From a guest >>
1.What is organic called substance, in molecules which contains atoms C, O, H, performing an energy and building function?
A-nucleic acid B-protein
B-carbohydrate G-ATP
2. What carbohydrates are polymers?
A-monosaccharides B-disaccharides B-polysaccharides
3. The group of monosaccharides includes:
A-glucose B-sucrose B-cellulose
4. Which carbohydrates are insoluble in water?
A-glucose, fructose B-starch B-ribose, deoxyribose
5.Fat molecules are formed:
A - from glycerin, higher carboxylic acids B-from glucose
B-of amino acids, water D-of ethyl alcohol, higher carboxylic acids
6. Fats perform functions in the cell:
A-transport B-energy
B-catalytic G-information
7. What compounds in relation to water are lipids?
A-hydrophilic B-hydrophobic
8. What is the importance of fats in animals?
A-structure of membranes B-heat regulation
B-energy source D-water source D-all of the above
9. Protein monomers are:
A-nucleotides B-amino acids B-glucose D-fats
10. The most important organic matter, which is part of the cells of all kingdoms of living nature, which has a primary linear configuration, is:
A-to polysaccharides B-to lipids
B-c ATP G-c polypeptides
2. Write the functions of proteins, give examples.
3. Task: Along the DNA chain AATGTSGATGCTTAGTTTAGG, it is necessary to complete the complementary strand and determine the length of the DNA
1. Choose one correct answer
1. How many of the known amino acids are involved in protein synthesis?
A-20 B-100 V-23
2. what part of amino acid molecules distinguish them from each other?
A-radical B-carboxyl group B-amino group
3. What compounds are included in ATP?
A- adenine, ribose carbohydrate, 3 phosphoric acid molecules
B - guanine, fructose sugar, phosphoric acid residue.
B-ribose, glycerin and any amino acid
4. What is the role aTP molecules in a cage?
A-provide transport function B-transfer hereditary information
B-provide vital processes with energy D-accelerate biochemical reactions
5.Nucleic acid monomers are:
A-amino acids B-fats
B-nucleotides G-glucose
6. What class of chemical substances does ribose belong to?
A-protein B-carbohydrate B-lipid
7. What nucleotide is not included in the DNA molecule?
A-adenyl B-uridyl
B-guanyl G-thymidyl
8. Which nucleic acid has the longest length?
A-DNA B-RNA
9.The guanyl nucleotide is complementary to the nucleotide:
A-thymidyl B-cytidyl
B-adenyl G-uridyl
10.The process of doubling DNA molecules is called:
A-replication B-transcription
B-complementarity G-translation.
2. Write the functions of lipids, give examples.
3. Task. In what sequence will the nucleotides in the i-RNA be located if the DNA chain has the following composition: GGTATAGCGCTTAAGCTTT, determine the length of the i-RNA.
Classification organic matter
Depending on the type of structure of the carbon chain, organic substances are divided into:
- acyclic and cyclic.
- limiting (saturated) and unsaturated (unsaturated).
- carbocyclic and heterocyclic.
- alicyclic and aromatic.
Acyclic compounds are organic compounds in the molecules of which there are no cycles and all carbon atoms are connected to each other in straight or branched open chains.
In turn, among the acyclic compounds, limiting (or saturated) ones are distinguished, which contain in the carbon skeleton only single carbon-carbon (C-C) bonds and unsaturated (or unsaturated), containing multiple - double (C \u003d C) or triple (C≡ C) communication.
Cyclic connections - chemical compounds, in which there are three or more bonded atoms to form a ring.
Depending on which atoms form the rings, carbocyclic compounds and heterocyclic compounds are distinguished.
Carbocyclic compounds (or isocyclic) contain only carbon atoms in their rings. These compounds, in turn, are divided into alicyclic compounds (aliphatic cyclic) and aromatic compounds.
Heterocyclic compounds contain one or more heteroatoms in the hydrocarbon ring, most often oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms.
The simplest class of organic substances is hydrocarbons - compounds that are formed exclusively by carbon and hydrogen atoms, i.e. formally do not have functional groups.
Since hydrocarbons do not have functional groups, only classification according to the type of carbon skeleton is possible. Hydrocarbons, depending on the type of their carbon skeleton, are divided into subclasses:
1) Saturated acyclic hydrocarbons are called alkanes. The general molecular formula of alkanes is written as C n H 2n + 2, where n is the number of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule. These compounds do not have interclass isomers.
2) Acyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons are divided into:
a) alkenes - they contain only one multiple, namely one double C \u003d C bond, the general formula for alkenes is C n H 2n,
b) alkynes - in the molecules of alkynes there is also only one multiple, namely the triple C≡C bond. General molecular formula of alkynes C n H 2n-2
c) alkadienes - there are two double C \u003d C bonds in alkadienes molecules. General molecular formula of alkadienes C n H 2n-2
3) Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes and have the general molecular formula C n H 2n.
The rest of the organic matter in organic chemistry are considered as derivatives of hydrocarbons formed upon the introduction of so-called functional groups into hydrocarbon molecules that contain other chemical elements.
Thus, the formula for compounds with one functional group can be written as R-X, where R is a hydrocarbon radical, and X is a functional group. A hydrocarbon radical is a fragment of a molecule of any hydrocarbon without one or more hydrogen atoms.
According to the presence of certain functional groups, compounds are subdivided into classes. The main functional groups and classes of compounds, which include them, are presented in the table:
Thus, various combinations of types of carbon skeletons with different functional groups give a wide variety of variants of organic compounds.
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Halogenated hydrocarbons are compounds obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the molecule of any starting hydrocarbon with one or more atoms of any halogen, respectively.
Let some hydrocarbon have the formula C n H m, then when replacing in its molecule X hydrogen atoms per X halogen atoms, the formula of the halogen derivative will have the form C n H m- X Hal X ... Thus, monochloro derivatives of alkanes have the formula C n H 2n + 1 Cl, dichloro derivatives C n H 2n Cl 2 etc.
Alcohols and phenols
Alcohols are derivatives of hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by the hydroxyl group -OH. Alcohols with one hydroxyl group are called monoatomic, with two - diatomic, with three triatomic etc. For instance:
Alcohols with two or more hydroxyl groups are also called polyhydric alcohols.General formula of saturated monohydric alcohols C n H 2n + 1 OH or C n H 2n + 2 O. General formula of saturated polyhydric alcohols C n H 2n + 2 O x, where x is the atomicity of alcohol.
Alcohols can also be aromatic. For instance:
benzyl alcoholThe general formula of such monohydric aromatic alcohols is C n H 2n-6 O.
However, it should be clearly understood that derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons in which hydroxyl groups are replaced by one or more hydrogen atoms in the aromatic nucleus do not apply to alcohols. They belong to the class phenols ... For example, this given compound is an alcohol:
And this is phenol:
The reason phenols are not classified as alcohols is due to their specific chemical properties, which are very different from alcohols. It is easy to see that monohydric phenols are isomeric to monohydric aromatic alcohols, i.e. also have the general molecular formula C n H 2n-6 O.
Amines
Aminami called derivatives of ammonia, in which one, two or all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by a hydrocarbon radical.
Amines in which only one hydrogen atom is replaced by a hydrocarbon radical, i.e. having the general formula R-NH 2 are called primary amines.
Amines in which two hydrogen atoms are replaced by hydrocarbon radicals are called secondary amines... The secondary amine formula can be written as R-NH-R '. In this case, the radicals R and R 'can be either the same or different. For instance:
If amines contain no hydrogen atoms at the nitrogen atom, i.e. all three hydrogen atoms of the ammonia molecule are replaced by a hydrocarbon radical, then such amines are called tertiary amines... In general terms, the tertiary amine formula can be written as:
In this case, the radicals R, R ', R' 'can be either completely the same or all three different.
The general molecular formula of primary, secondary and tertiary saturated amines is C n H 2 n +3 N.
Aromatic amines with only one unsaturated substituent have the general formula C n H 2 n -5 N
Aldehydes and ketones
Aldehydes derivatives of hydrocarbons are called, in which, at the primary carbon atom, two hydrogen atoms are replaced by one oxygen atom, i.e. derivatives of hydrocarbons in the structure of which there is an aldehyde group –CH \u003d O. The general formula for aldehydes can be written as R-CH \u003d O. For instance:
Ketones derivatives of hydrocarbons are called, in which at the secondary carbon atom two hydrogen atoms are replaced by an oxygen atom, i.e. compounds in the structure of which there is a carbonyl group –C (O) -.
The general formula for ketones can be written as R-C (O) -R '. In this case, the radicals R, R 'can be either the same or different.
For instance:
| propane it | butane it |
As you can see, aldehydes and ketones are very similar in structure, but they are still distinguished as classes, since they have significant differences in chemical properties.
The general molecular formula of saturated ketones and aldehydes is the same and has the form C n H 2 n O
Carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids called derivatives of hydrocarbons in which there is a carboxyl group -COOH.
If an acid has two carboxyl groups, this acid is called dicarboxylic acid.
Saturated monocarboxylic acids (with one group -COOH) have a general molecular formula of the form C n H 2 n O 2
Aromatic monocarboxylic acids have the general formula C n H 2 n -8 O 2
Ethers
Ethers -organic compounds in which two hydrocarbon radicals are indirectly linked through an oxygen atom, i.e. have the formula of the form R-O-R '. In this case, the radicals R and R 'can be either the same or different.
For instance:
The general formula of saturated ethers is the same as for saturated monohydric alcohols, i.e. C n H 2 n +1 OH or C n H 2 n +2 O.
Esters
Esters are a class of compounds based on organic carboxylic acids in which the hydrogen atom in the hydroxyl group is replaced by a hydrocarbon radical R. The formula of esters in general form can be written as:
For instance:
Nitro compounds
Nitro compounds - derivatives of hydrocarbons, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by the nitro group –NO 2.
Limit nitro compounds with one nitro group have the general molecular formula C n H 2 n +1 NO 2
Amino acids
Compounds having in their structure simultaneously two functional groups - amino NH 2 and carboxyl - COOH. For instance,
NH 2 -CH 2 -COOH
Limit amino acids with one carboxyl and one amino group are isomeric to the corresponding limiting nitro compounds, i.e. as they have the general molecular formula C n H 2 n +1 NO 2
IN tasks of the exam For the classification of organic substances, it is important to be able to write down the general molecular formulas of homologous series of different types of compounds, knowing the structural features of the carbon skeleton and the presence of certain functional groups. In order to learn how to determine the general molecular formulas of organic compounds of different classes, material on this topic will be useful.
Nomenclature of organic compounds
Features of the structure and chemical properties of compounds are reflected in the nomenclature. The main types of items are considered systematic and trivial.
The systematic nomenclature actually prescribes algorithms according to which a particular name is drawn up in strict accordance with the structural features of the molecule of organic matter or, roughly speaking, its structural formula.
Consider the rules for compiling the names of organic compounds according to the systematic nomenclature.
When compiling the names of organic substances according to the systematic nomenclature, the most important thing is to correctly determine the number of carbon atoms in the longest carbon chain or to count the number of carbon atoms in a cycle.
Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the main carbon chain, the compounds will have in their name different root:
| The number of C atoms in the main carbon chain | Name root |
| prop- |
|
| pent- |
|
| hex- |
|
| hept- |
|
| dec (c) - |
The second important component taken into account when compiling names is the presence / absence of multiple bonds or functional groups, which are listed in the table above.
Let's try to give a name to a substance that has a structural formula:
1. The main (and only) carbon chain of this molecule contains 4 carbon atoms, so the name will contain the root but-;
2. There are no multiple bonds in the carbon skeleton, therefore, the suffix that needs to be used after the root of the word will be -an, as in the corresponding saturated acyclic hydrocarbons (alkanes);
3. The presence of the functional group –OH, provided that there are no more senior functional groups, adds after the root and the suffix from item 2. one more suffix is \u200b\u200b"ol";
4. In molecules containing multiple bonds or functional groups, the numbering of the carbon atoms of the main chain starts from the side of the molecule to which they are closer.
Let's look at another example:
The presence of four carbon atoms in the main carbon chain tells us that the root of the name is “but-”, and the absence of multiple bonds indicates the suffix “-an”, which will follow immediately after the root. Senior group in this compound, it is carboxylic, which determines the belonging of this substance to the class of carboxylic acids. Therefore, the ending of the name will be "-oic acid". There is an amino group at the second carbon atom NH 2 -, therefore, this substance belongs to amino acids. Also at the third carbon atom, we see the hydrocarbon radical methyl ( CH 3 -). Therefore, according to the systematic nomenclature, this compound is called 2-amino-3-methylbutanoic acid.
A trivial nomenclature, unlike a systematic one, as a rule, has no connection with the structure of a substance, but is mainly due to its origin, as well as chemical or physical properties.
| Formula | Systematic nomenclature name | Trivial name |
| Hydrocarbons | ||
| CH 4 | methane | marsh gas |
| CH 2 \u003d CH 2 | ethen | ethylene |
| CH 2 \u003d CH-CH 3 | propene | propylene |
| CH≡CH | ethine | acetylene |
| CH 2 \u003d CH-CH \u003d CH 2 | butadiene-1,3 | divinyl |
| 2-methylbutadiene-1,3 | isoprene | |
| methylbenzene | toluene | |
| 1,2-dimethylbenzene | ortho-xylene (about-xylene) |
|
| 1,3-dimethylbenzene | meta-xylene (m-xylene) |
|
| 1,4-dimethylbenzene | couple-xylene (p-xylene) |
|
| vinylbenzene | styrene | |
| Alcohols | ||
| CH 3 OH | methanol | methyl alcohol, wood alcohol |
| CH 3 CH 2 OH | ethanol | ethanol |
| CH 2 \u003d CH-CH 2 -OH | propene-2-ol-1 | allyl alcohol |
| ethanediol-1,2 | ethylene glycol | |
| propanetriol-1,2,3 | glycerol | |
| phenol (hydroxybenzene) | carbolic acid | |
| 1-hydroxy-2-methylbenzene | ortho-cresol (about-cresol) |
|
| 1-hydroxy-3-methylbenzene | meta-cresol (m-cresol) |
|
| 1-hydroxy-4-methylbenzene | couple-cresol (P-cresol) |
|
| phenylmethanol | benzyl alcohol | |
| Aldehydes and ketones | ||
| methanal | formaldehyde | |
| ethanal | acetaldehyde, acetaldehyde | |
| propenal | acrylic aldehyde, acrolein | |
| benzaldehyde | benzoic aldehyde | |
| propanone | acetone | |
| Carboxylic acids | ||
| (HCOOH) | methanoic acid | formic acid (salts and esters - formates) |
| (CH 3 COOH) | ethanic acid | acetic acid (salts and esters - acetates) |
| (CH 3 CH 2 COOH) | propanoic acid | propionic acid (salts and esters - propionates) |
| C 15 H 31 COOH | hexadecanoic acid | palmitic acid (salts and esters - palmitates) |
| C 17 H 35 COOH | octadecanoic acid | stearic acid (salts and esters - stearates) |
| propenoic acid | acrylic acid (salts and esters - acrylates) |
|
| HOOC-COOH | ethanedioic acid | oxalic acid (salts and esters - oxalates) |
| 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid | terephthalic acid | |
| Esters | ||
| HCOOCH 3 | methylmetanoate | methyl formate, muric acid methyl ester |
| CH 3 COOCH 3 | methylethanoate | methyl acetate, acetic acid methyl ester |
| CH 3 COOC 2 H 5 | ethyl ethanoate | ethyl acetate, ethyl acetate |
| CH 2 \u003d CH-COOCH 3 | methylpropenoate | methyl acrylate, acrylic acid methyl ester |
| Nitrogen compounds | ||
| aminobenzene, phenylamine | aniline | |
| NH 2 -CH 2 -COOH | aminoethanoic acid | glycine, aminoacetic acid |
| 2-aminopropionic acid | alanine | |
From a guest >>
1. What is the name of an organic substance, the molecules of which contain atoms C, O, H, performing an energy and building function?
A-nucleic acid B-protein
B-carbohydrate G-ATP
2. What carbohydrates are polymers?
A-monosaccharides B-disaccharides B-polysaccharides
3. The group of monosaccharides includes:
A-glucose B-sucrose B-cellulose
4. Which carbohydrates are insoluble in water?
A-glucose, fructose B-starch B-ribose, deoxyribose
5.Fat molecules are formed:
A - from glycerin, higher carboxylic acids B - from glucose
B-of amino acids, water D-of ethyl alcohol, higher carboxylic acids
6. Fats perform functions in the cell:
A-transport B-energy
B-catalytic G-information
7. What compounds in relation to water are lipids?
A-hydrophilic B-hydrophobic
8. What is the importance of fats in animals?
A-structure of membranes B-heat regulation
B-energy source D-water source D-all of the above
9. Protein monomers are:
A-nucleotides B-amino acids B-glucose D-fats
10. The most important organic matter, which is part of the cells of all kingdoms of living nature, which has a primary linear configuration, is:
A-to polysaccharides B-to lipids
B-c ATP G-c polypeptides
2. Write the functions of proteins, give examples.
3. Task: Along the DNA chain AATGTSGATGCTTAGTTTAGG, it is necessary to complete the complementary strand and determine the length of the DNA
1. Choose one correct answer
1. How many of the known amino acids are involved in protein synthesis?
A-20 B-100 V-23
2. what part of amino acid molecules distinguish them from each other?
A-radical B-carboxyl group B-amino group
3. What compounds are included in ATP?
A- adenine, ribose carbohydrate, 3 phosphoric acid molecules
B - guanine, fructose sugar, phosphoric acid residue.
B-ribose, glycerin and any amino acid
4. What is the role of ATP molecules in the cell?
A-provide transport function B-transfer hereditary information
B-provide vital processes with energy D-accelerate biochemical reactions
5.Nucleic acid monomers are:
A-amino acids B-fats
B-nucleotides G-glucose
6. What class of chemical substances does ribose belong to?
A-protein B-carbohydrate B-lipid
7. What nucleotide is not included in the DNA molecule?
A-adenyl B-uridyl
B-guanyl G-thymidyl
8. Which nucleic acid has the longest length?
A-DNA B-RNA
9.The guanyl nucleotide is complementary to the nucleotide:
A-thymidyl B-cytidyl
B-adenyl G-uridyl
10.The process of doubling DNA molecules is called:
A-replication B-transcription
B-complementarity G-translation.
2. Write the functions of lipids, give examples.
3. Task. In what sequence will the nucleotides in the i-RNA be located if the DNA chain has the following composition: GGTATAGCGCTTAAGCTTT, determine the length of the i-RNA.
There are several definitions of what organic substances are, how they differ from another group of compounds - inorganic. One of the most common explanations comes from the name "hydrocarbons". Indeed, all organic molecules are based on chains of carbon atoms linked to hydrogen. There are also other elements that have received the name "organogenic".
Organic chemistry before the discovery of urea
Since ancient times, people have been using many natural substances and minerals: sulfur, gold, iron and copper ore, table salt. Throughout the existence of science - from ancient times to the first half of XIX centuries - scientists could not prove the connection between living and inanimate nature at the level of microscopic structure (atoms, molecules). It was believed that organic substances owe their appearance to the mythical life force - vitalism. There was a myth about the possibility of raising a homunculus man. To do this, it was necessary to put various waste products into a barrel, wait a certain time until the vital force was born.
A devastating blow to vitalism was dealt by the work of Weller, who synthesized organic matter urea from inorganic components. So it was proved that there is no life force, nature is one, organisms and inorganic compounds are formed by atoms of the same elements. The composition of urea was known even before Weller's work; the study of this compound was not difficult in those years. The very fact of obtaining a substance characteristic of metabolism outside the body of an animal or a person was remarkable.
A.M.Butlerov's theory
The role of the Russian school of chemists in the development of science studying organic matter is great. Whole epochs in the development of organic synthesis are associated with the names of Butlerov, Markovnikov, Zelinsky, Lebedev. The founder of the theory of the structure of compounds is A.M. Butlerov. Famous chemical scientist in the 60s years XIX century explained the composition of organic substances, the reasons for the diversity of their structure, revealed the relationship that exists between the composition, structure and properties of substances.
On the basis of Butlerov's conclusions, it was possible not only to systematize knowledge about already existing organic compounds. It became possible to predict the properties of substances not yet known to science, to create technological schemes for their production in an industrial environment. Many of the ideas of leading organic chemists today are being fully implemented.
Oxidation of hydrocarbons produces new organic substances - representatives of other classes (aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, carboxylic acids). For example, large amounts of acetylene are used for the production of acetic acid. A part of this reaction product is further consumed to obtain synthetic fibers. There is an acid solution (9% and 6%) in every home - this is ordinary vinegar. Oxidation of organic substances serves as the basis for obtaining a very large number of compounds of industrial, agricultural, and medical importance.
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Aromaticity in organic molecules is the presence of one or more benzene nuclei. A chain of 6 carbon atoms is closed in a ring, a conjugated bond arises in it, therefore the properties of such hydrocarbons are not similar to other hydrocarbons.
Aromatic hydrocarbons (or arenas) are of great practical importance. Many of them are widely used: benzene, toluene, xylene. They are used as solvents and raw materials for the production of drugs, dyes, rubber, rubber and other organic synthesis products.
Oxygenated compounds
Oxygen atoms are present in a large group of organic substances. They are included in the most active part of the molecule, its functional group. Alcohols contain one or more hydroxyl species —OH. Examples of alcohols: methanol, ethanol, glycerin. In carboxylic acids, there is another functional particle - carboxyl (—COOH).
Other oxygenated organic compounds are aldehydes and ketones. Carboxylic acids, alcohols and aldehydes are present in large quantities in various plant organs. They can be sources for obtaining natural products (acetic acid, ethyl alcohol, menthol).
Fats are compounds of carboxylic acids and glycerol trihydric alcohol. In addition to alcohols and acids of linear structure, there are organic compounds with a benzene ring and a functional group. Examples of aromatic alcohols: phenol, toluene.
Carbohydrates
The most important organic substances of the body that make up the cells are proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats (lipids). Simple carbohydrates - monosaccharides - are found in cells in the form of ribose, deoxyribose, fructose and glucose. The last carbohydrate on this short list is the main metabolic substance in cells. Ribose and deoxyribose are components of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids (RNA and DNA).
When glucose molecules are broken down, energy is released, which is necessary for life. First, it is stored during the formation of a kind of energy carrier - adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP). This substance is carried by the blood, delivered to tissues and cells. With the sequential cleavage of three phosphoric acid residues from adenosine, energy is released.
Fats
Lipids are substances of living organisms with specific properties. They do not dissolve in water, they are hydrophobic particles. Seeds and fruits of some plants, nervous tissue, liver, kidneys, blood of animals and humans are especially rich in substances of this class.
The skin of humans and animals contains many small sebaceous glands. The secretion secreted by them is displayed on the surface of the body, lubricates it, protects against moisture loss and penetration of microbes. A layer of subcutaneous fatty tissue protects against damage internal organs, serves as a spare substance.
Protein
Proteins make up more than half of all organic matter in the cell; in some tissues, their content reaches 80%. All types of proteins are characterized by high molecular weights, the presence of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. When heated, they are destroyed - denaturation occurs. The primary structure is a huge chain of amino acids for the microcosm. Under the action of special enzymes in the digestive system of animals and humans, the protein macromolecule breaks down into its constituent parts. They enter the cells, where organic substances are synthesized - other proteins specific to each living being.
Enzymes and their role
Reactions in the cell proceed at a rate that is difficult to achieve under industrial conditions, thanks to catalysts - enzymes. There are enzymes that act only on proteins - lipases. Starch hydrolysis occurs with the participation of amylase. Lipases are required for decomposition into constituent parts of fats. Processes involving enzymes occur in all living organisms. If a person does not have any enzyme in his cells, then this affects the metabolism, in general, on health.
Nucleic acids
Substances, first discovered and isolated from cell nuclei, perform the function of transferring hereditary traits. The main amount of DNA is found in chromosomes, and RNA molecules are located in the cytoplasm. With DNA reduplication (doubling), it becomes possible to transmit hereditary information to the reproductive cells - gametes. When they merge, a new organism receives genetic material from its parents.