James-Clerk MAXWELL (Maxwell)
(13.6.1831, Edinburgh, - 5.11.1879, Cambridge)
James-Clerk Maxwell - English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, was born in Edinburgh in 1831.
Maxwell is the son of a Scottish nobleman from a noble family of Clerks. Studied at Edinburgh (1847-50) and Cambridge (1850-54) universities. Member of the Royal Society of London (1860). Professor of Marishal College in Aberdeen (1856-60), then the University of London (1860-65). Since 1871 Maxwell has been a professor at the University of Cambridge. There he founded the first specially equipped physics laboratory in Great Britain - the Cavendish Laboratory, of which he was director since 1871.
Maxwell's scientific activities cover problems of electromagnetism, kinetic theory of gases, optics, theory of elasticity and much more. Maxwell completed his first work "On the drawing of ovals and on ovals with many tricks" when he was not yet 15 years old (1846, published in 1851). One of his first studies was work on the physiology and physics of color vision and colorimetry (1852-72). In 1861, Maxwell first demonstrated a color image obtained from the simultaneous projection of red, green and blue transparencies onto a screen, thus proving the validity of the three-component theory of color vision and at the same time outlining the ways of creating color photography. He created one of the first instruments for the quantitative measurement of color, called the Maxwell disc.
In the years 1857-59. Maxwell carried out a theoretical study of the stability of the rings of Saturn and showed that the rings of Saturn can be stable only if they consist of unconnected solid particles.
In research on electricity and magnetism (articles "On Faraday lines of force", 1855-56; "On physical lines of force", 1861-62; "Dynamic theory of the electromagnetic field", 1864; two-volume fundamental "Treatise on electricity and magnetism ", 1873) Maxwell mathematically developed the views of Michael Faraday on the role of an intermediate medium in electrical and magnetic interactions. He tried (following Faraday) to interpret this environment as an all-pervading world ether, but these attempts were not successful.
Further development of physics showed that the carrier of electromagnetic interactions is electromagnetic field, the theory of which (in classical physics) Maxwell created. In this theory, Maxwell generalized all the facts of macroscopic electrodynamics known by that time and for the first time introduced the concept of a displacement current that generates a magnetic field like an ordinary current (conduction current, moving electric charges). Maxwell expressed the laws of the electromagnetic field in the form of a system of 4 partial differential equations ( maxwell's equations).
The general and exhaustive character of these equations was manifested in the fact that their analysis made it possible to predict many previously unknown phenomena and patterns.
So, from them followed the existence of electromagnetic waves, later experimentally discovered by G. Hertz. Exploring these equations, Maxwell came to the conclusion about the electromagnetic nature of light (1865) and showed that the speed of any other electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is equal to the speed of light.
He measured (with greater accuracy than W. Weber and F. Kohlrausch in 1856) the ratio of the electrostatic unit of charge to the electromagnetic one and confirmed its equality to the speed of light. Maxwell's theory implied that electromagnetic waves produce pressure.
The pressure of light was experimentally established in 1899 by P. N. Lebedev.
Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism received full experimental confirmation and became the generally recognized classical basis of modern physics. The role of this theory was vividly characterized by A. Einstein: "... there was a great turning point, which is forever associated with the names of Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz. The lion's share in this revolution belongs to Maxwell ... After Maxwell, physical reality was thought of in the form of continuous fields that defy mechanical explanation ... This change in the concept of reality is the most profound and fruitful of those experienced by physics since the time of Newton".
In studies on the molecular-kinetic theory of gases (articles "Explanations to the dynamic theory of gases", 1860, and "Dynamic theory of gases", 1866), Maxwell was the first to solve the statistical problem of the velocity distribution of ideal gas molecules ( maxwell distribution). Maxwell calculated the dependence of the viscosity of a gas on the speed and mean free path of molecules (1860), calculating the absolute value of the latter, derived a number of important relations of thermodynamics (1860). Experimentally measured the coefficient of viscosity of dry air (1866). In 1873-74. Maxwell discovered the phenomenon of birefringence in a stream ( maxwell effect).
Maxwell was a major popularizer of science. He wrote a number of articles for the Encyclopedia Britannica, popular books such as The Theory of Heat (1870), Matter and Motion (1873), Elementary Electricity (1881), translated into Russian. An important contribution to the history of physics is the publication by Maxwell of the manuscripts of G. Cavendish's works on electricity (1879) with extensive comments.
"There is no striving more natural than the striving for knowledge." - M. Montaigne
MAXWELL, James Clerk (1831 - 1879) - an outstanding English physicist. His most remarkable research concerns the kinetic theory of gases and electricity; is the creator of the theory of the electromagnetic field and the electromagnetic theory of light.
According to a poll conducted among scientists by the journal Physicist World, physicist James Clerk Maxwell entered the top three named: Maxwell, Newton, Einstein.
Him passion for researchand the acquisition of new knowledge was endless. From his youth, Maxwell decided to devote himself to physics. His mentor Hopkins wrote: “This was the most extraordinary person I have ever seen.
He was organically incapable of thinking wrongly about physics. I raised him as a great genius, with all his eccentricity and the prophecy that one day he will shine in physics - a prophecy with which his fellow students were convinced. "
Once, when taking an exam for graduate students, the professor set a goal to weed out as many students as possible and gave insoluble, in his opinion, tasks. However, Maxwell coped with this task!
So Maxwell discovered the famous velocity distribution of molecules in gas, subsequently named after him (Maxwell's distribution), even during his studies.
In 1871 Maxwell became a professor at the University of Cambridge.
In 1873 Maxwell writes a two-volume fundamental "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism", in which the famous Maxwellian theory of the electromagnetic field is formulated.
Maxwell was able to express the laws of the electromagnetic field in the form of a system of 4 partial differential equations ( maxwell's equations), from which the existence of electromagnetic waves followed Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism received experimental confirmation and became the generally recognized classical basis of modern physics.
Numerous of his hobbies in other branches of physicswere also very fruitful: he invented the top, the surface of which, painted in different colors, when rotating, formed the most unexpected combinations. When shifting red and yellow, orange color was obtained, blue and yellow - green, when mixing all the colors of the spectrum, white color was obtained - an action opposite to the action of a prism - "Maxwell's disk"; he found a thermodynamic paradox that haunted physicists for many years - "Maxwell's devil"; he introduced the "Maxwell distribution" and "Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics" into the kinetic theory; there is "Maxwell's number".
In addition, he penned an exquisite study on the stability of the rings of Saturn, for which he was awarded an academic medal and after which he became “the recognized leader of mathematical physicists.” Maxwell created many small masterpieces in a variety of fields - from the world's first color photography to development of a method for radical removal of fat stains from clothing
Maxwell has written a number of articles for the Encyclopedia Britannica, popular books:"Theory of heat", "Matter and motion", "Electricity in an elementary presentation", translated into Russian.
It is interesting that one of the forms of writing the second law of thermodynamics: dp / dt \u003d JCM. The left side of this formula was often found in the works of Maxwell, far from physics, as a signature!
But the main memory of Maxwell, probably the only person in the history of science, after whom there are so many names, is the "Maxwell equations", "Maxwell's electrodynamics", "Maxwell's rule", "Maxwell's current" and, finally, - Maxwell - one magnetic flux in the CGS system.
Did you know?
About the inclined plane
Investigating the rolling of the ball "from hill to hill", Galileo suggested that, in modern terms, the speed acquired during descent does not depend on the shape of the path along which the body moves. Galileo, naturally, did not know that this situation follows from the law of conservation of energy, but he had a presentiment of this law and applied it in the simplest cases of a body falling or moving on an inclined plane and in experiments with a pendulum.
MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK(Maxwell, James Clerk) (1831-1879), English physicist. Born June 13, 1831 in Edinburgh in the family of a Scottish nobleman from a noble family of Clerks. He studied first at Edinburgh (1847-1850), then at Cambridge (1850-1854) universities. In 1855 he became a member of the council of Trinity College, in 1856-1860 he was a professor at the Marishal College of Aberdeen University, from 1860 he headed the department of physics and astronomy at King's College, University of London. In 1865, due to a serious illness, Maxwell resigned from the chair and settled in his family estate of Glenlair near Edinburgh. He continued to engage in science, wrote several essays on physics and mathematics. In 1871 he took up the chair of experimental physics at the University of Cambridge. He organized a research laboratory, which opened on June 16, 1874 and was named Cavendish, in honor of G. Cavendish.
Maxwell completed his first scientific work at school, having come up with a simple way to draw oval figures. This work was reported at a meeting of the Royal Society and even published in his Proceedings. During his tenure as a board member of Trinity College, he experimented with color theory, serving as a successor to Jung's theory and Helmholtz's theory of three primary colors. In experiments on mixing colors, Maxwell used a special top, the disk of which was divided into sectors painted in different colors (Maxwell's disk). With the rapid rotation of the top, the colors merged: if the disc was painted over as the colors of the spectrum were located, it appeared white; if one half of it was painted over with red and the other half with yellow, it looked orange; mixing blue and yellow gave the impression of green. In 1860, Maxwell was awarded the Rumford Medal for his work on color perception and optics.
In 1857, the University of Cambridge announced a competition for the best work on the stability of Saturn's rings. These formations were discovered by Galileo in the early 17th century. and represented an amazing mystery of nature: the planet seemed to be surrounded by three solid concentric rings, consisting of a substance of unknown nature. Laplace proved that they cannot be solid. After conducting mathematical analysis, Maxwell made sure that they could not be liquid, and came to the conclusion that such a structure can be stable only if it consists of a swarm of unconnected meteorites. The stability of the rings is ensured by their attraction to Saturn and the mutual movement of the planet and meteorites. For this work Maxwell received the J. Adams Prize.
One of the first works of Maxwell was his kinetic theory of gases. In 1859, the scientist spoke at a meeting of the British Association with a report in which he gave the distribution of molecules by velocities (Maxwellian distribution). Maxwell developed the ideas of his predecessor in the development of the kinetic theory of gases by R. Clausius, who introduced the concept of "mean free path". Maxwell proceeded from the concept of a gas as an ensemble of many ideally elastic balls, chaotically moving in a closed space. Balls (molecules) can be divided into groups according to their velocities, while in a stationary state the number of molecules in each group remains constant, although they can leave the groups and enter them. From this consideration it followed that “particles are distributed in velocity according to the same law according to which the observation errors in the theory of the least squares method are distributed, that is, according to Gauss statistics. " Within the framework of his theory, Maxwell explained Avogadro's law, diffusion, thermal conductivity, internal friction (transfer theory). In 1867 he showed the statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics ("Maxwell's demon").
In 1831, the year of Maxwell's birth, M. Faraday conducted classical experiments that led him to the discovery of electromagnetic induction. Maxwell began to study electricity and magnetism about 20 years later, when there were two views on the nature of electrical and magnetic effects. Such scientists as A.M. Amper and F. Neumann adhered to the concept of long-range action, considering electromagnetic forces as an analogue of gravitational attraction between two masses. Faraday was an adherent of the idea of \u200b\u200blines of force that connect positive and negative electrical charges, or the north and south poles of a magnet. The lines of force fill the entire surrounding space (field, in Faraday's terminology) and cause electrical and magnetic interactions. Following Faraday, Maxwell developed a hydrodynamic model of lines of force and expressed the then well-known relations of electrodynamics in a mathematical language corresponding to the mechanical models of Faraday. The main results of this study are reflected in the work Faraday lines of force (Faraday "s Lines of Force, 1857). In 1860-1865 Maxwell created the theory of the electromagnetic field, which he formulated in the form of a system of equations (Maxwell's equations), describing the basic laws of electromagnetic phenomena: the 1st equation expressed the electromagnetic induction of Faraday; 2nd - magnetoelectric induction discovered by Maxwell and based on the concept of displacement currents; 3rd - the law of conservation of the amount of electricity; 4th - the vortex nature of the magnetic field.
Continuing to develop these ideas, Maxwell came to the conclusion that any changes in the electric and magnetic fields must cause changes in the lines of force that penetrate the surrounding space, i.e. there must be impulses (or waves) propagating in the medium. The propagation speed of these waves (electromagnetic disturbance) depends on the dielectric and magnetic permeability of the medium and is equal to the ratio of the electromagnetic unit to the electrostatic unit. According to Maxwell and other researchers, this ratio is 3 × 10 10 cm / s, which is close to the speed of light measured seven years earlier by the French physicist A. Fizo. In October 1861, Maxwell informed Faraday about his discovery: light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagating in a non-conducting medium, i.e. a kind of electromagnetic waves. This final stage of research is outlined in the work of Maxwell Dynamic theory of the electromagnetic field (Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 1864), and the result of his work on electrodynamics was summed up by the famous Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873).
The last years of his life Maxwell was engaged in preparing for printing and publishing the manuscript legacy of the Cavendish. Two large volumes were published in October 1879. Maxwell died in Cambridge on November 5, 1879.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79) - English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, organizer and first director (since 1871) of the Cavendish Laboratory, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe electromagnetic nature of light, established the first statistical law - the law of molecular velocity distribution, named after him.
Developing the ideas of Michael Faraday, he created the theory of the electromagnetic field (Maxwell's equations); introduced the concept of displacement current, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe electromagnetic nature of light. Established a statistical distribution named after him. Investigated the viscosity, diffusion and thermal conductivity of gases. Maxwell showed that Saturn's rings are composed of separate bodies. Works on color vision and colorimetry (Maxwell disc), optics (Maxwell effect), elasticity theory (Maxwell's theorem, Maxwell-Cremona diagram), thermodynamics, history of physics, etc.
Family. Years of study
James Maxwell was born on June 13, 1831, in Edinburgh. He was the only son of a Scottish nobleman and lawyer John Clerk, who, having inherited the estate of a relative's wife, née Maxwell, added that name to his last name. After the birth of their son, the family moved to South Scotland, to their own Glenlair estate ("Shelter in the Valley"), where the boy spent his childhood.
In 1841, his father sent James to a school called the Edinburgh Academy. Here, at the age of 15, Maxwell wrote his first scientific article "About drawing ovals". In 1847 he entered the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for three years, and in 1850 transferred to the University of Cambridge, from which he graduated in 1854. By this time James Maxwell was a first-class mathematician with a superbly intuitive physics.
Creation of the Cavendish Laboratory. Teaching work
Upon graduation, James Maxwell was left at Cambridge to work as a teacher. In 1856 he was promoted to professor at Marishall College at the University of Aberdeen (Scotland). In 1860 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of London. In the same year he moved to London, accepting an offer to take the post of head of the physics department at King's College, University of London, where he worked until 1865.
Returning in 1871 to the University of Cambridge, Maxwell organized and headed the first specially equipped laboratory in Great Britain for physical experiments, known as the Cavendish Laboratory (named after the English scientist Henry Cavendish). The establishment of this laboratory, which at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. became one of the largest centers of world science, Maxwell devoted the last years of his life.
In general, few facts from Maxwell's life are known. Shy, modest, he strove to live in solitude and did not keep diaries. In 1858, James Maxwell married, but family life, apparently, did not work out well, exacerbated his unsociability, alienated him from his former friends. There is speculation that many important materials about Maxwell's life were lost in the 1929 fire at his Glenlair home, 50 years after his death. He died of cancer at the age of 48.
Scientific activity
Maxwell's unusually broad scope of scientific interests covered the theory of electromagnetic phenomena, the kinetic theory of gases, optics, the theory of elasticity, and much more. One of his first works was research in the physiology and physics of color vision and colorimetry, begun in 1852. In 1861, James Maxwell first obtained a color image by simultaneously projecting red, green and blue transparencies onto a screen. This proved the validity of the three-component theory of vision and outlined the ways of creating color photography. In works 1857-59 Maxwell theoretically investigated the stability of the rings of Saturn and showed that the rings of Saturn can be stable only if they consist of unconnected particles (bodies).
In 1855 D. Maxwell began a cycle of his main works on electrodynamics. Articles were published "On Faraday lines of force" (1855-56), "On physical lines of force" (1861-62), "Dynamic theory of the electromagnetic field" (1869). The research was completed by the publication of a two-volume monograph "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" (1873).
Creation of the theory of the electromagnetic field
When James Maxwell in 1855 began researching electrical and magnetic phenomena, many of them had already been well studied: in particular, the laws of interaction of stationary electric charges (Coulomb's law) and currents (Ampere's law) were established; it has been proved that magnetic interactions are interactions of moving electric charges. Most scientists of that time believed that interaction is transmitted instantly, directly through the void (the theory of action at a distance).
A decisive turn to the theory of short-range action was made by Michael Faraday in the 30s. 19th century According to Faraday's ideas, an electric charge creates an electric field in the surrounding space. The field of one charge acts on another, and vice versa. The interaction of currents is carried out by means of a magnetic field. Faraday described the distribution of electric and magnetic fields in space with the help of lines of force, which, in his view, resemble ordinary elastic lines in a hypothetical medium - the world ether.
Maxwell fully understood Faraday's ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field, that is, about the reality of processes in space near charges and currents. He believed that the body cannot act where it is not.
The first thing D.K. Maxwell - gave Faraday's ideas a rigorous mathematical form, which is so necessary in physics. It turned out that with the introduction of the concept of a field, the laws of Coulomb and Ampere began to be expressed most fully, deeply and gracefully. In the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Maxwell saw a new property of fields: an alternating magnetic field generates an electric field in empty space with closed lines of force (the so-called vortex electric field).
The next and last step in the discovery of the basic properties of the electromagnetic field was taken by Maxwell without any support from experiment. He made an ingenious guess that an alternating electric field generates a magnetic field, like an ordinary electric current (the hypothesis of a displacement current). By 1869, all the basic laws governing the behavior of the electromagnetic field were established and formulated in the form of a system of four equations, called Maxwell's equations.
Maxwell's equations are the basic equations of classical macroscopic electrodynamics describing electromagnetic phenomena in arbitrary media and in vacuum. Maxwell's equations were obtained by J.C. Maxwell in the 60s. 19th century as a result of generalization of the laws of electrical and magnetic phenomena found from experience.
The fundamental conclusion followed from Maxwell's equations: the finite velocity of propagation of electromagnetic interactions. This is the main thing that distinguishes the theory of short-range action from the theory of long-range action. The speed turned out to be equal to the speed of light in a vacuum: 300,000 km / s. From this Maxwell concluded that light is a form of electromagnetic waves.
Works on the molecular kinetic theory of gases
The role of James Maxwell in the development and establishment of molecular kinetic theory (the modern name is statistical mechanics) is extremely important. Maxwell was the first to state the statistical nature of the laws of nature. In 1866 he discovered the first statistical law - the law of molecular velocity distribution (Maxwell's distribution). In addition, he calculated the values \u200b\u200bof the viscosity of gases depending on the velocities and mean free path of molecules, derived a number of relations of thermodynamics.
Maxwell's distribution is the velocity distribution of the molecules of the system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium (provided that the translational motion of molecules is described by the laws of classical mechanics). Established by J.C. Maxwell in 1859.
Maxwell was a brilliant popularizer of science. He wrote a number of articles for the Encyclopedia Britannica and popular books: The Theory of Heat (1870), Matter and Motion (1873), Elementary Electricity (1881), which were translated into Russian; gave lectures and reports on physics topics for a wide audience. Maxwell also took a great interest in the history of science. In 1879 he published G. Cavendish's works on electricity, providing them with extensive commentaries.
Evaluation of Maxwell's work
The scientist's works were not appreciated by his contemporaries. Ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field seemed arbitrary and fruitless. Only after Heinrich Hertz in 1886-89 experimentally proved the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell, did his theory gain universal acceptance. It happened ten years after Maxwell's death.
After the experimental confirmation of the reality of the electromagnetic field, a fundamental scientific discovery was made: there are various types of matter, and each of them has its own laws that are not reducible to the laws of Newtonian mechanics. However, Maxwell himself was hardly clearly aware of this and at first tried to build mechanical models of electromagnetic phenomena.
The American physicist Richard Feynman excellently spoke about Maxwell's role in the development of science: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, ten thousand years later), the most significant event of the 19th century will undoubtedly be Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the backdrop of this important scientific discovery, the American civil war in the same decade will look like a provincial incident. "
James Maxwell passed away November 5, 1879, Cambridge. He was buried not in the tomb of the great men of England - Westminster Abbey - but in a modest grave next to his beloved church in a Scottish village, not far from the family estate.
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James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79) - English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, organizer and first director (since 1871) of the Cavendish Laboratory, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe electromagnetic nature of light, established the first statistical law - the law of molecular velocity distribution, named after him.
When a phenomenon can be described as a special case of some general principle applicable to other phenomena, then they say that this phenomenon has received an explanation
Maxwell James Clerk
Developing the ideas of Michael Faraday, he created the theory of the electromagnetic field (Maxwell's equations); introduced the concept of displacement current, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe electromagnetic nature of light. Established a statistical distribution named after him. Investigated the viscosity, diffusion and thermal conductivity of gases. Maxwell showed that Saturn's rings are composed of separate bodies. Works on color vision and colorimetry (Maxwell disc), optics (Maxwell effect), elasticity theory (Maxwell's theorem, Maxwell-Cremona diagram), thermodynamics, history of physics, etc.
Family. Years of study
James Maxwell was born on June 13, 1831, in Edinburgh. He was the only son of a Scottish nobleman and lawyer John Clerk, who, having inherited the estate of a relative's wife, née Maxwell, added this name to his last name. After the birth of their son, the family moved to South Scotland, to their own Glenlair estate ("Shelter in the Valley"), where the boy spent his childhood.
Of all the hypotheses ... choose the one that does not interfere with further thinking about the things being investigated
Maxwell James Clerk
In 1841, his father sent James to a school called the Edinburgh Academy. Here, at the age of 15, Maxwell wrote his first scientific article "About drawing ovals". In 1847 he entered the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for three years, and in 1850 transferred to the University of Cambridge, from which he graduated in 1854. By this time James Maxwell was a first-class mathematician with a superbly intuitive physics.
Creation of the Cavendish Laboratory. Teaching work
Upon graduation, James Maxwell was left at Cambridge to work as a teacher. In 1856 he was promoted to a professor at Marishal College at the University of Aberdeen (Scotland). In 1860 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of London. In the same year he moved to London, accepting an offer to take the post of head of the physics department at King's College, University of London, where he worked until 1865.
Returning in 1871 to the University of Cambridge, Maxwell organized and headed the first specially equipped laboratory in Great Britain for physical experiments, known as the Cavendish Laboratory (named after the English scientist Henry Cavendish). The establishment of this laboratory, which at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. became one of the largest centers of world science, Maxwell devoted the last years of his life.
Strategic skill is required to conduct scientific work properly through systematic experimentation and accurate demonstrations.
Maxwell James Clerk
In general, few facts from Maxwell's life are known. Shy, modest, he strove to live in solitude and did not keep diaries. In 1858, James Maxwell married, but family life, apparently, did not work out well, exacerbated his unsociability, alienated him from his former friends. There is speculation that many important materials about Maxwell's life were lost in the 1929 fire at his Glenlair home, 50 years after his death. He died of cancer at the age of 48.
Scientific activity
Maxwell's unusually broad scope of scientific interests covered the theory of electromagnetic phenomena, the kinetic theory of gases, optics, the theory of elasticity, and much more. One of his first works was research in the physiology and physics of color vision and colorimetry, begun in 1852. In 1861, James Maxwell first obtained a color image by simultaneously projecting red, green and blue transparencies onto a screen. This proved the validity of the three-component theory of vision and outlined the ways of creating color photography. In works 1857-59 Maxwell theoretically investigated the stability of the rings of Saturn and showed that the rings of Saturn can be stable only if they consist of unconnected particles (bodies).
In 1855 D. Maxwell began a cycle of his main works on electrodynamics. The articles "On Faraday lines of force" (1855-56), "On physical lines of force" (1861-62), "The dynamic theory of the electromagnetic field" (1869) were published. The research was completed by the publication of a two-volume monograph "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" (1873).
Every great person is one of a kind. In the historical procession of scientists, each of them has his own specific task and his own specific place
Maxwell James Clerk
Creation of the theory of the electromagnetic field
When James Maxwell began researching electrical and magnetic phenomena in 1855, many of them had already been well studied: in particular, the laws of interaction of stationary electric charges (Coulomb's law) and currents (Ampere's law) were established; it has been proved that magnetic interactions are interactions of moving electric charges. Most scientists of that time believed that interaction is transmitted instantly, directly through the void (the theory of action at a distance).
A decisive turn to the theory of short-range action was made by Michael Faraday in the 30s. 19th century According to Faraday's ideas, an electric charge creates an electric field in the surrounding space. The field of one charge acts on another, and vice versa. The interaction of currents is carried out by means of a magnetic field. Faraday described the distribution of electric and magnetic fields in space with the help of lines of force, which, in his view, resemble ordinary elastic lines in a hypothetical medium - the world ether.
Maxwell fully understood Faraday's ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field, that is, about the reality of processes in space near charges and currents. He believed that the body cannot act where it is not.
The first thing D.K. Maxwell - gave Faraday's ideas a rigorous mathematical form, which is so necessary in physics. It turned out that with the introduction of the concept of a field, the laws of Coulomb and Ampere began to be expressed most fully, deeply and gracefully. In the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Maxwell saw a new property of fields: an alternating magnetic field generates an electric field in empty space with closed lines of force (the so-called vortex electric field).
The next and last step in the discovery of the basic properties of the electromagnetic field was taken by Maxwell without any support from experiment. He made an ingenious guess that an alternating electric field generates a magnetic field, like an ordinary electric current (the hypothesis of a displacement current). By 1869, all the basic laws governing the behavior of the electromagnetic field had been established and formulated in the form of a system of four equations, called Maxwell's equations.
The real focus of science is not volumes of scientific works, but a living mind of a person, and in order to advance science, it is necessary to direct human thought into a scientific channel. This can be done in various ways: by announcing a discovery, defending a paradoxical idea, or inventing a scientific phrase, or setting out a system of doctrine.
Maxwell James Clerk
Maxwell's equations are the basic equations of classical macroscopic electrodynamics, which describe electromagnetic phenomena in arbitrary media and in vacuum. Maxwell's equations were obtained by J.C. Maxwell in the 60s. 19th century as a result of generalization of the laws of electrical and magnetic phenomena found from experience.
The fundamental conclusion followed from Maxwell's equations: the finite velocity of propagation of electromagnetic interactions. This is the main thing that distinguishes the theory of short-range action from the theory of long-range action. The speed turned out to be equal to the speed of light in a vacuum: 300,000 km / s. From this Maxwell concluded that light is a form of electromagnetic waves.
Works on the molecular kinetic theory of gases
The role of James Maxwell in the development and formation of molecular kinetic theory (the modern name is statistical mechanics) is extremely important. Maxwell was the first to state the statistical nature of the laws of nature. In 1866 he discovered the first statistical law - the law of molecular velocity distribution (Maxwell's distribution). In addition, he calculated the values \u200b\u200bof the viscosity of gases depending on the velocities and the mean free path of molecules, derived a number of relations of thermodynamics.
Maxwell's distribution is the velocity distribution of the molecules of the system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium (provided that the translational motion of molecules is described by the laws of classical mechanics). Established by J.C. Maxwell in 1859.
Maxwell was a brilliant popularizer of science. He wrote a number of articles for the Encyclopedia Britannica and popular books: The Theory of Heat (1870), Matter and Motion (1873), Elementary Electricity (1881), which were translated into Russian; gave lectures and reports on physics topics for a wide audience. Maxwell also took a great interest in the history of science. In 1879 he published G. Cavendish's works on electricity, providing them with extensive commentaries.
Evaluation of Maxwell's work
The scientist's works were not appreciated by his contemporaries. Ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field seemed arbitrary and fruitless. Only after Heinrich Hertz in 1886-89 experimentally proved the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell, did his theory gain universal acceptance. It happened ten years after Maxwell's death.
After the experimental confirmation of the reality of the electromagnetic field, a fundamental scientific discovery was made: there are various types of matter, and each of them has its own laws that cannot be reduced to the laws of Newtonian mechanics. However, Maxwell himself was hardly clearly aware of this and at first tried to build mechanical models of electromagnetic phenomena.
American physicist Richard Feynman excellently spoke about Maxwell's role in the development of science: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, ten thousand years later), the most significant event of the 19th century will undoubtedly be Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the backdrop of this important scientific discovery, the American civil war in the same decade will look like a provincial incident. "
James Maxwell passed away November 5, 1879, Cambridge. He was buried not in the tomb of the great men of England - Westminster Abbey - but in a modest grave next to his beloved church in a Scottish village, not far from the family estate.
James Clerk Maxwell - quotes
Strategic skill is required to conduct scientific work quite rightly through systematic experimentation and accurate demonstrations. 
Of all the hypotheses, choose the one that does not interfere with further thinking about the things being investigated.
For the development of science, in each given epoch, it is required not only that people think in general, but that they concentrate their thoughts on that part of the vast field of science that at this time requires development.