The tasks of teaching the world around primary school
The “world around us” as an academic subject has great opportunities for teaching, developing and educating schoolchildren. This subject occupies one of the leading places among educational disciplines in elementary school in terms of the volume of the course content: it combines knowledge of the natural and social sciences.
According to the Federal State educational standard initial general education, which came into force in 2010, the objectives of teaching the course "The World Around" are:
a) the formation of a respectful attitude towards the family, settlement, region, Russia, history, culture, nature of our country, its modern life;
b) awareness of the value, integrity and diversity of the surrounding world, their place in it;
c) formation of a model of safe behavior in everyday life and in various dangerous and emergency situations;
d) the formation of psychological culture and competence to ensure effective and safe interaction in society.
As a result of studying the course "The World Around", children should develop certain knowledge, abilities and skills. The child receives knowledge as a result of comprehending the surrounding reality. Knowledge largely determines a person's attitude to what is happening, his moral views, convictions, good breeding.
Thus, in the process of studying the course "The World Around", teaching, developmental and educational tasks are solved. Let's consider them in more detail.
Learning tasks.As a result of solving these problems, a certain level of knowledge, abilities and skills should be formed in junior schoolchildren.
Knowledge levelshould be as follows:
initial knowledge about nature and society must be formed;
the meaning of nature in labor activity people, the basics of nature protection and rational use of natural resources;
children should know the available methods for studying natural objects and phenomena;
children should be prepared for self-education in the study of systematic disciplines in the middle grades.
Skills and abilities,which are developed in the process of studying the world around them, can be conditionally divided into subject-practical, general educational, and intellectual.
TO subject-matterskills and skills include the following:
a) the ability to use devices (thermometer, magnifying glass, etc.) and models;
b) topographic skills (compass orientation, determining the direction on the map, using the scale of the map, the scale of heights and depths, measuring the distance along the hawk, drawing objects on the contour map);
c) conducting independent observations in nature, performing simple experiments;
d) carrying out activity and propaganda work: making bird feeders and hanging them, feeding animals, performing other feasible work on nature protection, promoting environmental ideas in a simple form;
e) the ability to observe the rules of hygiene and rules of behavior in nature.
TO general educationalskills and skills include, in particular, the ability to independently work with a textbook and other sources of information. At the same time, children should be able to highlight the main thing in the text, in the figure and in the table, make generalizations in the text, prepare short messages, draw up diagrams and tables.
TO intellectualskills include: the ability to distinguish between representatives of plants and animals, the ability to analyze, compare, contrast, identify cause-and-effect relationships, explain phenomena occurring in nature, draw conclusions and generalizations. In educational and real situations, students should be able to assess human activities in nature, to predict the consequences of such human activities, propose measures for the protection of nature.
Developing tasks.They are aimed primarily at the development of the mental characteristics of students.
Mentalthe development of children is characterized by the development of perception, attention, figurative-logical memory, thinking, speech and communication skills, imagination, observation, curiosity.
Educational tasks.They include mental, environmental, moral, aesthetic, labor and sanitary and hygienic education.
Mental educationinvolves the formation of a system of knowledge in children about the world around them. Wherein, at first,a scientific materialistic worldview is being formed. The main ideological ideas of the course are as follows:
unity and diversity of nature;
the interconnection and interdependence of the components of nature (for example, the dependence of the nature of precipitation, the condition of the soil and water bodies on temperature);
constant development of nature and its change (daily and seasonal rhythms, evolution of nature);
universality and cognizability of nature;
human activity in nature should be based on an understanding of natural laws;
predictive role of natural sciences. The forecast allows the rational use of natural resources for the benefit of people.
Thus, when studying the course, the child forms the conviction that there is nothing supernatural in the world and that all processes and phenomena in nature are quite explicable.
Secondly,mental abilities develop, there is a need to constantly replenish their knowledge, including independently.
In-t third,cognitive activity is formed.
Environmental education includes:
a) the formation of environmental awareness. Environmental awareness is an attitude towards nature with knowledge of the consequences for the environment and for oneself of one's own actions and lifestyle. There are two main types of ecological consciousness: anthropocentric and ecocentric.
For anthropocentricecological consciousness is characterized by the following views on the relationship between man and nature:
the highest value in the "man-nature" system is man. Everything else in nature is valuable only insofar as it can be useful to man;
hierarchical picture of the world. At the top of the pyramid there is a man, a little lower - things created by man and for man, even lower are natural objects, the place of which in the hierarchy is determined by their usefulness for man;
relationship with nature is determined by pragmatism: what is good for man is right;
nature conservation activities are also dictated by pragmatism: it is necessary to preserve natural environment so that it can be used by future generations.
In fact, the entire history of natural history education was the history of the formation of precisely anthropocentric ecological consciousness. However, the understanding that such ecological consciousness has led humanity to a dead end has led to the emergence of a new, ecocentricenvironmental awareness. With this type of ecological consciousness, there is no opposition human nature, natural objects are perceived as full subjects, partners in interaction.
Ecocentric ecological awareness is characterized by the following:
the highest value is the harmonious development of man and nature. Nature is recognized initially as intrinsically valuable, its objects have the right to exist, regardless of their usefulness or uselessness or even harmful to humans. Man is not the owner of nature, but one of the members of the natural community;
rejection of the hierarchical picture of the world. Man does not have any privileges just on the grounds that he has reason. On the contrary, rationality imposes on him additional duties in relation to nature;
only that which does not violate the ecological balance existing in nature is correct;
it is necessary to protect nature not for the sake of man, but for the sake of nature itself.
Thus, if the anthropocentric type of ecological consciousness
contributed to the "transformation", "taming" of the forces of nature, then
ecocentric consciousness contributes to the preservation of natural balance, assumes taking into account the "interests" of nature in the implementation of certain projects of nature management.
For most people living today, ecological consciousness is anthropocentric;
b) development of ecological thinking;
c) the formation of an ecological attitude towards nature;
d) development of rules and norms of behavior in nature.
Moral educationimplies the formation of moral convictions, feelings, habits of behavior that correspond to the norms of society and the rules of life in society.
Aesthetic education
Labor educationimplies:
a) upbringing of industriousness by involving children in work that is feasible for them (caring for plants and animals, work on a geographical site, independent work with a textbook, etc.);
b) acquaintance with professions, tools of labor and methods of their use;
c) stimulating interest in production activities;
d) the formation of economic thinking;
e) preparation for an informed choice of profession.
Sanitary and hygienic educationprovides for:
a) the formation of ideas about hygiene;
b) health promotion, increased efficiency.
c) the formation of hygienic skills, adherence to the daily routine and nutrition, prevention of diseases and injuries, education of the need for regular physical education and sports.
Principles for the selection of educational material on the world around
Before teaching students any subject, methodologists need to select educational material. The volume of knowledge in any discipline is huge, and only a small part of this knowledge is used in the school subject. The same task - to select educational material - faced the methodologists in the field of the surrounding world. At the same time, the selection of material presupposes the observance of a number of principles, which can be divided into two groups: general didactic and subject.
General didactic principlesobserved in the selection of content for any subject, including the surrounding world.
The main general didactic principles are the principles of scientific nature, accessibility, systematicity and consistency, the connection between learning and life, visibility, and consciousness.
1. Scientific principle.The material included in the course must comply with latest achievements science. For children in an accessible form
scientific information about the surrounding world is reported, and everyday ideas of children should be adjusted. One of the signs of the scientific nature of the material under study is the emphasis not on morphology, but on the function of the object, on the essence of the processes taking place. Here we can recall one of the principles of the biological method of V.V. Polovtsova: "the forms should be studied in connection with shipments." Inattention to this situation can, for example, manifest itself in the following: when studying a ravine, its morphology is considered, but the reason for its occurrence is not mentioned.
The principle of accessibility and feasible difficulty.The selected material should not be too difficult, nor too light. That is, the material must be understandable for younger students, must comply with general level their preparation.
The principle of systematicity and consistency.Knowledge and skills should be formed in a certain order so that the sequence of studying the material obeys a certain logic.
There are the following approaches to building the sequence of the studied material:
and) the logic of the presentation of material in the science that underliesstudying... For example, in geographic description any territory adopted the following sequence: 1) geographical location; 2) surface;
climate; 4) water; 5) soil; 6) flora and fauna;
human economic activity. Approximately the same sequence is observed in many programs on the surrounding world for primary school, for example, in the program "The World Around"
PER. Klepinina in the topic "Nature and history of the native land." The logic of this construction of the material is as follows: everything is based on the geographical location geological structure, which are initially and depend little on external factors. From geographic location and the surface (primarily on the height above sea level) directly depends on the climate. In turn, the climate determines the water regime and types of soils in a given territory. The latter describe plants and animals - the most dependent on other factors component of nature. All listed natural ingredients are the basis for human activity in a given area;
b) from close to far, from familiar to unfamiliar... The sequence of presentation of the material, adopted in science, may contradict the peculiarities of children's perception of the world around them. It may contradict the well-known principle of pedagogy: from close to distant, from familiar to unfamiliar. For example, preschoolers and junior schoolchildren from all natural diversity are primarily encountered not with rocks, but with plants and animals. It is they who are closer to them psychologically, it is about them that children already know something from fairy tales, from the experience of communicating with pets, houseplants. And it would be logical to start studying nature with them. To some extent, this is implemented in preschool education - there, children mostly get to know plants and animals. To a certain extent, it is
implemented in the first grades of primary school, where attention is focused on seasonal changes in nature, primarily on the seasonal characteristics of the life of plants and animals;
in) induction and deduction... The course "The World Around" can be built on an inductive or deductive basis.
Induction is a method of cognition, in which there is a transition from a single knowledge of individual studied subjects to a general conclusion about all studied subjects. Thus, knowledge is formed from the particular to the general.
Deduction is a method of cognition, in which there is a transition from general knowledge about the subjects studied to a single (private) knowledge about them. That is, knowledge is formed from the general to the particular.
The course "The World Around" is built primarily along the inductive path, that is, from observations, experiments to conclusions and theoretical generalizations. Although the construction of individual topics can be deductive. For example, before studying the soil, its definition is given (soil is the upper loose layer of the earth on which plants can grow), and then, with the help of experiments, its composition, properties, types of soils, etc., are studied;
The principle of connecting learning with life(or links between theory and practice). According to this principle, the child's knowledge should be applied in practice (used in life). In particular, the content of the course "The World Around" includes material that is personally significant for a younger student, this material is aimed at the real life of the child (hygiene rules, traffic rules). In addition, the connection between objects, phenomena in nature with the life of the student himself and with the life of specific people is revealed;
The principle of visibility... Due to age characteristics addpix schoolchildren, their teaching must necessarily be visual. It is known that a child thinks in forms, colors, sounds, sensations in general.
Memorizing objects, natural phenomena, presented in the form of natural objects, in the pictures shown in experiments, is better, easier and faster than if they were presented in verbal form.
The principle of consciousness, activity... According to this principle, teaching becomes effective only when the student becomes a subject of activity, shows cognitive activity. According to this principle, it is necessary to introduce material into the course content that helps to develop educational activities. junior schoolchildren, which assumes the ability to set a goal, plan your work, independently acquire knowledge, exercise self-control, self-esteem. At the same time, the role of the teacher in organizing the cognitive activity of students should not be underestimated. The activity of children can be achieved provided that their cognitive interests are taken into account, by creating problem situations, using didactic games and educational discussions, organizing group forms of work.
Subject principlescontent selection is characteristic only for the course "The World Around". The main subject are the principles of seasonality, local history, practical orientation, integration, nature conservation, ecological, historicism.
1 Seasonality principle... The first to suggest studying the world around us according to this principle was D. II. Kaigorodov (see paragraph 2.1). This principle also took place in the comprehensive programs of the GUS, as well as in subsequent courses in natural history and natural history. However, the acquaintance of children with seasonal changes in nature occurs even in kindergarten... According to the same seasonal principle, natural history topics are considered in reading lessons. In this case, it is difficult to avoid duplicating material. Therefore, some authors (for example, A.A. Pleshakov) generally excluded the study of seasonal changes in nature in the 3rd and 4th years of teaching the world around them, and in grades I and II seasonal changes remained only as elements in the study of complex topics. Currently, in accordance with the principle of seasonality, two programs for the surrounding world have been built (I.P. Tovpinets and Z.A. Klepinina), and in both the principle is observed only for class II, where all the material is built around seasonal changes in nature.
Local history principle... This principle implies the study of nature, society and the history of the area where the child lives. incin allows you to implement such didactic principles of teaching as "from close to distant", "from the known to the unknown." Many teachers of the past called for studying the nature of their land in the course of natural history. In the course "The World Around", when considering local history issues, the region, region or republic in which the child lives and studies is studied. Modern programs, according to which the world around them is taught to younger schoolchildren, cannot be called regional studies. But they can include local history topics. For example, in the course "The World Around"
PER. Klepinina is studying the topic "The nature and history of our land." This topic provides an overview of the nature and history of its area (surface, minerals, reservoirs, soil, plants, animals, peoples, history).
The study of local history topics in elementary school is difficult for the reason that the content of textbooks for the whole of Russia is the same. As a result, it is impossible to reflect the peculiarities of individual regions in textbooks. Therefore, teachers often go through all the topics as they are given in the textbook, and study with schoolchildren not their land, but the nature of central Russia. There are two ways out here: 1) adjusting the content of the topic (giving the natural features of your region); 2) creation teaching aidswhere local material would be given.
Practical principle... The practical orientation assumes that for the construction of the course should be selected mainly the material that can be studied through observations, setting up experiments, the implementation of practical activities of students. However, taking into account this principle does not mean the removal from the content of the subject of that material that has no practical significance, because
otherwise the course will lose its general educational character, the systematic nature of the course will be violated.
Integration principle... The principle implies that "The World Around" is an integrated course, which includes information from a wide variety of sciences (both natural and social). This was done so that the junior schoolchild received a holistic view of the world. This principle was proposed by V.F. Zuev, then supported and substantiated by AL. GerdokhM, who wrote that "in elementary school there is only one, indivisible science about the surrounding organic chemistry and the inorganic world."
Environmental principle... Assumes the study of the influence of anthropogenic factors in the consideration of each course.
Ecological principle... The content of the course should be such as to show the relationship of all phenomena in nature. When studying economic activity, it is necessary to emphasize that the resources of nature are not infinite. The thoughtless use of natural resources threatens the very existence of life on Earth.
The principle of historicism... It involves the disclosure in the content of education of temporary relations between the phenomena of the surrounding world, an approach to any studied event (both natural and social) from the standpoint of natural history and the history of society. In addition, it is assumed tsip assumes a large amount of historical material in the course "The World Around". At the same time, the short story Russia, and the main attention is paid to the crucial events of history.
Subject results of mastering the program around the world should reflect:
understanding of the special role of Russia in world history, fostering a sense of pride in national achievements, discoveries, victories;
the formation of a respectful attitude towards Russia, native land, one's family, history, culture, nature of our country, its modern life;
awareness of the integrity of the surrounding world, mastering the foundations of environmental literacy, elementary rules of moral behavior in the world of nature and people, norms of health-preserving behavior in the natural and social environment;
mastering the available methods of studying nature and society (observation, recording, measurement, experience, comparison, classification, etc., with the receipt of information from sekhmey archives, from people around, in an open information space);
development of skills to establish and identify cause-and-effect relationships in the surrounding world.
In Basic curriculum teaching time is distributed between the federal, regional and school components of the educational standard. The final content of the course is defined in specific programs for the surrounding world.
inanimate nature; 4) geography; 5) plants; 6) animals; 7) seasonal changes in inanimate nature; 8) seasonal changes in wildlife; 9) seasonal changes in the work of people; 10) a person (building, health protection); 11) ecology; 12) society; 13) history of the Fatherland.
Let's consider each of these blocks, their content in modern programs and textbooks.
Celestial bodies:
The sun is the source of heat, light and life on Earth. Children should be able to determine the place and time of sunrise and sunset, the length of the day, the change in the relative height of the sun above the horizon with the help of a gnomon;
The Moon is the Earth's satellite;
the movement of the Earth around its axis and around the Sun. Change of day and night, change of seasons.
Weather.The concept of "weather" is introduced by summing up information about its components: air temperature in degrees, the presence and strength of wind, cloudiness, the presence and type of precipitation, other weather phenomena (fog, thunderstorm, ice, frost). In the textbooks of some authors, the reason for the appearance of the wind is explained, the concept of "wind rose" is introduced, children will learn about the types of clouds. Information of a causal nature is given: why it is raining, why a rainbow appears, why there is an echo.
Inanimate nature.The content of this block is revealed in the topics "Water", "Air", "Soil", "Rocks and Minerals". Children study the properties of water, air, soil, minerals, their importance and protection.
Geography.In the course of studying geographical topics, students are introduced to:
with the concepts of "horizon", "horizon line", "sides of the horizon", learn to use a compass;
with the forms of the earth's surface (plains, mountains, hills, ravines);
with a variety of reservoirs: river, lake, sea, etc. The concepts of "source", "mouth", "channel", "tributary" are introduced;
with a globe, maps of the world, Russia and its area, with symbols on the map. The concept of "scale" is introduced;
with natural zones of Russia. In some programs (for example,
N. Ya. Dmitrieva, A.N. Kazakov), all natural areas Earth.
Plants.This block includes the following topics and basic information:
a) plant organs:
root: found in the soil, grows downward, absorbs water and nutrients, keeps the plant;
stem: grows upward, it contains leaves, flowers, fruits with seeds; the concept of "shoot" is introduced as a stem together with leaves and buds;
leaf: located on the stem, breathes through the stomata. The variety of leaf shapes is being studied;
flower: formed on the stem, fruits and seeds develop from it;
fruit: formed from a flower, it contains the seeds with which most plants propagate. Environmental information is given - you must not pick flowers of wild plants, especially rare ones;
b) living conditions of plants: heat, water, light, air, minerals;
c) the development of a plant from a seed: stages of swelling, the appearance of a seedling, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds;
d) life forms of plants: tree - a plant with one lignified trunk; shrub - a plant with several lignified trunks; herbaceous plants have flexible green stems, which die in annuals, and recover in perennials after wintering;
e) coniferous plants (leaves - needles) and deciduous (flat, wide leaves falling in autumn);
f) plant ecology: the concepts of "heat-loving and cold-resistant", "light-loving and shade-tolerant", "moisture-loving and drought-resistant" plants are introduced;
g) distinguish such groups of plants as wild, cultivated, indoor, medicinal, poisonous, the concept of "variety" is introduced.
Currently, the list of studied groups of plants has been expanded at the expense of lichens, algae, mosses and ferns. They began to clarify that mushrooms are an independent group of living organisms. The term "kingdom" is introduced.
Animals.Animals of four groups are obligatory for study: insects, fish, birds and animals:
a) insects:
structure: three pairs of legs, three body parts - head, chest and abdomen, wings and legs attached to the chest;
reproduction: two ways of development of insects - with complete and incomplete transformation;
the benefits and harms of insects to humans;
signs: aquatic animals, whose body is covered with scales, move with the help of fins, breathe oxygen dissolved in water with gills.
signs: the body is covered with feathers, have two legs, two wings, develop from eggs;
division of birds into migratory and wintering birds, and wintering birds into settled and nomadic ones;
d) animals (mammals):
signs: the body is covered with wool, live cubs are immediately born (with the exception of the echidna and the platypus), the cubs are fed with milk;
division into herbivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous and omnivorous;
the concept of wild and domestic animals is introduced;
conditions necessary for the life of animals - food, water, air, heat, light.
Most programs additionally study worms, molluscs, crustaceans, arachnids, amphibians, and reptiles.
Seasonal changes in inanimate nature.As part of this block, students receive the following information:
a) summer: the sun is high above the horizon, the length of the day is long, warm and hot, precipitation in the form of rains (often showers with thunderstorms), the soil and water are warmed;
b) autumn: the sun is lower above the horizon than in summer, the days are shorter, it gets colder, it often rains, turning into snow, the soil and water are cooling;
c) winter: the sun is low above the horizon, the days are short, precipitation is in the form of snow, there are blizzards, the air temperature is low (frosts), the soil and water bodies freeze. The concepts of "snowflake", "snowdrift", "snowfall", "ice", "crust", "freeze-up" are introduced;
d) spring: the sun is higher above the horizon in comparison with winter, the days are lengthening, the temperature rises, the snow melts, precipitation in the form of sleet and rain, the ice on water bodies melts, the soil thaws. The concepts of "thaw", "ice drift", "flood" are introduced.
Seasonal changes in wildlife.Changes in the life of plants and animals are considered:
a) plants:
summer - vegetation, flowering and fruiting;
autumn - ripening of fruits and seeds, dying off of the ground parts of grasses, discoloration of leaves, leaf fall;
winter - deciduous plants stand naked, without leaves, conifers and some herbaceous plants remain green under the snow (winter crops, strawberries);
spring - sap flow, bud swelling, flowering of some plants, leaf blooming;
b) animals:
summer - reproduction, rearing of offspring;
autumn - disappearance of insects, departure of migratory birds, down in wintering birds, molt in animals, accumulation of subcutaneous fat;
winter - there are no insects, there are wintering birds (bullfinches, tits, waxwings), sleep or hibernation in animals (children are explained what are the differences between sleep and hibernation);
spring - the appearance of insects, the awakening of animals from sleep and hibernation, spring molt, the arrival of birds, nesting, incubation of eggs, the appearance of chicks, their feeding.
Seasonal changes in people's work activities:
a) summer - work in the fields, orchards and vegetable gardens, grazing, haymaking;
b) autumn - harvesting and preparing farm animals for wintering;
c) winter - caring for farm animals, preparing for spring sowing;
d) spring - agricultural work (sowing, etc.), caring for farm animals.
Person.Students get acquainted with the basics of human anatomy and physiology, they develop personal hygiene skills.
Ecology.Students get an idea of \u200b\u200bthe relationship and dependence of living organisms and inanimate nature, get acquainted with nature conservation measures, learn the skills of correct behavior in nature. The concepts of "natural community", "food chain", "food network", "ecological pyramid" are introduced.
Society.The following topics are covered:
a) “Man. A family. Society". It deals with such concepts as family, pedigree, surnames, names and patronymics of family members; work and rest of family members; family budget; relationships between people;
b) "Man and his safety." It deals with the rules of safe behavior in everyday life, on the roads, fire safety; transport (ground, underground, water and air) and the rules for its use;
c) "Our Motherland and the World." Here you can find information about the native land, about the sights, about the local economy. Further, Russia is considered as our Motherland, information is given about the capital of Russia - Moscow; on the Constitution, human rights, the rights of the child; about state symbols: the flag, anthem, coat of arms, about public holidays, about state structure Russia (President, Federal Assembly, Government); about the peoples of our country, about respect for culture, history, language. Further - going beyond the borders of Russia - diversity modern world, countries of the world, neighbors of Russia. Responsibility of people for the future of our common home - the Earth.
The history of homeland.Includes the following content:
Concept of history, historical sources, counting years in history; East Slavs. Ancient Russia, Baptism of Russia. Russian lands in the X11I-XV centuries. Battle of Kulikovo. Moscow Russia. Reforms of Peter I, the formation of the Russian Empire. Patriotic War of 1812, October Revolution, formation of the USSR, Great Patriotic War, modern Russia... As the material progresses, the culture of Russia of the corresponding historical period is considered. In addition, the past of the native land is being studied.
Thus, the block "History of the Fatherland" is built on the principle of historicism: a brief russian history, special attention is paid to
turning points in history.
Test questions and assignments
What are the challenges facing the course "The World Around" according to the Federal State Educational Standard of Primary General Education, which came into force in 2010?
What knowledge, abilities and skills should be formed in younger schoolchildren as a result of studying the course "The World Around"?
Ecological pyramid - graphic images of the relationship between producers and consumers of all levels (herbivores, predators; species feeding on other predators) in the ecosystem.
The American zoologist Charles Elton proposed schematically to depict these ratios in 1927.
In a schematic drawing, each level is shown in the form of a rectangle, the length or area of \u200b\u200bwhich corresponds to the numerical values \u200b\u200bof a link in the food chain (Elton's pyramid), their mass or energy. The rectangles arranged in a certain sequence create pyramids of various shapes.
The base of the pyramid is the first trophic level - the level of producers, the subsequent levels of the pyramid are formed by the following levels of the food chain - consumers of various orders. The height of all blocks in the pyramid is the same, and the length is proportional to the number, biomass, or energy at the corresponding level.
Ecological pyramids are distinguished depending on the indicators on the basis of which the pyramid is built. At the same time, a basic rule has been established for all pyramids, according to which in any ecosystem there are more plants than animals, herbivores than carnivores, insects than birds.
Based on the rule of the ecological pyramid, it is possible to determine or calculate the quantitative ratios of different types of plants and animals in natural and artificially created ecological systems. For example, 1 kg of the mass of a sea animal (seal, dolphin) needs 10 kg of eaten fish, and this 10 kg already needs 100 kg of their food - aquatic invertebrates, which, in turn, need to eat 1000 kg of algae and bacteria to form such a mass. In this case, the ecological pyramid will be sustainable.
However, as you know, there are exceptions to each rule, which will be considered in each type of ecological pyramid.
Types of ecological pyramids
- pyramid numbers - at each level, the number of individual organisms is deposited
The pyramid of numbers reflects a clear pattern discovered by Elton: the number of individuals that make up a sequential series of links from producers to consumers is steadily decreasing (Fig. 3).
For example, to feed one wolf, you need at least several hares to hunt; to feed these hares, you need a fairly large variety of plants. In this case, the pyramid will look like a triangle with a wide base tapering upward.
However, this shape of the pyramid of numbers is not typical for all ecosystems. Sometimes they can be reversed, or inverted. This applies to the food webs of the forest, when trees are producers and insects are the primary consumers. In this case, the level of primary consumers is numerically richer than the level of producers (a large number of insects feed on one tree), therefore the pyramids of numbers are the least informative and least indicative, i.e. the number of organisms of the same trophic level largely depends on their size.
- biomass pyramids - characterizes the total dry or wet weight of organisms at a given trophic level, for example, in units of mass per unit area - g / m 2, kg / ha, t / km 2 or per volume - g / m 3 (Fig. 4)
Usually, in terrestrial biocenoses, the total mass of producers is greater than that of each subsequent link. In turn, the total mass of first-order consumers is greater than that of second-order consumers, etc.
In this case (if the organisms are not too different in size), the pyramid will also have the form of a triangle with a wide base tapering upward. However, there are significant exceptions to this rule. For example, in the seas, the biomass of herbivorous zooplankton is significantly (sometimes 2-3 times) greater than the biomass of phytoplankton, which is mainly represented by unicellular algae. This is due to the fact that algae are very quickly consumed by zooplankton, but they are very protected from being completely consumed. high speed division of their cells.
In general, for terrestrial biogeocenoses, where producers are large and live for a relatively long time, relatively stable pyramids with a wide base are characteristic. In aquatic ecosystems, where producers are small in size and have short life cycles, the biomass pyramid can be inverted or inverted (the tip is directed downward). So, in lakes and seas, the mass of plants exceeds the mass of consumers only during the flowering period (spring), and in the rest of the year the opposite situation may occur.
The pyramids of numbers and biomasses reflect the statics of the system, that is, they characterize the number or biomass of organisms in a certain period of time. They do not provide complete information on the trophic structure of the ecosystem, although they allow solving a number of practical problems, especially those related to maintaining the stability of ecosystems.
The pyramid of numbers allows, for example, to calculate the permissible amount of fish catch or shooting of animals during the hunting period without consequences for their normal reproduction.
- energy pyramids - shows the amount of energy flow or productivity at successive levels (fig. 5).
In contrast to the pyramids of numbers and biomass, which reflect the statics of the system (the number of organisms at a given moment), the pyramid of energy, reflecting the picture of the rates of passage of the mass of food (amount of energy) through each trophic level of the food chain, gives the most complete picture of the functional organization of communities.
The shape of this pyramid is not affected by changes in the size and intensity of metabolism of individuals, and if all energy sources are taken into account, then the pyramid will always have a typical appearance with a wide base and a tapering top. When building a pyramid of energy, a rectangle is often added to its base to show the influx of solar energy.
In 1942, the American ecologist R. Lindeman formulated the law of the energy pyramid (the law of 10 percent), according to which, on average, about 10% of the energy supplied to the previous level of the ecological pyramid passes from one trophic level through the food chain to another trophic level. The rest of the energy is lost in the form of heat radiation, movement, etc. As a result of metabolic processes, organisms lose about 90% of all energy in each link of the food chain, which is spent on maintaining their vital activity.
If a hare has eaten 10 kg of plant mass, then its own weight may increase by 1 kg. A fox or a wolf, eating 1 kg of hare, increases its weight by only 100 g. In woody plants, this proportion is much lower due to the fact that wood is poorly absorbed by organisms. For grasses and algae, this value is much higher, since they lack hard-to-digest tissues. but general pattern the process of energy transfer remains: it passes through the upper trophic levels much less than through the lower ones.
Let us consider the transformation of energy in an ecosystem using the example of a simple pasture trophic chain, in which there are only three trophic levels.
- level - herbaceous plants,
- level - herbivorous mammals, for example, hares
- level - predatory mammals, for example, foxes
Nutrients are created during photosynthesis by plants that are inorganic substances (water, carbon dioxide, mineral salts, etc.) use the energy of sunlight to form organic matter and oxygen, as well as ATP. Part of the electromagnetic energy of solar radiation is then converted into the energy of chemical bonds of synthesized organic substances.
All organic matter created during photosynthesis is called gross primary production (GCP). Part of the energy of gross primary production is spent on respiration, resulting in the formation of net primary production (NPP), which is the very substance that enters the second trophic level and is used by hares.
Let the VPP be 200 conventional units of energy, and the costs of plants for respiration (R) - 50%, i.e. 100 conventional units of energy. Then the net primary production will be equal to: NPP \u003d RWP - R (100 \u003d 200 - 100), i.e. to the second trophic level, hares will receive 100 conventional units of energy.
However, for various reasons, hares are able to consume only a certain fraction of NPP (otherwise resources for the development of living matter would disappear), while a significant part of it, in the form of dead organic remains (underground parts of plants, solid wood of stems, branches, etc. .) is not able to be eaten by hares. It enters detrital food chains and / or is degraded by decomposers (F). The other part is spent on building new cells (population size, increase in hares - P) and ensuring energy metabolism or respiration (R).
In this case, according to the balance approach, the balance equality of energy consumption (С) will look as follows: С \u003d Р + R + F, i.e. the energy received at the second trophic level will be spent, according to Lindemann's law, on population growth - P - 10%, the remaining 90% will be spent on breathing and removing undigested food.
Thus, in ecosystems, with an increase in the trophic level, there is a rapid decrease in the energy accumulated in the bodies of living organisms. Hence, it is clear why each subsequent level will always be less than the previous one and why food chains usually cannot have more than 3-5 (rarely 6) links, and ecological pyramids cannot consist of a large number of floors: to the final link of the food chain, as well as to the top floor of the ecological pyramid will receive so little energy that it will not be enough in the event of an increase in the number of organisms.
Such a sequence and subordination of groups of organisms connected in the form of trophic levels represents the flows of matter and energy in the biogeocenosis, the basis of its functional organization.
Preview:
UMK "Perspective"
Subject: mathematics
Class: 2
Teacher: Klipikova O.V.
Lesson type: ONZ
Theme: "Pyramid"
Purpose: to introduce a new geometric figure - pyramid, its elements, types and properties
Tasks:
- to highlight the essential features of the pyramid, its elements ("base", "side faces", "tops", "edges") and some properties, to learn to recognize the types of pyramids by their base;
Construct a pyramid and find objects of the surrounding world that have the shape of a pyramid;
Draw up and implement an action plan and carry out step-by-step control of its implementation in cooperation with the teacher and classmates;
Master the basic skills of self-assessment and self-control of the results of their educational activities;
Search for the necessary information, using the textbook material and information received from the teacher and classmates, understand educational information presented in various forms;
Develop interest in mastering new knowledge and methods of action, a positive attitude towards the subject of mathematics, interest in research tasks in the lesson.
Equipment: textbook “Mathematics. Grade 2 "G. V. Dorofeev, T. N. Mirakova, T. B. Buka, 1 hour; manual for students “Mathematics. Workbook... Grade 2 "G. V. Dorofeev, T. N. Mirakova, T. B. Buka, 1 hour; presentation; models of volumetric and flat figures; worksheet and self-check sheet.
During the classes:
1. Motivation for learning activities.
Hello guys! Today we are waiting for an unusual lesson in mathematics. I want to start it with the statement of the famous Russian physicist Alexander Leonidovich Chizhevsky:
"The simplest things, found at every step, can become a source of scientific discovery."
- How do you understand it?(Each of us can discover something new, information about new concepts can be contained in objects that are nearby).
- Why do you think we started the lesson with this statement?(We will discover something new ourselves).
- I wish you new discoveries and interesting, productive work at the lesson.
Let's agree on how to evaluate our work. On the worksheet on the side, rate your work "+" or "-". You can specify the number of errors.
2. Actualization of knowledge and fixation of individual difficulty in trial action
You need to know a lot to make discoveries. Let's remember what we already know.
The task. Divide shapes into groups?
Explain on what grounds you can do this.(Color, volume, shape).
Name the shapes in the 1st group.(Triangle, Quadrangle, Pentagon).
How are they similar? (These are polygons.)
- How do they differ from each other?(The number of sides, vertices, corners).
How can these figures be called in one word?(All these shapes are polygons).
What are the names of the volumetric figures in the 2nd group?(These are cubes).
What do you know about the cube?(A cube is a three-dimensional geometric figure, it has 8 vertices, 6 faces, 12 edges, all the edges of the cube are equal to each other, the faces are squares).
3. Identification of the place and cause of difficulties
- Why is there only one figure in the second group? Can you add other shapes to it?
Which ones? (Box, pyramid, ball)
This is what we call them in life. Do you know their correct names?
Are these figures familiar to you?
4. Building a project for a way out of a difficulty
How are we to be? (It is necessary to get acquainted, to find out)
Imagine what the topic of our tutorial will be.(Children's assumptions.)
The topic of our lesson "Pyramid"
Do you know this word that you know?(Children's toy, pyramids in Egypt.)
Take a worksheet. It presents the objectives of the lesson. Read them. Let's plan our work by putting goals in order.
Where do we start?(Students make suggestions and note
first goal on the sheet.)
What's the next goal?(The work is done in the same way.)
Objectives:
1) learn what a pyramid is, its elements;
2) I recognize the types of pyramids;
3) I learn the properties of the pyramid;
4) I will learn to find objects of the surrounding world that have the shape of a pyramid.
What will help us achieve our goals? (Textbook, workbook, knowledge.)
5.Implementation of the completed project
Let's turn to the textbook and try to achieve our goals.
Practical work No. 1 (textbook page 80)
Read the assignment.
What do you need to do?
Let's repeat the rules for working with scissors.
- Feed scissors rings forward
- Use scissors only at your workplace
- Don't leave the scissors open
- Don't play with scissors, don't bring scissors to your face
- Watch the movement of the blades while you work
- Use only good scissors
- Use scissors as directed
6. Primary reinforcement with pronunciation in external speech
What is the name of this figure?(Pyramid.)
What figures does it consist of? (From triangles.)
What are they at the pyramid?(Faces.)
7. Independent work with reference check
- Identify and write on the worksheet the elements of the pyramid
- Complete the statement in activity # 2 on the worksheet
What will help us to check whether we have completed the task correctly?(Textbook.)
Read the information in the tutorial on page 80 in the yellow box.(The pyramid distinguishesside faces and base. Side faces - triangles converging at one vertex, and the base -polygon.)
Check your entry is correct. Rate your work.
What goal have we achieved?(We learned what a pyramid and its elements are.)
We continue our research.
What shape is the base of the pyramid?(Triangle.)
And why does the textbook say that it is a polygon?(Answers of children.)
A triangle is a polygon. What polygons do you know?
(Triangle, quadrilateral, etc.)
Could these figures be the bases of the pyramid? Let's check.
Practical work number 2 (textbook p. 109)
Work in pairs.
Read the assignment.
What do you need to do? (Cut out a shape from the Application, fold it along the fold lines, get a shape model.)
Work in pairs.
What figures turned out.(Pyramids.)
How are they similar? (The side faces are triangles, there is a base, vertices, edges.)
What is the difference?(Various reasons.)
What are the shapes at the base of the pyramid? (Triangle, etc.)
Guess what these pyramids can be called?
Pyramids are triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal.
On your own worksheets, write the names for each pyramid.
Complete the statement in activity # 3 on the worksheet.
The type of pyramid depends on its base.
What geometric shape can be the base of a pyramid?(Any polygon.)
What goal have we achieved?(Learned the types of the pyramid.)
8. Incorporation of repetition into the knowledge system
We got acquainted with a new geometric figure - a pyramid. We recognized its types. Let's try to construct a pyramid of toothpicks and plasticine. We work in pairs. Why?(You can help each other.)
- Let's determine who will make which pyramid. Each row chooses a base shape.
Let's agree on how you will complete the assignment.
Where is the best place to start?
We make ribs from toothpicks, and tops from plasticine balls. We collect the base, then we connect the edges at the top.
Place the pyramid in front of you on a desk. Give her a characterization.
Self-control of the acquired knowledge.
Exercise 1.
What elements does the pyramid have? Choose the correct answers.
edge base top
side side edge
Assignment 2
Select all shapes that are pyramids
Task 3.
In which statement the error was made.
The base of the pyramid is a polygon.
The quadrangular pyramid has five peaks.
The pyramid has two bases.
The side faces of the pyramid are triangles that converge at one vertex.
9. Reflection of educational activities
- Evaluate your work in class using traffic light colors. A pyramid is drawn on the worksheets: color it green, if everything was clear to you in the lesson, you completed all the tasks correctly or made 1 mistake;
in yellowif something remained unclear, 2 mistakes were made; in red, if this topic remains incomprehensible to you, 3 or more mistakes were made.
What is the topic of our lesson.
Why do you need to know the signs and properties of the pyramid.
In high school you will study geometry, you can apply it in life - build models to be smarter, develop an image, erudition ...
What goals did we set for ourselves? Goals achieved?
Which goal has not been achieved? Your homework will help you achieve it.
Homework.
- In the workbook, pp. 70-71, task number 1;
- Reiteration. Workbook pp. 70-71, 2 optional tasks (examples and problem)
- Optional. Find, photograph, bring, sketch, describe objects at home or on the street that have the shape of a pyramid. Determine the type of this pyramid. (My example)
- On the worksheet, complete task number 3 (last column). Calculate the data using the formula and write it down to the table.
Preview:
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Slide captions:
Math lesson
"The simplest things that are encountered at every step can become a source of scientific discovery" A. L. Chizhevsky
vertex vertex face edge
triangles polygon
FOUR-CORNER PENTAGONAL TRIANGULAR
Exercise 1.
Exercise 1.
Task 2.
Task 2.
Task 3.
Task 3.
The pyramid and its properties.
I want to draw your attention to the fact that we are talking about a pyramid with a specific geometry. Parts of the space of the Universe under sufficiently dense material objects (for example, the Solar System) undergo changes (curvatures) of their structure under the influence, including of the mental activity of the Mind, inadequate to its Habitat. Inharmonious events in the near space and in the far space aggravate the situation. The result of the curvature of space, the deviation of its structure from the state of harmony are all earthly troubles: crime, disease, epidemics, earthquakes, lack of spirituality, moral decline.
The pyramid in the area of \u200b\u200bits activity directly or indirectly corrects the structure of space, brings it closer to the state of harmony. Everything that is or falls into this space begins to develop in the direction of harmony. At the same time, the probability of occurrence of all the listed troubles decreases. The dynamics of mitigation and elimination of all negative manifestations significantly depends on the size of the Pyramid and compliance with all geometric relationships. With an increase in the height of the pyramid, its active effect increases ~ 105 -10 7 time. In the zone of influence of the pyramid, phenomena appear that today can be attributed to phenomenology.Even with a frost of 40 ° C, ordinary water does not freeze inside the Pyramid. With a sharp shake of a bottle with such supercooled water, it freezes in 2-3 seconds. If you look at the Pyramid with a 10 cm locator, you can see an ion column several kilometers high above it. At the same time, the radiation situation around and inside the pyramid does not differ from the background values. Significantly change their physical and chemical properties many substances, semiconductors, carbon materials, etc. It is surprising that these substances revive their properties, change according to a sinusoidal background in time with a sufficiently large amplitude. There is a spontaneous charging of capacitors, the temperature threshold of superconductivity changes, and the scale of physical time changes. The immunity of animals that have been in the zone of influence of the pyramid is significantly enhanced, the viability of cellular tissue affected, for example, by HIV infection, is increased many times, the malignant process in the body is blocked. Medicines multiply their specific properties even when the concentration is reduced many times, side effects from their use disappear. It is extremely important for man and mankind to bring the field structures of a person or groups of people into a harmonious state. The state of these field structures is how we fit into the surrounding world, how harmonious we are with it and in it. This is how we are in harmony with other structures and factors of the surrounding world.
The influence of the pyramid is equally beneficial for humans, and for bacteria and viruses. The pyramid is a natural factor that brings the entire biological system of the planet to a state of harmony, changes its governing structures. The impact of the pyramid reduces the mutual pathogenicity of humans and bacteria, humans and viruses, etc. Humanity has the opportunity to get rid of hepatitis, AIDS, malignant tumors and other diseases that threaten the very existence of humanity within the next few years.Pathological childbirth will become an exception, and the relationship of newly born children with the outside world will be as harmonious as possible. The concept of "prevention" will be filled with real meaning. In my opinion, the concept of Biblical Paradise should be considered not in the geographical sense, but in the sense of the structure of the environment, the structure of the space in which we live. How close this structure is to a state of harmony depends on how our life corresponds to the concept of the Biblical Paradise. It must be borne in mind that the Pyramids have a powerful effect, therefore, one should be very careful in understanding these influences, and even more so in the construction of the Pyramids. It should be remembered that as soon as we move away from the described geometry, as soon as we build sharper or flatter Pyramids, we move away from the main thing - from harmony. We will receive powerful effects in both positive and negative aspects. Suffice it to recall the pyramids in Egypt, Mexico, Peru, etc.