The Ministry of Housing and Utilities has approved the rules for the maintenance and improvement of cemeteries, according to the National Legal Portal. They talk about how burial sites and graves should be equipped.
Here are a few points from the new rules:
- The territory of the cemetery is equipped with convenient entrances, along which a hearse can reach the burial place and which allow work to be carried out to maintain and improve the grave.
- Ritual grounds are set up at the central entrance, main passage or alley on the territory of the existing burial places.
- The main aisle to the cemetery should be 6.0-9.0 m wide in order to provide two-way traffic. Sidewalks with a width of at least 0.75 m should be provided along the main driveway on both sides.
- The main and additional driveways between the sectors, walkways in the alleys, as well as sites at the entrance to the cemetery, paths to places of water intake and public toilets, places for garbage collection are arranged with a hard surface in such a way as to ensure the drainage of atmospheric and melt water from the territory of the burial place ...
- It is allowed to arrange additional driveways (the main driveway for rural cemeteries) and pedestrian paths from a gravel-sand mixture.
- Rural cemeteries should have a litter area, fencing and, if necessary, a public toilet.
- At the central entrance and additional entrances to the territory of cemeteries, car parking lots and (or) stops for passenger transport are provided.
- When designing and erecting (reconstructing) burial sites, mainly within the city limits, external lighting of the territory is provided at the central entrance (main entrance) and, if technically feasible, at additional entrances.
- The distance between the burial sites in a row along the long sides of the graves is set at a size of at least 0.5 m, along the short ones - at least 1 m.
- The depth of the grave in the burial site must be at least 1.5 m, taking into account local soil climatic conditions... The distance from the bottom of the grave to the groundwater level should be at least 0.5 m. Immediately after the burial, a grave mound 0.5 m high from the surface of the earth should be built above the grave. The grave mound should protrude beyond the edges of the grave to protect it from surface water.
- Cemetery fences must be up to 40 cm high, the maximum height of grave structures must not exceed 1.8 m.
- Subburial in an existing grave of a coffin with the body (remains) of a deceased spouse (wife), or one of close relatives, other deceased relatives and in-laws may be carried out 20 years after the first burial made to a depth of at least 1.5 m, or if free space (within the burial site, fence, flower garden) of at least 1 meter in width.
When the relatives of the deceased apply, as a rule, it is allowed to perform burial with the calculation of the product of the subsequent burial in the second row in height before the expiration of 20 years after the first burial. At the same time, the depth of the grave for the first burial must be at least 2.5 m and the distance from the bottom of the grave to the level of the groundwater should be at least 0.5 m, and the depth of the grave for the second burial must be at least 1.5 m.
IN english language there is one phrase that translates to "6 feet down." When people say it, they mean death or funeral. About why dead people are buried exactly at a 6-foot depth (2 meters) - blogger Valery Gikavy was interested in LiveJournal
This tradition dates back to 1655 when the whole of England was devastated by the bubonic plague. During these terrible years, people feared the spread of infection, and the mayor of London issued a special decree that regulated how to deal with the bodies of dead people in order to avoid the spread of infections and infections. It was then that it was decided to bury the graves to a depth of 6 feet (2 meters). Many people doubted that this was the right decision, because the infection, first of all, was carried by insects, and not by dead bodies. Be that as it may, this standard has remained to this day.
In the United States, for example, the depth standard varies from state to state. In many cases, this is 18 inches. It turns out that the authorities of some states believe that one and a half meters is quite enough. But there are also cases when dead people are placed at a depth of 4 meters: this is done so that there is space on the surface for other dead people. Usually this procedure is used in the case of relatives and close people.
2 meters depth is considered the most common standard today. Deeper than this can cause problems, for example, in New Orleans, where there are many underwater streams. Moreover, there were cases when coffins, buried too deep, were pushed out of the bottom of the soil.
In the UK, for example, people adhere to the very same standard that was adopted several centuries ago. It is clear that the reason is quite different. You must not bury too close to the surface, so that the corpse, for example, is not dug up by animals, so that it is not exposed in heavy rain, etc .; digging too deep is hard.
However, in the modern English-speaking world, "six feet" is more of an idiom than a real rule. The dead are buried at different depths, depending on local conditions and customs.
Some associate this directly with church customs. The land for burials in Christianity is consecrated, and only its upper three meters are "sanctified". Therefore, the desire to bury the deceased precisely at such a depth is associated either with a historical habit or with religious beliefs.
We meet in the literature examples of how suicides, mummers (then it was considered sinful) and other unworthy people tried to bury either behind the fence of the cemetery, or below the level of three meters. Among other things, there are also purely pragmatic reasons. In our latitudes, the depth of freezing of the earth is up to 180 cm (just 6 feet). Above this level, the water in the soil freezes in winter and melts in summer - it expands and contracts. Accordingly, everything that is at insufficient depth moves and sways. Below the level of freezing, the dead are somehow calmer. Coffins will last longer.
Since ancient times, people have been burying their dead. Accompanied by the mourning living, the dead leave for the land from which they came. Funeral rites were present in all cultures, although at times they had significant differences. One of the most common methods of burial was and remains burial in earthen graves.
In addition to the ritual burial, it also has important practical significance. Having said goodbye to the soul, the body loses its vitality and begins to decay rapidly. This process poses a serious danger to living people, cadaverous substances released during decay can be deadly. It is even worse if the death was caused by an infectious disease. Terrible epidemics, which claimed thousands of lives, were often caused by the opening of old graves and the release of dormant pathogens there.
The first of the Russian rulers who realized the need to form and observe certain sanitary rules that determine how deep the grave should be was Peter the Great. In 1723, by the highest decree, he ordered to dig graves to a depth of at least 3 arshins, which is just over 2 meters in modern system measures. By such a command, the ruler hoped to prevent possible epidemics, and, as time has shown, he was right. Failure to comply with the decree, the poor condition of the cemeteries led to the plague in 1771.
Alexander I introduced punishments for "funeral crimes" - non-observance of the norm of the depth of the grave. But the problem did not disappear, cemeteries and space for them were sorely lacking. Burials of new deceased in old graves were the norm. Only at the very end of the nineteenth - early twentieth century, the situation began to change, clear instructions were developed, it was determined to what depth the grave was being dug and how cemeteries were arranged, and serious control over the implementation of these instructions was created.
The depth of the grave according to sanitary standards
The arrangement of cemeteries is stipulated in detail by federal law and local government regulations. All rules are based on clearly formulated and proven by time and experience standards of sanitation and ecology.
What determines the depth of the grave for a person
- Land
The deceased returns to the ground, and the depth of the grave will largely depend on its properties. Two meters deep, the soil must be dry and light, allow air to pass through, otherwise a cemetery cannot be built on such land.
- Water
The body should be as reliably protected from contact with groundwater as possible. This is necessary in order to avoid water contamination with putrefactive decomposition products. organic matter... Therefore, it is strictly forbidden to locate cemeteries in areas where groundwater is more than two meters in depth from the surface of the earth. It is the properties of the soil and the level of standing of groundwater that must be guided by determining the depth of the grave in each specific area.
- Natural disasters
It is logical to ban the arrangement of cemeteries in areas prone to frequent landslides and landslides, flooding, in marshy areas.
- Culture and religion
Some religions have clear prescriptions for every stage of the life of believers, including the construction of a grave and burial. Of course, they must be observed in strict accordance with the requirements of sanitation, otherwise serious problems cannot be avoided.
The depth of the grave according to GOST
There is GOST R 54611-2011 - these are household services. Services for organizing and conducting funerals. General requirements All circumstances affecting the grave itself and ensuring sanitary safety have been carefully revised and formalized in the form of a federal law. It is called "On Burial and Funeral Business", and all actions in this area must be coordinated with him.
1. The maximum depth of the grave pit should be no more than 2.2 meters. Further immersion threatens close contact with ground waters. Depending on local conditions, the depth may vary, but the distance to groundwater in any case should be at least half a meter.
2. The minimum depth in accordance with the law is one and a half meters (measured to the lid of the coffin).
3. The measurements of the grave pit are at least 2 meters long, 1 meter wide, 1.5 meters deep. The sizes of children's graves can be reduced. The distance between the burial pits should not be less than a meter along the long side and less than half a meter along the short side.
4. A slab or an embankment must be installed over the grave. There are also certain requirements for it, so it should be no more than half a meter in height. The embankment is an additional protection of the grave from the effects of surface water; it should protrude beyond the edges of the grave pit.
5. If the deceased is buried in a sitting position, it is necessary to ensure that the layer of earth above him is at least one meter thick, including the grave mound.
6. In exceptional cases, the devices of mass graves are dug to a depth of at least two and a half meters (when burying coffins in two rows). The bottom of the grave pit, of course, should not reach the groundwater level by at least half a meter. The upper row of the burial is at least half a meter from the lower one.
Compliance with the rules for the arrangement of cemeteries and a certain depth of digging of graves ensures the sanitary safety of the population and should be carried out everywhere.
when burying a coffin with a body, the depth of the grave should be set depending on local conditions (the nature of the soil and the level of standing of groundwater); the depth should be at least 1.5 m (from the surface of the earth to the lid of the coffin). In all cases, the mark of the bottom of the grave should be 0.5 m above the level of the groundwater table. The depth of the graves should be no more than 2-2.2 m. The grave embankment should be made 0.3-0.5 m high from the ground.
Registration N 21720
In accordance with the Federal Law of March 30, 1999 N 52-FZ "On the Sanitary and Epidemiological Well-Being of the Population" (Collected Legislation Russian Federation, 1999, N 14, Art. 1650; 2002, No. 1 (part 1), article 2; 2003, No. 2, article 167; No. 27 (part 1), Article 2700; 2004, No. 35, art. 3607; 2005, No. 19, art. 1752; 2006, N 1, Art. 10, N 52 (part 1) of Art. 5498; 2007, N 1 (part 1), Art. 21; N 1 (part 1), Art. 29; No. 27, Art. 3213; 46, Art. 5554; 49, Art. 6070; 2008, N 24, Art. 2801; N 29 (part 1), art. 3418; 30 (part 2), Article 3616; 44, Article 4984; No. 52 (part 1), art. 6223; 2009, N 1, Art. 17; 2010, N 40, art. 4969) and the decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of July 24, 2000 N 554 "On approval of the Regulations on the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of the Russian Federation and the Regulations on State Sanitary and Epidemiological Standards" (Collected Legislation of the Russian Federation, 2000, N 31, article 3295, 2004, No. 8, article 663; No. 47, article 4666; 2005, No. 39, article 3953) i decree:
1. To approve SanPiN 2.1.2882-11 "Hygienic requirements for the location, arrangement and maintenance of cemeteries, buildings and structures for funeral purposes" * (attachment).
2. Since the introduction of SanPiN 2.1.2-11, SanPiN 2.1.1279-03 "Hygienic Requirements for the Location, Arrangement and Maintenance of Cemeteries, Buildings and Funeral Structures", approved by the Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation on 06.04.2003, introduced into force by the decree of the Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation of 08.04.2003 N 35 (registered with the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation on 30.04.2003, registration N 4475).
G. Onishchenko
application
Hygienic requirements for the location, arrangement and maintenance of cemeteries, buildings and structures for funeral purposes Sanitary rules and norms SanPiN 2.1.2882-11
I. Scope and general provisions
1.1. Sanitary and epidemiological rules and regulations (hereinafter - sanitary rules) apply to cemeteries, buildings and structures for funeral purposes, regardless of their type, organizational and legal forms and forms of ownership, and establish sanitary and epidemiological requirements for the conditions of their placement, design, construction, reconstruction, restoration (including reconstruction) and exploitation.
1.2. These sanitary rules are binding on all legal entities and individual entrepreneurs whose activities are related to the placement, design, construction, reconstruction, restoration (including reconstruction) and operation of cemeteries, buildings and structures for funeral purposes and who have the right to engage in these types of activities. ...
1.3. Requirements for the placement, arrangement and maintenance of cemeteries, buildings, structures and premises for funeral purposes, included in the regulatory legal acts, adopted by the executive authorities and local self-government, must comply with the provisions of these sanitary rules.
1.4. Control over the implementation of these sanitary rules is carried out by bodies exercising the functions of control and supervision in the field of ensuring the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.
II. Hygienic requirements for the placement of cemeteries, buildings, structures and premises for funeral purposes
2.1. The placement, expansion and reconstruction of cemeteries, buildings, structures, funeral premises are carried out in accordance with the legislation in the field of urban planning and sanitary rules and regulations.
2.2. It is not allowed to place cemeteries in the territories:
The first and second zones of sanitary protection zones of centralized water supply sources and mineral springs;
The first zone of sanitary protection of resorts;
With the emergence of karst, highly fractured rocks and in places where aquifers pinch out;
With the standing of groundwater less than two meters from the surface of the earth at their highest standing, as well as in flooded, prone to landslides and landslides, swampy;
On the shores of lakes, rivers and other open bodies of water used by the population for household needs, swimming and cultural and recreational purposes.
2.3. The choice of a land plot for the placement of a cemetery is made on the basis of a sanitary and epidemiological assessment of the following factors:
Sanitary and epidemiological situation;
Urban planning and landscape zoning of the territory;
Geological, hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical data;
Soil-geographical and the ability of soils and soil to self-purify;
Erosion potential and pollution migration;
Transport accessibility.
2.4. The site allocated for the cemetery must meet the following requirements:
Have a bias in the direction opposite to the settlement, open reservoirs, as well as when the population uses groundwater for domestic, drinking and domestic purposes;
Do not get flooded during floods;
Have a groundwater table at least two meters above the ground with a maximum groundwater table. At a level higher than two meters from the surface of the earth, the site can only be used for placing a cemetery for burial after cremation;
Have dry, porous soil (sandy loam, sandy) at a depth of 1.5 m and below with soil moisture in the range of 6 - 18%.
2.5. Cemeteries with burial by placing the body (remains) of the deceased on the ground (burial in a grave, crypt) are placed at a distance:
From residential, public buildings, sports and recreation and sanatorium-resort zones in accordance with the sanitary rules for sanitary protection zones and sanitary classification of enterprises, structures and other facilities;
From water intake facilities of a centralized source of water supply to the population in accordance with sanitary rules governing the requirements for sanitary protection zones of water sources.
2.6. Columbariums and walls of sorrow for burying urns with the ashes of the dead should be placed on specially designated areas of land. It is allowed to place columbariums and walls of mourning outside the cemeteries on separate plots of land at a distance of at least 50 m from residential buildings, territories of medical, children's, educational, sports and recreation, cultural and educational institutions, gardening associations, cottage buildings, institutions social security population.
2.7. The arrangement of the cemetery is carried out in accordance with the project approved in accordance with the established procedure, in which it is necessary to provide for the following:
The presence of a waterproof layer for traditional cemeteries;
Drainage system;
Embankment of the territory;
The nature and area of \u200b\u200bgreen spaces;
Organization of access roads and parking lots;
Planning solution of the burial area for all types of cemeteries with division into sections differing in the type of burial, while the area of \u200b\u200bburial places should be no more than 70% of the total area of \u200b\u200bthe cemetery;
Division of the cemetery into functional zones (entrance, ritual, administrative, graves, green protection around the perimeter of the cemetery);
Sewerage, water supply, heat and power supply, landscaping.
2.8. On the territories of the sanitary protection zones of cemeteries, buildings and structures for funeral purposes, it is not allowed to build buildings and structures that are not related to the maintenance of these objects, with the exception of religious and ritual objects.
2.9. The territory of the sanitary protection zones should be planned, landscaped and landscaped, have transport and engineering corridors.
2.10. The distance from buildings and structures that contain premises for storing the bodies of the deceased, preparing them for funerals, holding a farewell ceremony to residential buildings, children's (preschool and school), sports and recreation, cultural and educational institutions and social security institutions should not be less than 50 m
III. Hygienic requirements for organizing burials and rules for the operation of cemeteries
3.1. The placement of burial sites of various types, depending on religion and customs, is advisable to be carried out in separate specialized areas of the cemetery.
3.2. Burial of non-cremated remains must be carried out in accordance with the current legislation of the Russian Federation. Burial can be carried out in graves, crypts in accordance with religion and national traditions.
3.3. The burial of the remains after cremation (ashes) in urns is allowed to be done in columbariums and in graves.
3.4. Repeated burial of the bodies of a relative (s) in the same grave is permitted by the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation or local authorities after the cemetery period (the time of decomposition and mineralization of the deceased's body) from the moment of the previous burial, taking into account the composition of the soil, hydrogeological and climatic conditions burial sites.
3.5. Burial in crypts is performed in coffins, sarcophagi or urns with ashes after cremation. The crypt is equipped with a ventilation shaft and a floor with a drainage layer.
3.6. Inhumation burial in common, family (ancestral) graves is allowed taking into account the hydrogeological, climatic conditions, the height of the groundwater of the burial sites.
3.7. The transportation of the deceased to the burial place is carried out by specialized vehicles. It is allowed to use other types of vehicles for the transportation of the dead, with the exception of vehicles used to transport food raw materials and foodstuffs.
After transportation and burial of the deceased, the transport must be cleaned and disinfected with disinfectants approved for use in the prescribed manner.
3.8. For the possibility of burial on the territory of the Russian Federation of the bodies of the deceased, delivered from other states, it is necessary to submit a document confirming that the deceased has no particularly dangerous infectious diseases and diseases of unknown etiology.
3.9. In order to prevent the spread of especially dangerous infectious diseases, corpses infected with pathogens of especially dangerous infections and infections of unknown etiology (died in medical institutions or entered the pathological and anatomical departments for autopsy), as well as pathological and anatomical, surgical waste infected with pathogens of especially dangerous infections and infections of unclear etiology, are sent for burial in galvanized hermetically sealed coffins directly from the pathological and anatomical department.
3.10. When sending for burial a corpse that has died from especially dangerous infectious diseases or from an infection of unclear etiology, requiring measures for the sanitary protection of the territory, it is necessary to obtain permission from the bodies authorized to exercise state sanitary and epidemiological supervision.
3.11. Pathological and anatomical waste (organs, tissues and others) are subject to cremation or burial in a specially designated area of \u200b\u200bthe cemetery in graves.
3.12. Burial of pathological, anatomical and operational waste is carried out in wooden boxes.
3.13. Withdrawal of urns, exhumation and reburial of the remains of the deceased are carried out in the cases and in the manner prescribed by the current legislation.
3.14. The grave, in the case of the removal of the remains, must be disinfected with disinfectants approved for use in the Russian Federation, filled up and planned. The remains from the graves are transferred in an airtight container.
3.15. During the exhumation and reburial of the deceased, cemetery personnel are vaccinated against tetanus. Disinfection of workwear and footwear (rubber boots, rubber gloves, respiratory protection equipment (respirators) should be carried out centrally.
3.16. After performing work related to the burial and reburial of corpses and remains, the tool must be decontaminated and must not be taken out of the cemetery. Means for transporting remains must be made of easy-to-clean coatings and must be disinfected after work has been done.
IV. Hygienic requirements for the transfer of cemeteries and land reclamation
4.1. When transferring cemeteries and burials, it is necessary to reclaim territories and areas. The use of soils from liquidated burial sites for planning a residential area is not allowed.
4.2. The use of the territory of the burial place is permitted after twenty years from the moment of its transfer. The territory of the burial place in these cases can only be used for green spaces. The construction of buildings and structures on this territory is not allowed.
4.3. Burials in closed cemeteries are prohibited, with the exception of burial of urns with ashes after cremation in related graves, as well as in columbar niches.
4.4. In cases where previously unknown places of mass graves are found, it is necessary to register the burial places, and, if necessary, to reburial the remains of the dead and reclaim the territories.
V. Sanitary and hygienic requirements for crematoria
5.1. The crematorium includes the following groups of premises:
Premises for the reception of the deceased with a vestibule, vestibule, refrigeration chamber and premises for preserving the dead before cremation;
Premises for cremating the dead, processing and storage with a cremation room, a room for processing cremated remains, storage of urns with ashes, a gas cleaning room, a repair shop, engineering and technical service rooms, sanitary facilities, a relaxation room and psychological relief.
5.2. The number of crematoriums in crematoria is determined based on the number of funeral rites and the mortality rate of the population. The throughput of the crematorium is determined on average at the rate of one hour per one cremation.
5.3. The composition of the ceremonial and service parts of the crematorium must include premises:
Entrance group with a lobby, bathrooms, utility and auxiliary rooms;
Ritual with a funeral (ritual) hall, a gateway, a pathologist's office, medical, utility and auxiliary rooms;
An exit group of premises with an adaptation room and a hall;
Transport group of premises.
5.4. The premises for people participating in the funeral must be isolated from the premises intended for the work of the service personnel, and provide sound insulation from them for the rooms of the bathrooms and ventilation chambers (ventilation units).
5.5. In crematorium buildings, a utility yard with storage facilities for storing large parts and other equipment should be provided.
5.6. All rooms that are part of the crematoria must be equipped with supply and exhaust ventilation systems with mechanical induction. The use of air recirculation systems is not permitted.
Vi. Hygienic requirements for water supply, sewerage, sanitary cleaning of cemeteries, buildings and structures for funeral purposes
6.1. The laying of networks of centralized household drinking water supply used for household and drinking purposes by the population of cities and other settlements across the territory of sanitary protection zones and cemeteries is not allowed.
6.2. For irrigation and cleaning of cemeteries and crematoria, it is necessary to provide for an independent water supply system or with a connection to industrial water pipelines and water pipes of industrial enterprises located in their immediate vicinity.
6.3. For drinking and household needs in cemeteries and other funeral facilities, household and drinking water supply should be provided. Water quality must meet the requirements of sanitary rules for drinking water.
6.4. In the absence of centralized water supply and sewerage systems, it is allowed to set up mine wells for irrigation and build cesspool-type public toilets in accordance with the requirements of sanitary norms and rules.
6.5. Discharge of untreated wastewater from cemeteries and crematoria into open areas, ditches, ditches, trenches is not allowed.
6.6. On the sites of cemeteries, crematoria, buildings and structures for funeral purposes, it is necessary to provide for a zone of green spaces, parking for car hearses and vehicles, garbage cans, areas for waste bins with entrances to them.
6.7. Landfill sites must be fenced and have a hard surface (asphalting, concreting).
How deep should the grave be? What do denominational funeral rites say about this? Are there norms at the legislative-executive level?
Peter 1 - dig a grave at least 3 yards
The initiator of the adoption of laws regulating the burial process in Russia was Peter I. He decided to dig a grave with a depth of at least 2 meters (3 arshins). The topic attracted the attention of the innovator tsar shortly before his own death in 1725 - the first funeral decree was adopted in 1723.
At this time, the Russian Empire was going through a period of formation, and many areas everyday life, where previously they were guided only by traditions, customs of ancestors, communal rules and common sense were subjected to standardization and legislative definition.
The publication of the decree was intended to reduce the mortality rate from mass diseases and pestilence. The years have shown that these fears were not in vain. Although Russia did not have a chance to survive the plague epidemics that destroyed more of the population in Europe in the 14th and 17th centuries than wars, medicine and health care were then available to few, and most epidemics developing from rotting remains were generally impossible to cure.
Plague of 1771 in Russia. One of the reasons is poor arrangement of cemeteries
In 1771, a terrible plague broke out in Russia. Among the reasons for the pestilence was non-observance of the Petrovsky decree and poor arrangement of cemeteries. And, although epidemiology then existed only in its infancy, the task was to analyze the factors that influenced the rapid spread of the epidemic.
Alexander I introduces punishment for the grave of the wrong depth
Therefore, Alexander I already established legislative responsibility for "funeral crimes" - for anyone who digs a grave of the wrong depth. It is clear that in rural cemeteries this norm could not be observed very strictly, but, with the introduction of punishment, in government agencies it became possible to control the burial procedures - moreover, even to carry out reburial if the conditions are violated.
Lack of space in cemeteries in Moscow and large cities
The problem made itself felt: people were faced with a shortage of available sites in cemeteries. Of course, in the vast expanses of the Russian Empire, the situation was not as dire as in Victorian Britain, where multi-tiered crypts were arranged, but still, the factor of urban crowding made itself felt. Families often buried the deceased in the graves where they were already buried. Because where the cemetery land cost money, it was forced to do so by the high cost and the desire to save money.
Emergence of burial instructions
Only at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the most significant shifts began to occur: the state offered intelligible instructions, defined precise rules - what is the depth of the grave, how to care for the cemeteries, and, more importantly, how to control all these regulations. The creation of such instructions put the Russian Empire on a par with other civilized states, the governing bodies of which were ready to prosecute the living, but prevent the dead from causing new deaths.
Earth and Water
What factors affect the coffin in the grave? As the main one, obviously, they single out the properties, soil characteristics of the land to which the deceased is betrayed. It may seem that "a couple of meters of soil from above will press any coffin, there is nothing to think about", but such delusions have often led to disastrous outcomes. The grave soil should not be too dense for air to pass through. But if the soil is too light, then a grave depth of 2 meters is the minimum required.
Up to 2 meters or 6 feet down
The next factor that must be taken into account is the relationship between land and water, or, more precisely, the layer of soil water characteristic of a particular area.
The system of thin canals, penetrating the fertile soil layer down to the clay base, is responsible for the autumn-spring circulation. In most latitudes on the territory of Russia, the cold penetrates into the thickness of the earth up to about 2 meters ("6 feet down"): above this mark, the soil water turns into ice in winter and returns back to the liquid phase in summer, as a result of which the soil seems to "pulsate ", shrinks and increases in volume.
Problems
It is easy to imagine what happens to a coffin that is not placed too deep: they shift, move from place to place, collisions of small stones, etc. This is not critical until cavities are formed in the ground, washed out by water, or the streams of water do not corrode the surface of the coffin (if the flowing volume of water is very large), or even completely turn it under the ground. Therefore, if there is an opportunity to bury the deceased below the freezing line of water, this prospect will in any way secure his refuge.
Groundwater protection
The flesh of the deceased should not be exposed to underground waters, otherwise rotting organic matter can spread the infection over a long distance: underground water drainage systems can stretch for tens of hundreds of kilometers. In contrast to the countries of the European Union, in Russia control over the observance of burial norms is not so strict, especially in villages.
Therefore, in our legislation, it was decided to establish admissibility norms for the allocation of plots for cemeteries - so that they would be immediately built only where epidemiological risks are minimal.
In particular, tough restrictive measures affected territories, the soil of which is able to retain water in a layer up to 2 m from the soil surface (especially swamps), as well as territories where landslides / avalanches / mudflows / flooding occur. And, although these norms exclude entire sectors of potentially vacant territories located in the transition from middle to northern latitudes and forest-tundra, their implementation prevents thousands of deaths every year.
To summarize, the soil / ground characteristics and the height of the retained water should be the primary factors in any region where the question of how deep the grave should be is being decided.
Grave depth according to GOST
To date, the development and detailing of norms in the funeral industry, in particular, specifying the features of the grave to be dug, the observance of sanitary conditions, etc., have been consolidated into one federal law called "On Burial Funeral Business". Although on the ground it can be supplemented by other normative acts, it is with its text that the procedures carried out during the burial must correlate. Here are the main excerpts related to the issue under consideration:
- You cannot dig a grave deeper than 2.2 m (maximum): a deeper hole increases the risk of groundwater being brought to the surface. The characteristics of the soils of a particular area allow this value to be varied, however, the groundwater layer should not be closer than 1.5 m. - this is the minimum, and the corresponding value is measured to the top of the coffin.
- The minimum of the grave in length / width / depth is 2/1 / 1.5 m, respectively. If we are talking about a grave where a child is buried, smaller sizes are permissible. There is also a minimum distance at which one grave should be located relative to the other: between the long sides it is at least 1 m, between the short (ends) - at least 0.5 m.
- In order for the burial site to be identified as such, a memorial plaque / mound must be placed. The latter also has a maximum height (no higher than 0.5 m.), And at the same time - since it protects the burial from water flowing over the surface - should be wider than the grave itself, go beyond the boundaries of the rectangular area.
- It is permissible to bury the deceased in a sitting position; in this case, the minimum soil thickness above it is 1m. (incl. embankment).
- When it comes to mass graves, coffins can be placed in 2 rows; then the minimum depth is 2.5m. The minimum distance between the lower level of the grave and the water layer has been reduced: to 0.5 m. The top / bottom rows of coffins must also be separated by a minimum of 0.5 m in height.
Here is what the German archaeologist of the last century, Ewald Schuldt, who specialized in the study of Slavic settlements and megaliths in Mecklenburg, writes about this:
The most conspicuous destruction in megalithic tombs occurred in the late Slavic period. So, for example, one of the chambers of an ancient dolmen in a long burial mound located in the forest near Alt Shtassov in the Teterov district was almost eliminated when a pit was dug next to it for the late Slavic burial (inhumation). The skeletons, found at a depth of only about 30 cm, are well preserved, as they were covered on top with a layer of small fragments of limestone.
Small depth the majority gravesinvestigated in Chelyabinsk, notis an exception: the bulk of Russian burials XII–XVIIIcenturies in Vyatka land hasdepth up to 0.8 m (Makarov L.D., 1990.
Samigulov G.Kh.
chelyabinsk, Chelyabinsk Scientific Center of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences
TO THE QUESTION ABOUT THE FUNERAL RITES OF THE RUSSIAN URALS AND SIBERIA
This article appeared as a consequence of an attempt to streamline for oneself the issues related to the Russian funeral rite. The impetus was the discovery in Chelyabinsk of another cemetery of the 18th century. The first was discovered in 1996 on Yaroslavsky Square (Samigulov G.Kh. 2002a, 2002b), the second in 2004, at the intersection of K. Marks and Kirov streets. Both cemeteries are not marked on the city plans and are not known from archival documents. But if the cemetery, discovered in 1996, correlates well with the location of the first Chelyabinsk church - Nicholas the Wonderworker and fits well into the plan of 1768, then the newly discovered cemetery was located outside the first Chelyabinsk fortress (founded in 1736) and turned out to be within the boundaries of a residential development after the expansion of Chelyabinsk in mid XVIII century. Short description materials of the study of the necropolis on pl. Yaroslavsky was published in 1996 (Samigulov G.Kh. 2002a, 2002b), therefore, we will give a description of the burial rite of the newly discovered necropolis.
In total, nine burials were cleared, which fell into the destruction zone of the pit, five adults and four children. The graves are located approximately on the same north-south line, while oriented along the west-east line, with seasonal deviations. Eight of the buried persons lay with their heads to the west, in one burial the deceased child was laid with his head to the east. Unlike the cemetery on pl. Yaroslavsky, in this case the graves are located much more "spaciously", as a result, some features stand out more clearly. Thus, three adults and one child burial are grouped very compactly, one burial is located 2 m north of this group, the rest to the south at intervals of 4, 1.5 and 3.5 m. A child burial was admitted to the middle of the southern graves. Obviously, there were family groups of burials, which, due to the high density of the location of the graves, is much worse traced on the materials of the cemetery on pl. Yaroslavsky.
There were crosses in five out of nine burials, and in two cases the crosses were incomplete - with a broken off lower end and with a broken off lower end and side crossbar. The missing parts of the crosses were not found, although they were searched for on purpose, nevertheless, it seems that the crosses were laid in the grave already broken.
Of the nine burials: three adult burials were made in coffins, one adult and one child burial in decks. One adult skeleton lay on a layer of birch bark and was covered with another layer of birch bark. Three children's burials were, obviously, with bast boxes or wrapped in bast - traces of decay in the form of brownish dust remained in the pits. Among the burials with bast, there was also a children's burial with an oriental orientation.
Common features for both cemeteries are the presence of decks, the use of birch bark, the shallow depth of a significant part of the burials, the absence of vest-crosses in some of the graves, the presence of an insignificant number of incomplete, broken crosses. Separately, it should be noted the eastern orientation of one burial in the newly discovered cemetery. All crosses that are sufficiently preserved to read the inscriptions on the obverse (the reverse side is either worn out until the text is illegible, or these are secondary castings, where the text is initially unreadable) are of those that are usually called Old Believers. Speaking of all the crosses, I mean the crosses from the burials of both cemeteries, by the way, the crosses from the layer are also "Old Believers". In general, we have a set of signs of a "non-canonical" burial rite, or burial rites, most of which are already perceived as standard for Russian burials in the Urals and Siberia of the 17th – 18th centuries. Let us try, using materials from publications on the archeology of Russians of the late period and, to some extent, archival documents, to consider the listed features.
In the Slavic, later Russian funeral rite proper, birch bark was used by Vyatichi - burials of the 12th century in birch bark shrouds and in hollowed logs in Moscow are known (Shelyapina PS, 1971. - pp. 146-148; Panova TD, 1989. - P. 221). In addition, the covering of the coffin with birch bark was found during excavations in Novgorod (Mongayt A.L., 1949. - p. 72). Decks are also known from the Middle Ages (Shelyapina P.S., 1971. - P. 146; Sedov V.V., 1973. - P. 10-16; Yushko A.A, 1976. - P. 73-74). As we can see, decks were used in burials in the 18th century.
If in the Russian central regions of Russia by the late Middle Ages, the use of birch bark and, in general, the variety of intra-grave decoration (plank structures, platforms, etc.) under the influence of Christianity practically disappeared, then in the Kama region the situation was somewhat different. The use of birch bark and bast in the burial of the deceased among the ancestors of the Udmurts, Komi-Permians and Komi-Zyryans can be traced up to ethnographic modern times; these elements have also been recorded in Russian burials.
A characteristic feature of the above details of the burial rite is their "vitality." V.A. Oborin mentions that the Permian Komi Zyuzdinsky covered logs and plank coffins with birch bark, and sometimes the dead were wrapped in it or in bark as early as the 19th century (Oborin V.A., 1999. - p. 267). He also described a case of researching burials of the 17th century, where baptized Permian Komi and, obviously, Russians were buried, and the decoration of the graves included features of pagan remnants - covering the coffins with birch bark (Oborin V.A., 1999. - pp. 268–270) ... The presence of various types of burial decoration, including wrapping with bast and birch bark and making frames from blocks, was noted by N.I. Shutova (Shutova N.I., 2001. - pp. 109–110, 116, 126).
Obviously, as the Russian population penetrated into the Kama region and the Vyatka land, mutual influence took place in various spheres, including in the funeral rite. The design of the Kama Finns' burials was similar to what the Vyatichi practiced in the 12th – 13th centuries. One can give an example of at least one cemetery explored in the Perm Kama region, dated to the 17th century, where burials in logs (troughs), coffins knocked down with nails, as well as wrapped in birch bark and bast, were found - Ilyinsky burial ground. Moreover, the authors of the study associate the features of the monument with the interaction of the Christian Russian and pagan local populations, and the body wrapping with birch bark is attributed to early stage Russian development of the Kama region (Korenyuk S.I., Melnichuk A.F., 2003. - pp. 165–174).
During security studies of the cemetery of the first settlers of the city of Kamensk-Uralsky, Sverdlovsk region, dating from the first half of the 18th century, birch bark was recorded in 10 out of 43 cleared burials. Children were wrapped with birch bark, and in adult burials the coffins were covered on top with two layers of birch bark, possibly replacing the cover (Pogorelov S.N., Svyatov V.N., 2002, p. 119). When examining several burials of the cemetery of the Nikolaev Monastery, a grave pit was cleared, lined with two layers of birch bark, between which a layer of coal was recorded (Kurlaev E.A., 1998, p. 97).
It can be stated with a high degree of confidence that the presence of birch bark and bast burials in the Russian burial grounds of the Trans-Urals indicates the presence among the buried people from the Kama region. Moreover, it could be both Russians, from the Kama region old-timers, and baptized representatives of the Finnish peoples. When comparing the materials from the studies of Russian cemeteries, their difference is noticeable according to the indicated criterion: in Chelyabinsk the number of graves using birch bark and bast is 23%, in Kamensk-Uralsky - also 23%, in Verkhoturye and the Nikolaevsky monastery - one burial with birch bark from the studied; out of 336 graves of the Ilimsky prison necropolis, only one has a birch-bark box cleared; out of 137 burials at the Izyuk-I burial ground, none with birch bark or bast. Obviously, in the absence of written sources, the research materials can be used as indirect evidence confirming the presence of immigrants from the Kama region among the first settlers of the Russian settlements of the Trans-Urals of the 17th – 18th centuries. At the same time, it is hardly possible to estimate by this indicator the share of immigrants from the Kama region among the inhabitants of the settlement, since the use of birch bark and bast in burials in the Kama region was also not a common phenomenon. For the same reason, the absence of burials using bark does not mean that there were no Prikamsk skidniki among the inhabitants.
The shallow depth of most of the graves investigated in Chelyabinsk is no exception: the bulk of Russian burials of the 12th – 18th centuries in the Vyatka land are up to 0.8 m deep (Makarov LD, 1990. - p. 65); the depth of most of the burials at the Izyuk-I burial ground was less than 1 m (Tataurova L.V., 2002. - p. 236); the depth of burials in Kamensk-Uralsky was 0.5–1.0 m from the modern surface (Pogorelov S.N., Svyatov V.N., 2002. - p. 119). The explanation of L.D. Makarov graves of shallow depths of pre-Christian funeral traditions, and a small depth of burials was typical not only for Russians, but also for the traditional burial rite of the peoples of the Kama region, in particular the Udmurts (Shutova N.I., 2001. - pp. 116, 125).
Such shallow burials are not characteristic of the canonical, or now perceived as canonical, Christian rite. We do not know about the measures taken by the spiritual or secular authorities to increase the depth of the grave pits in the 17th century. However, during the 18th and early 19th centuries, steps were repeatedly taken to bring the depth of the graves to at least 2.5 arshins. On October 16, 1723, the Highest command was issued, followed by the decree of the Holy Synod on the need to dig graves three arshins deep; a similar decree was issued by the Synod in 1740 - on the basis of a report from the Commission for the construction of St. Petersburg and a resolution of the Governing Senate. On July 8, 1808, on the basis of the Imperial Decree, another Synod decree was issued on the depth of burials of at least 2.5 arshins, and it was stipulated that not only priests of cemetery churches, but also quarter overseers and the district police would monitor the implementation of this rule. (OGACHO, F. I-33, op. 1, d. 2669, sheets 1–3). An interesting fact is that in all the above cases, the initiators of the "companies" for the observance of the sanitary norms of burials were the secular authorities. In the latter case, the Imperial Decree was issued on the basis of a memo from the Minister of Internal Affairs. The Church was the conductor of these measures in life insofar as the cemeteries were under her "jurisdiction", moreover, the implementation of the provisions of the last of the named Decree by the priests on the ground was controlled by the secular authorities. Obviously, the general idea that the depth of modern burials is determined by the Christian tradition does not fully correspond to reality - rather, it is a consequence of the authorities' efforts to establish sanitary standards in relation to cemeteries. In the same way and for the same reasons, the authorities in the 18th century sought the removal of cemeteries outside the settlements (OGACHO, F. I-33, op. 1, d. 367).
One of the burials of the newly discovered cemetery in Chelyabinsk is oriented with its head to the east, which contradicts the Orthodox funeral canon, while a cross-vest was found in the burial. A single burial with an eastern orientation was found at the Izyuk-I burial ground (Tataurova L.V., 2002. - p. 326), similar graves were found at the Ilyinsky burial ground in the Kama region, during excavations in Cherdyn, a child's burial was cleared in a bast box and from the eastern orientation, a similar phenomenon was recorded at the Rusinovsky burial ground of the 18th century, where the baptized Permian Komi were buried (Korenyuk S.I., Melnichuk A.F., 2003. - pp. 178–179). Most likely, the eastern-oriented burials in Orthodox cemeteries were left by the baptized Finns of the Kama region and do not necessarily indicate the pagan character of the grave, as well as the northern orientation of the graves. So, in the Kama region, at two sites, burials with a north-south orientation with Orthodox crosses were investigated (Lychagina E.L., Mingalev V.V., 2003. - p. 161).
It has already been said above that pectoral crosses were not found in all burials. This situation is quite typical for burial grounds of the 17th – 18th centuries and earlier. L. D. Makarov writes about an extremely small number of crosses in Russian burials of the 12th – 16th centuries and suggests that the crosses were made of short-lived materials (Makarov L.D., 1990. - p. 67). For 53 investigated burials of the cemetery in Verkhoturye there is 1 cross, for 40 burials of the first necropolis of Kamensk-Uralsky - 4 crosses (Pogorelov S.N., Svyatov V.N., 2002. - p. 119). Crosses are missing in most of the burials of the Ilyinsky burial ground. This circumstance, as well as the non-canonical orientation of the graves, according to the authors, indicates that some of the buried were not Christians (Korenyuk S.I., Melnichuk A.F., 2003. - pp. 177–178). During the investigations of the cemetery of the Ilimsk prison, 336 burials were examined and about 200 vest-crosses were found (Molodin V.I., 1999. - p. 113). When considering the data not for one site, but for several, the absence of crosses in some of the burials from an obscure detail passes into the category of stable signs. A.E. Musin, with reference to T.D. Panov, writes that she, having analyzed more than 4000 burials, including the graves of the higher clergy, came to the conclusion that there were practically no crosses in the graves of the 11th-15th centuries; In the 16th – 17th centuries, burials with crosses can account for from 1/5 to 1/3 of all investigated burials (Musin A.E., 2002. - p. 47).
Thus, the absence of crosses in the graves is a reflection of the burial practice that existed in the Middle Ages, which began to change in the 16th century, however, in the 18th century there is still a rather significant percentage, and in some cases the majority (Pogorelov S.N., Svyatov V.N. ., 2002. - p. 119) cemetery burials do not contain vest-crosses. Consequently, the absence of crosses in individual burials of the Christian cemetery of the 18th century does not give grounds to speak with confidence about the unbaptized buried.
By doing small digression from the Chelyabinsk subject, but in connection with common theme article, I would like to touch upon one collision related to the discussion of the studies of the Izyuk-I burial ground (Tataurova L.V., 2000. - p. 423; 2001. - p. 257; 2002. - pp. 232–236). The cemetery, moreover an Orthodox one, was discovered during a study of a Russian settlement. Let us highlight two points - the cemetery existed next to the houses, one burial was found under the floor of the hut; on a number of grounds, including the shape of the crosses, the cemetery was assigned to the Old Believers (Tataurova L.V., 2000). M.L. Berezhnova, S.N. Corusenko and A.A. Novoselova in an elegant article "How historians create myths" questioned the conclusions of L.V. Tataurova. They expressed doubt that the Russian population left the cemetery and suggested looking for evidence of some baptized Finno-Ugrians who lived in the village in the 18th century, based on the fact that cemeteries near houses are not typical of Russians (Berezhnova M.L., Corusenko S.N., Novoselova A.A., 2001. - pp. 50–56). In this regard, I would like to cite the information published by S.I. Dmitrieva. She writes that in Russian settlements on the Mezen, grave crosses can be seen not only in the cemetery, but also next to the house - opposite its front corner, near the threshold, in the garden. This can be explained by “the custom of burying relatives near the dwelling, which persisted in this region until the beginning of the 20th century” (Dmitrieva SI, 1984. - p. 461). Therefore, we can say that ethnographic data record very diverse variants of the funeral rite and organization of cemeteries among Russians. This "non-Russian" funerary tradition was characteristic just for a certain part of the population of Pomorie, from where the settlement of Siberia took place in the 17th – 18th centuries.
Regarding the Old Believer crosses of the Izyuk-I burial ground M.L. Berezhnova and her colleagues supported the opinion that Old Believer crosses were in use among non-Old Believers due to the lack of crosses in general (Berezhnova M.L., Korusenko S.N., Novoselova A.A., 2001. - pp. 50–56). The approach is correct, but the thought has not been brought to its logical conclusion. Applied to XVIII century rather, we can talk about the almost complete absence of non-religious, i.e. "Nikonian" crosses. Look at publications that provide descriptions of either images of crosses from excavations of Russian cemeteries, the settlement layer of the 18th century, or crosses of the 18th century from museum collections - how many crosses with the titles "IN TSI" can you find? In Chelyabinsk, all the crosses found in the burials of two cemeteries, one of which was official, at the church, and both crosses from the cultural layer are Old Believers. A similar picture, judging by the publications, is observed in the Kama region and the Sverdlovsk region (Pogorelov S.N., Svyatov V.N., 2002; Korchagin P.A., 2001; Lychagina E.L., Mingalev V.V., 2003) ... Moreover, this is a situation not only in the Urals and Siberia.
The materials from the excavations of the cemetery of the Moiseevsky Monastery in Moscow are very indicative. The necropolis functioned in the 17th – 18th centuries and was closed in 1771. The authors of the publication of the materials note that most of the investigated burials belong to the late period of the necropolis existence - after 1671. Both the nuns of the Moiseev Monastery and the laity were buried in the cemetery. Besides metal (38 units), wooden crosses (28 units) were also found. On the metal crosses, the authors of the publication of materials recorded inscriptions characteristic of Old Believer crosses, i.e. "The King of Glory" (Veksler A.G., Berkovich V.A., 1999). In this case, it is of interest that the titles of INCI (Jesus of Nazareth - King of Judea) are fixed on wooden cross-vests. The authors of the article did not provide layouts based on the material of the crosses and burials; it is likely that wooden crosses were found in the burials of nuns. Based on materials from Vyatka L.D. Makarov noted that in the 17th – 18th centuries cypress crosses appeared in the burials of priests (Makarov L.D., 1990. - p. 67).
The situation is quite transparent: in the 18th century, there are practically no metal crosses-vests of the "Nikonian" type. Crosses from the burials of official cemeteries at churches and from necropolises, which according to written sources are identified as Old Believers, do not differ in iconography. Judging by the crosses, almost all of the baptized population of Russia belonged to the Pomorian sense of the Old Believers.
The most interesting thing in this whole situation with the interpretation of crosses is that the answer has already been given, only in an implicit way. E.P. Vinokurova, in an article about cast cross-vests of the 17th century (in reality, about crosses of the 17th-19th centuries), points to the difference between Old Believer and "Nikonian" crosses, and it does not consist at all in the titles on the front of the cross, but in the text of the psalm on the back ( Vinokurova E.P., 1997. - S. 359–360). S.V. Gnutova and E. Ya. Zotova write that in the workshops of Moscow and Veliky Ustyug, molds for casting crosses were often made from prints from the original Vygovsky crosses, that is, from the Old Believers (Gnutova S.V., Zotova E.Ya., 2000). The only thing, none of these authors said in plain text that the iconography of crosses, established after Nikon's reform, for cast vest-like crosses in the 18th century did not become the norm. Perhaps they imply that everyone knows this. It is most often impossible to identify the cross from the layer by the inscription on the reverse side, since the inscriptions are worn out in the process of wearing, subsequently the metal is corroded - i.e. the inscriptions are simply not readable.
The situation with the crosses, if not typical, is indicative. In their interpretation, everyone proceeds from the generally accepted point of view: there are (and have been almost from the very split) crosses of the Old Believers and officially Orthodox. And imagine that all the discussions of the 18th century about the Titles, not only between theologians of official Orthodoxy and the Old Believers, but also within the Old Believers themselves (Christianity, 1995a. - p. 442; Christianity, 1995b. - p. 27), practically did not affect on the most massive category of cult accessories - vest crosses - it is quite difficult. Nevertheless, based on the available material, in my opinion, one can come to the following conclusion: during the 18th century, practically the only category (there were many types) of cast vest crosses were crosses, the iconography and shape of which developed in the 17th century, those crosses, which we consider Old Believers. In fact, the forms and iconography of these crosses took shape before the split of the Orthodox Church, and after the split, they automatically turned out to be Old Believers - the Old Believers continued the existing traditions, which is what the word itself implies. But for everyone else, these forms of crosses were "grandfathers and fathers". But the reformed church, apparently, achieved the mass production of crosses with new iconography only towards the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Therefore, cast crosses in burials, as well as in the cultural layer of the 18th century, have iconography that we do not associate with “Nikonianism”. Those people who were supposed to wear crosses of the "new type": clergymen, monks, etc. wore wooden crosses with the "legal" titles "IN TSI".
It turns out that we do not have clear justifications for identifying Old Believer burials. The usual triad of signs - crosses, shallow burial depths, decks - does not work. The depth of most of the graves in the official cemeteries of the first half of the 18th century does not exceed 1 m, logs are a common phenomenon, and all of them have “Old Believer” crosses. Apparently, without these written sources, one cannot speak of any confident interpretation of the confessional affiliation (within Orthodoxy) of the 18th century graves.
Another point is that the absence of a vest-like cross does not give grounds to interpret the burial as pagan, even if the orientation of the buried person does not coincide with the canonical Orthodox.
The result of an attempt to understand the signs of the funeral rite was a situation of complete uncertainty - it turns out that we cannot distinguish the Old Believer burial from the officially Orthodox one, we cannot even determine with certainty a pagan grave if it is in an Orthodox or mixed cemetery. That is, we can identify some pagan elements, but we cannot confidently say that the unbaptized was buried.
Obviously, it is necessary to develop some other criteria, new approaches, since the usual approaches do not guarantee the correct result. And there is nothing strange in this, these criteria were developed on the basis of certain categories of sources, mostly written, and there was no possibility to thoroughly check them. Now the archaeological study of monuments of the late period is increasingly being carried out, and our rather abstract, book ideas are tested on concrete material. A more detailed, detailed study of the funeral rite with an emphasis on archaeological material and the involvement of all the same written sources is needed. Without their use, we have very little chance of sorting out many issues that arise in the course of work.
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OGACHO, F. I-33, op. 1, d. 2669.
I think this article will turn out to be a fairly well-reasoned and detailed answer to the question.
Modified 04/16/2013 07:46 by alexomsk34