correct element of the answer.

Only 12 points.

Task 17

One of the most important aspects of the historian's activity is the analysis of the source, the ability to extract the necessary information from it. Before you is a fragment of "Notes on ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations", compiled by N.M. Karamzin. Write on its basis a small work "Criticism of the liberal transformations of Alexander I by his contemporaries." “The main mistake of the legislators of this reign consists in excessive respect for the forms of state activity: that is why - the invention of various ministries, the establishment of the Council, etc. Things are no better done - only in places and by officials of a different name. Let's follow a different rule and say that not forms, but people are important. Let the ministries and the Council exist: they will be useful if in the ministry and in the Council we see only men famous for reason and honor. So, our first good desire is, may God help Alexander in the happy election of people! Such an election, and not the establishment of the Senate with the collegia, marked the greatness of Peter's reign in the internal affairs of the empire. This monarch had a passion for capable people, he looked for them in monastic cells and in dark cabins: there he found Feofan and Osterman, glorious in our state history. Other circumstances and modest, quiet qualities of the soul distinguish Alexander from Peter, who was everywhere himself, spoke to everyone, listened to everyone and took upon himself one word at a time, one glance to decide the dignity of a person; but let it be the same rule: look for people! Whoever has the power of attorney of the Sovereign, let him notice them in the distance for the very first places. Not only in republics, but also in monarchies, candidates must be appointed solely according to their ability. The almighty hand of the autocrat leads one, rushes the other to the height; slow gradualness is the law for the multitude, not for all. Those who have the mind of a minister should not turn gray in clerks or secretaries. Ranks are humiliated not by their quick acquisition, but by the stupidity or dishonor of dignitaries; envy is aroused, but soon falls silent in the face of the worthy. You do not form a useful ministry by composing the Instruction — then you do when you have prepared good ministers. The council is considering their proposal, but are you confident in the wisdom of its members? General wisdom is born only from particular. In short, now people are most needed! "

Work plan

  1. Description of the document. Based on your knowledge of the history course, answer the questions. What is the author of the "Note" famous for? When was the document created? Who was it for?
  2. Description of the circumstances of the creation of the document. What problem is addressed in the "Note"? What transformations were carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander I? What statesman was negatively perceived by Karamzin as the author of reforms unnecessary for the country?
  3. What arguments does the author give to substantiate his point of view, subjecting the innovations to cautious criticism? What dignity did he find in state structure, whose opponent was? Give three points.
  4. Conclusions: to which current of social thought did the author belong? What did he draw the attention of the addressee of the Note to? Give two points.

Answer

  1. The author of "Notes" N.М. Karamzin is a historian, author of "History of the Russian State", court historiographer of Alexander I, writer (story "Poor Liza"), publisher of magazines ("Moscow Journal", "Bulletin of Europe"). "Note" was created in 1811. It was intended for Emperor Alexander I.
  2. Karamzin considers the problem of the liberal policy of Alexander I, reforms in the system government controlled... At the time of writing the "Note", Alexander I had established ministries and the State Council. Karamzin had a negative attitude towards M.M. Speransky, who developed a system of liberal reforms in the state apparatus. (2 points for each position. 6 points in total.)
  3. The following provisions can be given.
    • Karamzin says that it is not the form that matters government agencies, and the content of their activities. The main problem the author of the "Note" sees in finding people worthy to borrow senior positions in the management apparatus. The main criterion for this should be human ability.
    • The author speaks about the personal qualities of Alexander I ("modest, quiet qualities of the soul"), setting him up as an example of Peter I ("he was everywhere himself, he spoke to everyone, listened to everyone," "had a passion for capable people"). He names the names of prominent figures whom Peter attracted to governing the state.
    • Karamzin notes that in the republics candidates for public office are appointed "only according to their ability." The same should be true in a monarchy. (2 points for each position. 6 points in total.)
  4. N.M. Karamzin belonged to the conservative stream (1 point).It is no coincidence that the Note is called the first manifesto of Russian conservatism. Karamzin urges to be wary of innovations in the system of public administration, emphasizing that the whole point is not in institutions, but in the personal qualities of the monarch and other leaders of the state. Karamzin notes the possibilities of the "omnipotent hand of the autocrat" (autocrat) for building the state. (1 point for each position.)

Only 3 points.

A total of 21 points.

Task 18

You have to work with the statements of historians and contemporaries about events and figures national history... Choose one of them, which will be the topic of your essay essay. Your task is to formulate your own attitude to this statement and substantiate it with the arguments that seem to you the most essential. When choosing a topic, proceed from the fact that you:

  1. clearly understand the meaning of the statement (it is not necessary to fully or even partially agree with the author, but it is necessary to understand what exactly he claims);
  2. you can express your attitude to the statement (agree with the author reasonably or completely or partially refute his statement);
  3. have specific knowledge (facts, statistics, examples) on this topic;
  4. know the terms necessary for a competent presentation of your point of view.

Topics

  1. “Under Vladimir Monomakh, Russia defeated the Polovtsians, and for a while they ceased to be a constant threat. The power of the Kiev prince extended to all lands inhabited old Russian people... The strife of the minor princes was resolutely suppressed by the heavy hand of the grand duke. Kiev was really the capital of a huge, largest state in Europe " (B.A. Rybakov).
  2. “Let us now take a look at the map of medieval Europe and try to outline the international position of Russia. For the inhabitants of Western Europe, the then Russian lands were little known. But this does not mean that Russia lived some kind of closed life. It was connected by busy trade routes with the countries of the West, East and Mediterranean " (M.N. Tikhomirov).
  3. “The flourishing of ancient Russian art, with which the name of Rublev is inextricably linked, is simultaneous with the early Italian Renaissance (otherwise, Proto-Renaissance, or Pre-Renaissance). But should a parallel be drawn between these flowering arts? And can the terms "Renaissance" and "Pre-Renaissance" be generally applied to ancient Russian artistic creation? " (L. D. Lyubimov).
  4. “Tsar Boris had no doubts that the pretender had been trained by seditious boyars. One of the tsar's bodyguards K. Bussov reports that Godunov, at the very first news of the impostor's successes, told his boyars in the face that it was their work and it was conceived to overthrow him, which he was not mistaken about, added Bussov on his own behalf. (R.G. Skrynnikov).
  5. “In the ideology of Peter's time, the image of a school graduated from the whole country,“ planted ”by a formidable“ teacher ”was popular. But for the tsar-reformer it was not only a vivid image, but also a real state task " (E.V. Anisimov).
  6. “For Nikolai Pavlovich, the fight against revolution was not only a tradition bequeathed to him by his elder brother, and not only a matter of personal taste: although for this sovereign, who loved military divorce more than anything else in the world, hardly anything could be more disgusting than popular movements that violated every "Order" and any subordination. It was largely a matter of self-preservation for him. " (M.N. Pokrovsky).
  7. “All reforms at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II are undoubtedly in close connection with each other and are a reflection of that social upsurge of energy and creativity, which has replaced the involuntary thirty years of stagnation and silence. The indicated connection is most evident if we turn to the judicial reform ... " (M.P. Chubinsky).

Essay Evaluation Criteria

  1. Reasonableness of the choice of the topic (explanation of the choice of the topic and the tasks that the participant sets for himself in his work).
  2. The creative nature of the perception of the topic, its comprehension.
  3. Literacy of use historical facts and terms.
  4. Clarity and evidence of the main provisions of the work.
  5. Knowledge of different points of view on the topic under consideration.

Up to 5 points for each criterion.

Total for work 130 points.

310 years ago (1705) Peter I allowed Nikita Demidov to build new metallurgical plants in the Urals

Russian industrialist, founder of the Demidov dynasty, a person who left a noticeable mark in the industrial history of Tula, one of the largest figures in the history of domestic industrial entrepreneurship in the 18th century. According to legend, permission to build factories in the Urals was given personally by Peter I, who met Demidov during one of his visits to Tula in 1695 or 1696. There are several legends about this meeting. According to one of them, Nikita became known to the tsar because he repaired Peter's associate, Baron Shafirov, his German pistol, and even made an exact copy of it. According to another, Nikita Demidov was the only one of the Tula gunsmiths who in 1696 undertook to fulfill the tsar's order for the manufacture of 300 guns according to the Western model.

Development of the metallurgical industry and metal trade in Russia.

The production of iron in Russia has been known since ancient times. Archaeologists have found in the areas adjacent to Novgorod, Lake Ladoga, Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Vyshgorod, Murom, Ryazan, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Pskov and other areas, hundreds of places with the remains of smelting syrup - "wolf pits", and metallurgical tools.

In one of the "wolf pits" dug for metal smelting near the village of Podmokloye in the southern part of the Moscow coal basin, a coin dated to the beginning of the 9th century was discovered. That is, metallurgy in Russia existed even before the introduction of Christianity.

The production of metal requires fuel, raw materials and transport routes. Since ancient times, timber has been the main fuel and building material on Russian soil. But there were no such rich deposits of iron as in the mountains in Germany, the Czech Republic. There is no available high-quality iron ore on the Russian Plain. The Kursk magnetic anomaly was discovered only in the 20th century and its depth is from 200 to 600 meters. The technologies of that time did not allow the development of such deposits. Magnetite and hematite on the Russian platform lie deep, and there is no spar iron ore at all. Therefore, there was only brown iron ore - "bog iron". The raw materials are bad, but its plus is widespread. Swamp iron (limonite) is mined in peat bogs. "Swamp iron" is formed almost everywhere where there is a transition from oxygen-containing soils to an oxygen-free layer (at the junction of two layers). In swamps, this boundary is very close to the surface; iron nodules can be dug with a shovel, removing a thin layer of vegetation and earth.

"Swamp iron" was the basis of the metallurgy of Russia until the 17th century. At the end of the existence of the Old Russian state, whole regions appeared that specialized in the production of iron. In the modern Kursk region, iron was produced in the city of Rimov. One of the largest centers of metallurgy was in the Novgorod land. Iron was produced in Ustyug Zhelezny (Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya). Bog iron was mined in the area of \u200b\u200bYama, Koporya, Oreshka, and brought to Novgorod. At the same time, Novgorod also bought iron through Hanseatic merchants in Germany and Sweden. In the 16th century, Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya remained the largest center of metalworking and arms business in Muscovite Russia; iron was also produced in Tula, Tikhvin, Olonets and Zaonezhie.

The mining of non-ferrous metals on the territory of Russia was practically absent until the 18th century. There were small sources of copper in the Olonets Territory and Pechora, but they could not saturate the domestic market. Novgorod knew about the sources of silver in the Urals, but there was no way to create production at that time. Therefore, the bulk of non-ferrous metals came to Russia from Europe. Through Novgorod, not only iron came, but also the bulk of lead, tin and copper.

A. Vasnetsov "Cannon yard"

The mass mining of metal ores by the mine method in German lands began already in the 13th century. By the beginning of the 16th century, a powerful metallurgical production was formed in Germany, which produced the basic metals (iron, copper, silver and gold). In the 16th century, the massive export of iron and copper from Sweden began. Sweden possessed rich deposits of iron ores and for two centuries firmly held the first place in the supply of iron and copper. Until, thanks to the Urals, Russia was ahead of it.

Iron and copper were the metals of war. As the country developed, more and more metal was required. Western opponents of Russia - Sweden and Poland, took advantage of the fact that the main flow of metal to the Russian state went through them and periodically restricted imports for political pressure and military weakening of Moscow. Therefore, the attempts of the Russian government, starting with Ivan the Terrible and continuing with Petr Alekseevich, to "cut a window to Europe", that is, to put a part of the Baltic under its control, were connected with the desire to achieve free trade in the Baltic.

English and Dutch merchants helped in part to resist Swedish-Polish economic pressure. When the British first appeared in the Russian North under Ivan Vasilievich, Moscow was primarily interested in the possibility of supplying iron, other metals and weapons bypassing the traditional sea route along the Baltic Sea and overland through Poland. The British then did not see a threat from Russia, they were interested in Russian goods and the passage to Persia along the Volga route, so the merchants of the "Moscow campaign" began to actively sell non-ferrous metals and weapons to Moscow. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, Arkhangelsk continued to be an important center for the supply of metal to Russia. They were supplied by English and Dutch merchants.

Under the first Romanovs, Moscow actively bought high-quality steel and non-ferrous metals, as well as finished cannons and rifle barrels. However, it was not profitable for Russia because of the high cost. If at the beginning of the 17th century one pound (16 kg) of Russian iron cost about 60 kopecks from the manufacturer, then the cost of a pound of Swedish iron reached 1 ruble. 30 kopecks A pood of imported iron wire cost even more - up to 3 rubles. For comparison. An ordinary horse then cost about 2 rubles, and a slave could be bought for 3-5 rubles. "Bulatna strip" (they were used for the production of sabers) cost about 3 rubles, they were imported from Holland and Persia. Copper was brought by English, Dutch, Danish and Swedish merchants. Its cost was 1.5-3 rubles, and roofing copper (for domes of churches) - 6 rubles. Silver and gold were also imported. Silver at the beginning of the 17th century cost about 450 rubles. for a pood, gold - about 3300 rubles. Tin, lead and copper were brought from Germany.

However, Sweden was the main supplier of high-quality iron for Russia at that time. Russia bought almost only metals in Sweden. It is clear that as relations between Russia and Sweden deteriorated, the situation became more and more dangerous. The Swedes seized the Russian lands in the Baltic, drove the Poles back, turning the Baltic Sea into a "Swedish Lake". A powerful metallurgical base made Sweden a powerful military power that threatened Russia's future.

Therefore, as soon as Russia recovered from the Troubles, the Russian government tried to create its own metallurgy. In 1632, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich gave the Dutch merchant Vinius a certificate of gratitude for setting up an iron factory in the Tula region. Production was based on the Didilovsky mines. It was no longer "bog iron", but deposits of high-quality iron ore near the village of Didilovo. The labor force issue was resolved by attributing a whole volost to the enterprise, and this is how the category of assigned peasants began to arise. In addition, the company also employed "eager people", that is, civilian workers.

Soon, the Dutch merchant Philemon Akema and the Dane from Hamburg, Peter Marcelis, joined Vinius. They built three more manufactories in the Tula region (Gorodishchenskie Zavody). The enterprises employed not only Russians, but also masters invited from Europe. Marselis and Akema built several more iron-making factories on the Sknige River ("Kashirskie Zavody"). These iron enterprises became the core of metallurgy in Russia. However, the attempt to start copper production in Karelia and get rid of expensive imported metal failed. Due to the small reserves of copper, high labor intensity and associated significant costs, the plant was recognized as unprofitable and closed. True, in the 1680s, they were able to open five metallurgical manufactories using water energy in Karelia (Olonets plants). Under Peter the Great, these enterprises began to specialize in the interests of the Baltic Fleet.

Since 1693, the first iron-smelting plant with the use of hydraulic power plants started operating in the south of Russia. The metal of the Lipetsk plant was supplied to Voronezh, where Peter was building the Azov flotilla. In 1703-1705. production was expanded here, and the Lipskie Zheleznye Zavody appeared. They became the metallurgical base of the Azov flotilla and in the early years of the Northern War gave the country half of the metal needed for military production.

However, this was not enough, a quality breakthrough was needed. And only the Urals could provide it. Even in ancient times, the Urals were the center of metallurgy. Novgorodians have long ago discovered the "Chud mines" on its slopes.

The first developments in the Urals began in the 17th century. But the remoteness of the region from the main Russian urban centers and the small number of the Russian population hindered the development of the Urals. Only at the end of this century, Tsar Pyotr Alekseevich ordered to begin regular geological surveys in the Urals. In 1700, the Nevyansk Blast Furnace and Iron Works were erected on the Neiva River. Then an iron plant was erected on the site of the current city of Kamensk-Uralsky and a metallurgical plant in Alapaevsk. In 1723, the Yekaterinburg state plant was founded. It was under Peter I that the foundation of an industrial base in the Urals began to be created.

Here, there were rich deposits of high-quality ores, forests for the preparation of charcoal and numerous rivers, which made it possible to use hydraulic power plants, which set in motion wooden machines (German maschinen - Russian colossus) in motion. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Urals had already been populated, providing the factories with labor.

In the 18th century, the Ural industrial region will produce more than 80% of all iron and 95% of copper in all of Russia. Thanks to the Ural factories, Russia got rid of external dependence and itself became a major supplier of metal. The export of Russian metal began already under Peter I, and in the 1770s Russia supplied more iron to England than Sweden. For most of the century, the Russian Empire was the largest metal producer on the planet and its leading exporter in Western Europe. A powerful metallurgical base became one of the prerequisites for Russia's military and political successes in the 18th century.

Bibliography:

Edition code:

Zapariy, Vladimir Vasilievich. History of the Urals ferrous metallurgy. 90s of the XX century / V.V. Zapariy; Russian academy Sciences, Ural Branch; Institute of History and Archeology; Ural State Technical University-UPI. - Moscow: Nauka, 2003 .-- 263 p. - List of abbreviations : from. 255-256. - Bibliography: p. 257-262.

Edition code:

Strumilin, Stanislav Gustavovich. Selected works. History ferrous metallurgy in the USSR / S. G. Strumilin; USSR Academy of Sciences. - Moscow: Nauka, 1967 .-- 442p. : ill. - Appendix: p. 431-432. - Names. decree .: p. 433-440.

(available in: Department of Scientific Literature Service, room 176)

Samsonov, Alexander. From the history of Russian metallurgy [ Electronic resource] // Military review. URL: http://topwar.ru/ (date of access: 04.06.2015).