Spread of modern Indo-Aryan and Dardic languages Central and east-central zones Northern zone Northwest zone Eastern zone Southern zone Insular
Indo-Aryan languages (Indian) - a group of related languages \u200b\u200bincluded (together with Iranian languages \u200b\u200band closely related Dardic languages) in Indo-Iranian languages, one of the branches of Indo-European languages. Distributed in South Asia: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal; outside this region - Romani languages, Domari and Parya (Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is about 1 billion people. (estimate, 2007).
| Indo-Iranian (Aryan) languages |
| Nuristani |
| Ethnic groups |
| Indo-Aryans Iranians Dards Nuristanis |
| Religions |
| Pro-Indo-Iranian religion Vedic religion Hindu Kush religion Hinduism Buddhism Zoroastrianism |
| Ancient literature |
| Vedas Avesta |
Classification
Until now, there is no generally accepted classification of the New Indian languages. The first attempts were made in the 1880s. by the German linguist A.F.R. Hoernle. The most famous were the classification of the Anglo-Irish linguist J. A. Grierson and the Indian linguist S. K. Chatterjee (1926).
Grierson's first classification (1920s), which was later rejected by most scholars, is based on the distinction between "external" (peripheral) languages \u200b\u200band "internal" (which should correspond to the early and late waves of migration of the Aryans to India, coming from the northwest) ... The "external" languages \u200b\u200bwere divided into northwestern (Lakhnda, Sindhi), southern (Marathi) and eastern (Oriya, Bihari, Bengali, Assamese) subgroups. "Internal" languages \u200b\u200bwere divided into 2 subgroups: central (Western Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Bhili, Khadeshi, Rajasthani) and Pahari (Nepali, central Pahari, Western Pahari). The intermediate subgroup (Mediate) includes Eastern Hindi. In the 1931 edition, a significantly revised version of this classification was presented, mainly due to the transfer of all languages, except Western Hindi, from the central to the intermediate group. At the same time, Ethnologue 2005 still adopts the oldest Grierson classification of the 1920s.
Later, their variants of the classification were proposed by Turner (1960), Katre (1965), Nigam (1972), Cardona (1974).
The most reasonable can be considered the division of the Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200bprimarily into the insular (Sinhalese and Maldivian languages) and the mainland sub-branches. The classifications of the latter differ among themselves mainly in the question of what should be included in the central group. The languages \u200b\u200bin the groups are listed below with a minimum composition of the central group.
Insular (Sinhalese) sub-branch Mainland sub-branch Central group minimum composition May also include Eastern Punjabi, Eastern Hindi, Fijian Hindi, Bihari, all Western and Northern groups in different classifications... Eastern group
- Assamo-Bengali subgroup
- rajbansi
- bishnupriya (bishnupriya-manipuri)
- Bihar language (bihari): maithili, magahi, bhojpuri, sadri, angika
- Halbi (khalebi)
- Eastern Hindi - intermediate between the eastern and central groups
- "Punjabi zone"
- eastern Punjabi (Punjabi) - close to Hindi
- lakhnda (western Punjabi, lendi): saraiki, hindko, khetrani
- gujuri (gojri)
- western plowman
- khandeshi
- ahirani
- pavri
- rajasthani - close to Hindi
- central Pahari: Kumauni and Garhwali
- nepali (Eastern Pahari)
- lomavren (the language of the Armenian Gypsies Bosha)
At the same time, the languages \u200b\u200bof Rajasthani, Zap. and east. Hindi and Bihari are included in the so-called. "Hindi Belt".
Periodization
Ancient indian languages
The oldest period in the development of the Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200bis represented by the Vedic language (the language of the cult, which was supposedly functioning conditionally from the 12th century BC) and Sanskrit in several of its literary varieties (epic (3rd-2nd centuries BC), epigraphic (first centuries A.D.), classical Sanskrit (flourishing in the 4th-5th centuries A.D.)).
Some Indo-Aryan words belonging to a dialect other than Vedic (names of gods, kings, horse-breeding terms) have been attested since the 15th century BC. e. in t. n. Mitannian Aryan by several dozen glosses in Hurrian documents from the Northern Mesopotamia (kingdom of Mitanni). A number of researchers attribute Kassite to the extinct Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200b(from the point of view of L. S. Klein, it could be identical to the Mitannian Aryan). In addition, there are a number of hypotheses according to which the dialects of some peoples of the northern Black Sea region of the era of antiquity, in particular, the dialects of the Taurians and Meots, belonged to the Indo-Aryan languages.
Central Indian languages
The Middle Indian period is represented by numerous languages \u200b\u200band dialects that were in use orally, and then in writing from the middle. 1st millennium BC e. Of these, the most archaic Pali (the language of the Buddhist Canon), followed by the Prakrites (the Prakrites of inscriptions are more archaic) and Apabhransha (dialects that developed by the middle of the 1st millennium AD as a result of the development of the Prakrites and are a transitional link to the New Indian languages ).
New Indian period
The New Indian period begins after the X century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages \u200b\u200band a large number of dialects, sometimes very different from each other.
Areal connections
Literature
- Elizarenkova T. Ya. Research on the diachronic phonology of the Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1974.
- Zograf GA Morphological structure of the new Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1976.
- Zograf G.A. Languages \u200b\u200bof India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Nepal, M. 1960.
- Trubachev O. N. Indoarica in the Northern Black Sea region. M., 1999.
- Chatterjee S.K. An Introduction to Indo-Aryan Linguistics. M., 1977.
- Languages \u200b\u200bof Asia and Africa. T. 1: Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1976.
- Languages \u200b\u200bof the World: Indo-Aryan Languages \u200b\u200bof Ancient and Middle Periods. M., 2004.
- Bailey T. G. Studies in North Indian languages. L., 1938.
- Beames, John. A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages \u200b\u200bof India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. V. 1-3. London: Trübner, 1872-1879.
- Bloch J. Indo-Aryan from the Vedas to modern times. P., 1965.
- Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan Languages \u200b\u200b// Encyclopedia Britannica, 15.1974.
- Chatterji, Suniti Kumar: The Origin and Development of Bengali Language. Calcutta, 1926.
- Deshpande, Madhav. Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers, 1979. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
- Erdosy, George. The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1995. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
- Grierson, George A. Linguistic survey of India (LSI). Vol. I-XI. Calcutta, 1903-28. Reprint Delhi 1968.
- Grierson, George A. On the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars. Delhi, 1931-33.
- Hoernle R. A comparative grammar of the Gaudian languages. L., 1880.
- Jain, Dhanesh; Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan languages. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
- Katre, S. M .: Some Problems of Historical Linguistics in Indo-Aryan. Poona 1965.
- Kobayashi, Masato; Cardona, George. Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages \u200b\u200band Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2004. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
- Masica, Colin P. The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-23420-4.
- Misra, Satya Swarup. The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1-2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan, 1991-1993.
- Nigam, R.C .: Language Handbook on Mother Tongue in Census. New Delhi 1972.
- Sen, Sukumar. Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages \u200b\u200band Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1995.
- Turner, R.L .: Some Problems of Sound Change of Indo-Aryan. Poona 1960.
- Vacek, Jaroslav. The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University, 1976.
- Roland Bielmeier: Sprachkontakte nördlich und südlich des Kaukasus in: Roland Bielmeier, Reinhard Stempel (Hrsg.) Indogermanica et Caucasica: Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag Berlin / New York 1994, S. 427-44.
- Trubachev O. N. Indoarica in the Northern Black Sea Region: Reconstruction of the relics of the tongue. Etymological Dictionary... M., 1999.
Dictionaries
- Turner R. L. A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages, L., 1962-69.
INDIAN LANGUAGES
(Aryan languages) - a branch of the Indo-European family of languages \u200b\u200b(see. Indo-European languages), splitting into Indian (Indo-Aryan) languages \u200b\u200band Iranian languages; it also includes the Dardic languages \u200b\u200band the Nuristan languages. The total number of speakers is 850 million. I. I. is genetic. a concept motivated by the presence of Indo-Iranians. linguistic community that preceded the disintegration into separate. group and preserved a number of common archaisms related to Indo-Europeans. era. It is very likely that the core of this community was formed back in the southern Rus. steppes (as evidenced by archaeological finds in Ukraine, traces of linguistic contacts with the Finno-Ugric peoples, which most likely took place north of the Caspian Sea, Aryan traces in toponymy and hydronymics of Tavria, Northern Black Sea region, etc.) and continued develop during the period of coexistence in Wed. Asia or the surrounding areas. Comparative-ist. grammar reconstructs for these languages \u200b\u200ba common initial system of phonemes, a common vocabulary, common system morphology and word formation and even general syntactic. features. So, in phonetics for I. i. characteristic is the coincidence of Indo-European * l, * 5, * i in Indo-Iranian a, reflection of Indo-European * e in Indo-Iranian i, transition of Indo-European * s after i, u, r, k into s-shaped sound; in morphology, a basically identical declension system of a name is developed, and a number of specifics are formed. verb formations, etc. General lexicon. composition includes names key concepts Indo-Iran. culture (primarily in the field of mythology), religion, social institutions, objects material culture , have that confirms the presence of in-doirans. community. The common thing is self-monazv. * agua- reflected in many Iran. and ind. ethnic terms on a huge territory. (the name of the modern state of Iran originated from the form of this word). The oldest id. II Iran. the monuments of the ChRig Veda "and the Chavesta" in their most archaic parts are so close to each other that they can be considered as two versions of one source text. Further migrations of the Aryans led to the division of the Indo-Israelites. branches of languages \u200b\u200binto 2 groups, the separation of which began with the entry into the North-West. India of modern ancestors. Indo-Arynians. Linguistic traces have survived from one of the earlier waves of migration - Aryan words in the languages \u200b\u200bof Minor and Western Asia since 1500 BC. e. (nmen of gods, kings and nobility, horse breeding terminology), the so-called. Mitannian Aryan (belonging to the Indian group, but not fully explicable from the Vedic language). The Indo-Aryan group was in the plural. relations are more conservative than Iranian. Some archaisms of Indo-Europeans and Indo-Iranians are better preserved in it. eras, while Iran. the group has undergone a number of significant changes. In phonetics, these are changes primarily in the field of consonantism: spirantization of voiceless stops, loss of aspirated consonants, transition from s to h. In morphology, this is a simplification of the complex ancient inflectional paradigm of a name and a verb, primarily in Old Persian. lang. Dr.-Ind. languages \u200b\u200bare represented by Vedic language, Sanskrit, as well as a certain number of Mitannian Aryan words; Wed-Indian - Pali, prakritami, apa-bhransha; new Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200b- Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Sinhalese, Maldivian, Gypsy, and others. Other Iranian. languages \u200b\u200bare represented by Avestan, ancient Persian (the language of the Achaemenid inscriptions), as well as by words in Greek. transmission in Scythian and Indian (one can judge some phonetic features of these languages). To Wed-Iran. The languages \u200b\u200binclude Middle Persian, (Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khorezm, Saka languages \u200b\u200b(dialects), Oaktrnian (first of all, the language of the inscription in Surkh-kotal). To the new Iranian. languages \u200b\u200binclude Persian, Tajik, Pashto (Afghan), Ossetian, Kurdish, Baluch, Gilan, Maeanderan, Tat, Talysh, Parachi, Ormuri, Yagnob, Mundzhan, Yidga, Pamir (Shug-Nan, Rushan, Bartangian, , Sarykol, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Vakhan) and others. And I. distributed in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq (north. districts), Turkey (eastern districts), the USSR (in Tajikistan, the Caucasus, etc.). They are characterized by a number of common trends, which indicates a common typology of the development of these two groups of languages. The ancient inflection of a name and a verb has been almost completely lost. In the nominal paradigm 190 INDOLOGY, instead of the multi-relational inflectional declension system, an opposition of direct and indirect forms is developed, accompanied by official words: postpositions or prepositions (only in Iranian languages), i.e. analytic. way of expressing grammatical. values. In a number of languages \u200b\u200bbased on these analytic. constructions, a new agglutinative case inflection is formed (Eastern type of Ind. languages, among Iranian - Ossetian, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran). In the system of verb forms, complex analytic becomes widespread. constructions that convey the values \u200b\u200bof the type and time, analytic. passive, analytic word formation. In a number of languages, new synthetics are being formed. contracted verb forms, in which the service words are analytic. constructions acquire the status of morphemes (in Ind. languages, primarily in languages \u200b\u200bof the eastern type, this process went further, in Iranian it is observed only in the common speech of many living languages). In the syntax for new I. i. there is a tendency to fix. word order and, for many of them, to ergativity in its various versions. General phonological. trend in modern. languages \u200b\u200bof these two groups is the loss of phonological. status of quantities, opposition of vowels, strengthening the meaning of rhythmic. word structures (sequences of long and short syllables), very weak character of dynamich. verbal stress and the special role of phrasal intonation. The Dardic languages \u200b\u200bconstitute a special intermediate group of Indo-Iranians. language branch. Scientists have no consensus regarding their status. R.B.Shaw, S. Konov, J.A. Greerson (in his early works) saw in dard. languages \u200b\u200bIran. basis, noting their special affinity with the Pamir. G. Mor-genstierne generally refers them to the Indus. languages, like R.L. Turner. Grierson (in his later works), D.I. Edelman consider them to be independent, a group that occupies an intermediate place between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages. According to pl. damn dard. languages \u200b\u200bare included in the Central Asian language union. # Edelman D.I., Compare, East-Iranian grammar. languages. Phonology, M. 1986; see also lit. under the articles Indian (Indo-Aryan languages), Iranian languages, Dardic languages, Nuristan languages. T. Ya. Elizarenkova. Materials, after eating, research I. Ya., Except for general linguistic. journals (see. Linguistic journals) are published in specializir. journals in a number of countries: "Indische Bibliothek" (Bonn, 1820-30), "Indische Stu-dien" (V. - Lpz., 1850-98). Zeitschrift fur Indologie und Iranistik (Lpz., 1922-36), Indo-Iranian Journal (The Hague, 1957—), “Indological Studies. Journal of the Department of Sanskrit" (Delhi, 1972—), " Studia Iranica "(P., 1972-)," Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik "(Reinbeck, Germany. 1975-). E. A. Chelimsky.
Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. 2012
See also the interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what the INDIAN LANGUAGES are in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- INDIAN LANGUAGES in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- INDIAN LANGUAGES
languages, a special branch of the Indo-European family of languages, including the Indian (Indo-Aryan) Iranian and Dardic languages. Combining these three groups of languages \u200b\u200binto ... - INDIAN LANGUAGES in the Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
a special branch of the Indo-European language family, including Indian (Indo-Aryan), Iranian and Dardic ... - LANGUAGES
WORKING LANGUAGES - see OFFICIAL AND WORKING LANGUAGES ... - LANGUAGES in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
OFFICIAL - see OFFICIAL AND WORKING LANGUAGES ... - LANGUAGES
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES, formal languages \u200b\u200bfor describing data (information) and an algorithm (program) for their processing on a computer. The basis of Ya.p. make up algorithmic languages \u200b\u200b... - LANGUAGES in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD, languages \u200b\u200bof the peoples inhabiting (and inhabiting earlier) the globe. The total number is from 2.5 to 5 thousand (set the exact figure ... - INDIAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
INDOORIAN LANGUAGES, a special branch of the Indo-European family. languages, including Ind. (Indo-Aryan), Iran., Dard and Nuristan ... - IRANIAN LANGUAGES
- a group of languages \u200b\u200bbelonging to the Indo-Iranian branch (see. Indo-Iranian languages) of the Indo-European family of languages \u200b\u200b(see. Indo-European languages). Distributed in Iran, Afghanistan, some ... - INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
—One of the largest families of languages \u200b\u200bin Eurasia, which has spread over the past five centuries also in North. and Yuzh. America, Australia and ... - LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD in big soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
the world, the languages \u200b\u200bof the peoples inhabiting (and inhabiting earlier) the globe. The total number of nuclear materials is from 2500 to 5000 (the exact figure ... - ROMAN LANGUAGES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
languages \u200b\u200b(from Latin romanus - Roman), a group of related languages \u200b\u200bbelonging to the Indo-European family (see Indo-European languages) and originating from Latin ... - LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia.
- LANGUAGES OF THE PEOPLES OF THE USSR in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- the languages \u200b\u200bspoken by the peoples living on the territory of the USSR. In the USSR, approx. 130 languages \u200b\u200bof the country's indigenous peoples living ... - LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary.
- FINNO-UGORSKIAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a family of languages \u200b\u200bthat is part of a larger genetic group of languages \u200b\u200bcalled the Uralic languages. Before it was proven genetic. kinship ... - URAL LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
—A large genetic association of languages, including 2 families - Fiyio-Ugric (see Finno-Ugric languages) and Samoyed (see Samoyed languages; some scientists are considering ... - SUDAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a classification term used in African studies in the 1st half. 20th century and defined the languages \u200b\u200bspoken in the zone of geographical Sudan - ... - ROMAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a group of languages \u200b\u200bof the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages), related by a common descent from latin, general patterns development and, therefore, elements of structural ... - PALEOASIAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a conventionally defined linguistic community uniting genetically related Chukchi-Kamchatka languages, Eskimo-Aleutian languages, Yenisei languages, Yukagiri-Chuvan languages \u200b\u200band ... - OCEAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a part of the eastern "sub-branch" of the Malay-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian languages \u200b\u200b(some scholars are considered as a subfamily of the Austronesian languages). Distributed in the districts of Oceania, located to the east ... - KUSHITIAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a branch of the Afrasian family of languages \u200b\u200b(see Afrasian languages). Distributed to S.-V. and V. Africa. The total number of speakers is approx. 25.7 million people ... - ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- sign systems created for use in those areas where the use of a natural language is less effective or impossible. And I. differ ... - LINGUISTIC JOURNALS in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- periodicals devoted to issues of general, private and applied linguistics; they are joined by continuing editions (series) of a magazine character. Yaikovvedch. problematic ... - AFRASIAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Afro-Asian languages; obsolete - Semitic-Hamitic, or Hamito-Semitic, languages) - macrofamily of languages \u200b\u200bcommon in the north. parts of Africa from Atlantich. coast and Canary ... - AUSTRICIAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Av-Stroaeiatic languages) is a family of languages \u200b\u200bspoken by a part of the population (about 84 million people) of the South-East. and Yuzh. Asia, and also ... - AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
Is one of the largest language families. Distributed in the Malay arch. (Indonesia, Philippines), Malacca Peninsula, in the yek-ryh south. districts of Indochina, in ... - TURKISH LANGUAGES in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- the family of languages \u200b\u200bspoken numerous peoples n nationalities of the USSR, Turtsinn, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia ... - VEDIAN MYTHOLOGY
a set of mythological concepts of the Vedic Aryans (who invaded northwestern India in the 2nd millennium BC and gradually settled in the east ... - AMESHA SPENTA in the Handbook of Characters and Cult Objects of Greek Mythology:
(avest., "immortal saints") Amshaspand (middle Pers.), in Iranian mythology, six or seven deities, the closest circle of the supreme deity Ahuramazda. Early texts depict ... - ARYAN RACE in the Encyclopedia of the Third Reich:
A pseudo-scientific term coined in the mid-19th century by the authors of reactionary racial theories. The falsity of the term lies in the confusion of the concepts of linguistic and racial ... - USSR. SOCIAL SCIENCES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
science Philosophy Being integral part of world philosophy, the philosophical thought of the peoples of the USSR has passed a long and difficult historical path. In the spiritual ... - USSR. POPULATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
The population of the USSR in 1976 was 6.4% of the world population. The population of the territory of the USSR (within modern borders) changed as follows (million people): 86.3 ... - NURISTANTS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
the main population of Nuristan is in Afghanistan, some also live in Chitral in Pakistan. They consist of a number of tribes (Kati, Prasun, Vaigali, Ashkuni, ...
The total number of speakers is 850 million. Indo-Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare a genetic concept motivated by the presence of the Indo-Iranian linguistic community, which preceded the disintegration into separate groups and retained a number of common archaisms related to the Indo-European era. It is very likely that the core of this community was formed back in the southern Russian steppes (as evidenced by archaeological finds in Ukraine, traces of linguistic contacts with the Finno-Ugric peoples, which most likely took place north of the Caspian Sea, Aryan traces in toponymy and hydronymics of Tavria, the Northern Black Sea region and others) and continued to develop during the period of coexistence in Central Asia or in the adjacent territories.
Comparative-historical grammar reconstructs for these languages \u200b\u200ba common initial system of phonemes, a common vocabulary, a common system of morphology and word formation, and even common syntactic features. So, in phonetics, Indo-Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare characterized by the coincidence of Indo-European * ē̆, * ō̆, * ā̆ in Indo-Iranian ā̆, reflection of Indo-European * ə in Indo-Iranian i, transition of Indo-European * s after i, u, r, k to š-shaped sound; in morphology, a basically identical declension system of a name is developed and a number of specific verbal formations are formed, etc. The general lexical composition includes the names of key concepts of Indo-Iranian culture (primarily in the field of mythology), religion, social institutions, objects of material culture, names, which confirms the presence of the Indo-Iranian community. The common name is * arya-, reflected in many Iranian and Indian ethnic terms on vast territory (the name of the modern state of Iran comes from the form of this word). The most ancient Indian and Iranian monuments "Rigveda" and "Avesta" in their most archaic parts are so close to each other that they can be considered as two versions of one source text. Further migrations of the Aryans led to the division of the Indo-Iranian branch of languages \u200b\u200binto 2 groups, the separation of which began with the entry of the ancestors of the modern Indo-Aryans into northwestern India. Linguistic traces have survived from one of the earlier waves of migration - Aryan words in the languages \u200b\u200bof Asia Minor and Western Asia from 1500 BC. e. (names of gods, kings and nobles, horse-breeding terminology), the so-called Mitannian Aryan (belonging to the Indian group, but not fully explained from the Vedic language).
The Indo-Aryan group proved to be more conservative in many respects than the Iranian. In it, some archaisms of the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian eras are better preserved, while the Iranian group has undergone a number of significant changes. In phonetics, these are changes primarily in the field of consonantism: spirantization of voiceless stops, loss of aspiration of consonants, transition from s to h. In morphology, this is a simplification of the complex ancient inflectional paradigm of a name and a verb, primarily in the ancient Persian language.
Ancient Indian languages \u200b\u200bare represented by Vedic language, Sanskrit, as well as a number of Mitannian Aryan words; Middle Indian - Pali, Prakrit, Apabhransha; new Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200b- Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Sinhalese, Maldivian, Gypsy and others.
Ancient Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare represented by Avestan, Old Persian (the language of Achaemenid inscriptions), as well as by individual words in Greek transmission in Scythian and Median (one can judge about some phonetic features of these languages). Middle Iranian languages \u200b\u200binclude Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Saka languages \u200b\u200b(dialects), Bactrian (first of all, the language of the inscription in Surkhkotal). New Iranian languages \u200b\u200binclude Persian, Tajik, Pashto (Afghan), Ossetian, Kurdish, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran, Tat, Talysh, Parachi, Ormuri, Yagnob, Mundzhan, Yidga, Pamir (Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, , Ishkashim, Vakhan) and others.
Modern Indo-Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare widespread in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq (northern regions), Turkey (eastern regions), USSR (Tajikistan, the Caucasus, etc.). They are characterized by a number of common trends, which testifies to the common typology of the development of these two groups of languages. The ancient inflection of a name and a verb has been almost completely lost. In the nominal paradigm, instead of the multi-relational inflectional declension system, an opposition of direct and indirect forms is developed, accompanied by official words: postpositions or prepositions (only in Iranian languages), that is, an analytical way of expressing grammatical meaning. In a number of languages, on the basis of these analytical constructions, a new agglutinative case inflection is formed (the eastern type of Indian languages, among Iranian - Ossetian, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran). In the system of verb forms, complex analytical constructions that convey the meanings of type and time, analytical passive, analytical word formation are becoming widespread. In a number of languages, new synthetic contracted verb forms are formed, in which the official words of analytical constructions acquire the status of morphemes (in Indian languages, primarily in languages \u200b\u200bof the oriental type, this process has gone further, in Iranian it is observed only in the spoken language of many living languages). In the syntax for the new Indo-Iranian languages, there is a tendency towards a fixed word order, and for many of them - towards ergativity in its different variants. The general phonological trend in the modern languages \u200b\u200bof these two groups is the loss of the phonological status of the quantitative opposition of vowels, the strengthening of the meaning of the rhythmic structure of the word (a sequence of long and short syllables), the very weak nature of the dynamic verbal stress and the special role of phrasal intonation.
The Dardic languages \u200b\u200bconstitute a special intermediate group of the Indo-Iranian language branch. Scientists have no consensus regarding their status. RB Shaw, S. Konov, JA Grierson (in early works) saw the Iranian basis in the Dard languages, noting their special closeness to the Pamir. G. Morgenstierne generally refers them to the Indian languages, as does R.L. Turner. Grierson (in his later works), D.I. Edelman consider them an independent group that occupies an intermediate place between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages. In many ways, the Dardic languages \u200b\u200bare included in the Central Asian language union.
- EdelmanDI, Comparative grammar of Eastern Iranian languages. Phonology, M., 1986;
- see also literature under the articles Indian (Indo-Aryan) languages, Iranian languages, Dardic languages, Nuristan languages.
T. Ya. Elizarenkova.
Materials devoted to the study of Indo-Iranian languages, in addition to general linguistic journals (see Linguistic journals), are published in specialized journals in a number of countries:
- Indische Bibliothek (Bonn, 1820-30),
- "Indische Studien" (B. - Lpz., 1850-98),
- "Zeitschrift für Indologie und Iranistik" (Lpz., 1922-36),
- Indo-Iranian Journal (The Hague, 1957-),
- Indological Studies: Journal of the Department of Sanskrit (Delhi, 1972-),
- Studia Iranica (P., 1972-),
- Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik (Reinbek, Germany, 1975-).
indo-Iranian languages
(Aryan languages) - a branch of the Indo-European family of languages \u200b\u200b(see Indo-European languages), splitting up into Indian (Indo-Aryan) languages \u200b\u200band Iranian languages; it also includes the Dardic languages \u200b\u200band the Nuristan languages. The total number of speakers is 850 million. Indo-Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare a genetic concept motivated by the presence of the Indo-Iranian linguistic community, which preceded the disintegration into separate groups and retained a number of common archaisms related to the Indo-European era. It is very likely that the core of this community was formed in the southern Russian steppes (as evidenced by archaeological finds in Ukraine, traces of linguistic contacts with the Finno-Ugric peoples, which took place, most likely, north of the Caspian Sea, Aryan traces in toponymy and hydronymics of Tavria, the Northern Black Sea region and others) and continued to develop during the period of coexistence in Central Asia or adjacent territories.
Comparative-historical grammar reconstructs for these languages \u200b\u200ba common initial system of phonemes, a common vocabulary, a common system of morphology and word formation, and even common syntactic features. So, in phonetics, Indo-Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare characterized by the coincidence of Indo-European * ē̆, * ō̆, * ā̆ in Indo-Iranian ā̆, reflection of Indo-European * ə in Indo-Iranian i, transition of Indo-European * s after i, u, r, k to š-shaped sound; in morphology, a basically identical declension system of a name is developed and a number of specific verb formations are formed, etc. The general lexical composition includes the names of key concepts of Indo-Iranian culture (primarily in the field of mythology), religion, social institutions, objects of material culture, names, which confirms the presence of the Indo-Iranian community. The common name is * arya-, which is reflected in many Iranian and Indian ethnic terms over a vast territory (the name of the modern state of Iran originated from the form of this word). The most ancient Indian and Iranian monuments "Rigveda" and "Avesta" in their most archaic parts are so close to each other that they can be considered as two versions of one source text. Further migrations of the Aryans led to the division of the Indo-Iranian branch of languages \u200b\u200binto 2 groups, the separation of which began with the entry of the ancestors of the modern Indo-Aryans into northwestern India. Linguistic traces have been preserved from one of the earlier waves of migration - Aryan words in the languages \u200b\u200bof Asia Minor and Western Asia from 1500 BC. e. (names of gods, kings and nobles, horse-breeding terminology), the so-called Mitannian Aryan (belonging to the Indian group, but not fully explained from the Vedic language).
The Indo-Aryan group turned out to be more conservative in many respects than the Iranian. Some archaisms of the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian eras are better preserved in it, while the Iranian group has undergone a number of significant changes. In phonetics, these are changes primarily in the field of consonantism: spirantization of voiceless stops, loss of aspirated consonants, transition from s to h. In morphology, this is a simplification of the complex ancient inflectional paradigm of a name and a verb, primarily in the ancient Persian language.
Ancient Indian languages \u200b\u200bare represented by Vedic language, Sanskrit, as well as a number of Mitannian Aryan words; Middle Indian - Pali, Prakrit, Apabhransha; new Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200b- Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Sinhalese, Maldivian, Gypsy and others.
Ancient Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare represented by Avestan, Old Persian (the language of Achaemenid inscriptions), as well as by individual words in Greek transmission in Scythian and Median (one can judge about some phonetic features of these languages). Middle Iranian languages \u200b\u200binclude Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Saka languages \u200b\u200b(dialects), Bactrian (first of all, the language of the inscription in Surkhkotal). New Iranian languages \u200b\u200binclude Persian, Tajik, Pashto (Afghan), Ossetian, Kurdish, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran, Tati, Talysh, Parachi, Ormuri, Yagnob, Mundzhan, Yidga, Pamir (Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Somaryz , Ishkashim, Vakhan) and others.
Modern Indo-Iranian languages \u200b\u200bare widespread in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq (northern regions), Turkey (eastern regions), USSR (Tajikistan, the Caucasus, etc.). They are characterized by a number of common trends, which indicates a common typology of the development of these two groups of languages. The ancient inflection of a name and a verb has been almost completely lost. In the nominal paradigm, instead of the multi-relational inflectional declension system, an opposition is developed between direct and indirect forms, accompanied by official words: postpositions or prepositions (only in Iranian languages), that is, an analytical way of expressing grammatical meaning. In a number of languages, on the basis of these analytical constructions, a new agglutinative case inflection is formed (the eastern type of Indian languages, among Iranian - Ossetian, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran). In the system of verb forms, complex analytical constructions that convey the meanings of type and time, analytical passive, analytical word formation are becoming widespread. In a number of languages, new synthetic contracted verb forms are formed, in which the official words of analytical constructions acquire the status of morphemes (in Indian languages, primarily in languages \u200b\u200bof the eastern type, this process has gone further, in Iranian it is observed only in the colloquial speech of many living languages). In the syntax for the new Indo-Iranian languages, there is a tendency towards a fixed word order, and for many of them - towards ergativity in its various variants. The general phonological trend in modern languages these two groups are the loss of the phonological status of the quantitative opposition of vowels, the strengthening of the meaning of the rhythmic structure of the word (the sequence of long and short syllables), the very weak nature of the dynamic verbal stress and the special role of phrasal intonation.
The Dardic languages \u200b\u200bconstitute a special intermediate group of the Indo-Iranian language branch. Scientists have no consensus regarding their status. R.B.Shaw, S. Konov, J.A. Grierson (in his early works) saw an Iranian basis in the Dardic languages, noting their special closeness to the Pamir. G. Morgenstierne generally refers them to the Indian languages, as does R.L. Turner. Grierson (in later works), D.I. Edelman consider them to be an independent group that occupies an intermediate place between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages. In many ways, the Dardic languages \u200b\u200bare included in the Central Asian language union.
Edelman D.I., Comparative grammar of Eastern Iranian languages. Phonology, M., 1986; see also literature under the articles Indian (Indo-Aryan) languages, Iranian languages, Dardic languages, Nuristan languages.
T. Ya. Elizarenkova.
Materials devoted to the study of Indo-Iranian languages, in addition to general linguistic journals (see Linguistic journals), are published in specialized journals in a number of countries:
Indische Bibliothek (Bonn, 1820-30), Indische Studien (B. - Lpz., 1850-98), Zeitschrift für Indologie und Iranistik (Lpz., 1922-36), Indo-Iranian Journal (The Hague, 1957-), “Indological Studies: Journal of the Department of Sanskrit” (Delhi, 1972-), “Studia Iranica” (P., 1972-), “Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik” (Reinbek, Germany, 1975-).
Sanskrit)Ancient Iranian
(Avestan Old Persian)
|
Indo-Europeans |
|---|
| Indo-European languages |
| Anatolian Albanian Armenian Baltic Venetian Germanic Greek Illyrian Aryan: Nuristani, Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dardic Italian (Romanesque) Celtic Paleo-Balkan Slavic Tokharian in italics dead language groups highlighted |
| Indo-Europeans |
| Albanians Armenians Balts Veneta · Teutons · Greeks Illyrians Iranians Indo-Aryans Italics (Romance) Celts Cimmerians Slavs Tokhars Thracians · Hittites in italics highlighted nowadays non-existent communities |
| Proto-Indo-Europeans |
| Language Ancestral home Religion |
| Indo-European Studies |
Classification
Until now, there is no generally accepted classification of the New Indian languages. The first attempts were made in the 1880s. by the German linguist A.F.R. Hoernle. The most famous were the classification of the Anglo-Irish linguist J. A. Grierson and the Indian linguist S. K. Chatterjee (1926).
Grierson's first classification (1920s), which was later rejected by most scholars, is based on the distinction between "external" (peripheral) languages \u200b\u200band "internal" (which should correspond to the early and late waves of migration of the Aryans to India, coming from the northwest) ... The "external" languages \u200b\u200bwere divided into northwestern (Lakhnda, Sindhi), southern (Marathi) and eastern (Oriya, Bihari, Bengali, Assamese) subgroups. "Internal" languages \u200b\u200bwere divided into 2 subgroups: central (Western Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Bhili, Khadeshi, Rajasthani) and Pahari (Nepali, central Pahari, Western Pahari). The intermediate subgroup (Mediate) includes Eastern Hindi. In the 1931 edition, a significantly revised version of this classification was presented, mainly due to the transfer of all languages, except Western Hindi, from the central to the intermediate group. At the same time, Ethnologue 2005 still adopts the oldest Grierson classification of the 1920s.
Later, their variants of the classification were proposed by Turner (1960), Katre (1965), Nigam (1972), Cardona (1974).
The most reasonable can be considered the division of the Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200bprimarily into the insular (Sinhalese and Maldivian languages) and the mainland sub-branches. The classifications of the latter differ among themselves mainly in the question of what should be included in the central group. The languages \u200b\u200bin the groups are listed below with a minimum composition of the central group.
Insular (Sinhalese) sub-branch Mainland sub-branch Central group minimum composition May also include Eastern Punjabi, Eastern Hindi, Fijian Hindi, Bihari, all Western and Northern groups in different classifications... Eastern group
- Assamo-Bengali subgroup
- bishnupriya (bishnupriya-manipuri)
- Bihar language (bihari): maithili, magahi, bhojpuri, sadri, angika
- Halbi (khalebi)
- Eastern Hindi - intermediate between the eastern and central groups
- "Punjabi zone"
- eastern Punjabi (Punjabi) - close to Hindi
- lakhnda (western Punjabi, lendi): saraiki, hindko, khetrani
- gujuri (gojri)
- rajasthani - close to Hindi
- central Pahari: Kumauni and Garhwali
- nepali (Eastern Pahari)
- lomavren (the language of the Armenian Gypsies Bosha)
At the same time, the languages \u200b\u200bof Rajasthani, Zap. and east. Hindi and Bihari are included in the so-called. "Hindi Belt".
Periodization
Ancient indian languages
The oldest period in the development of Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200bis represented by the Vedic language (the language of the cult, which functioned tentatively from the 12th century BC) and Sanskrit in several of its literary varieties [epic (3rd-2nd centuries BC), epigraphic (the first century AD), classical Sanskrit (flourishing in the 4th-5th centuries AD)].
Some Indo-Aryan words belonging to a dialect other than Vedic (names of gods, kings, horse-breeding terms) are attested since the 15th century BC. e. in t. n. Mitannian Aryan by several dozen glosses in Hurrian documents from the Northern Mesopotamia (kingdom of Mitanni). A number of researchers also attribute Kassite to the extinct Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200b(from the point of view of L. S. Klein, it could be identical to the Mitannian Aryan).
Central Indian languages
The Middle Indian period is represented by numerous languages \u200b\u200band dialects that were in use orally, and then in writing from the middle. 1st millennium BC e. Of these, the most archaic Pali (the language of the Buddhist Canon), followed by the Prakrites (the Prakrites of inscriptions are more archaic) and Apabhransha (dialects that developed by the middle of the 1st millennium AD as a result of the development of the Prakrites and are a transitional link to the New Indian languages ).
New Indian period
The New Indian period begins after the X century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages \u200b\u200band a large number of dialects, sometimes very different from each other.
Areal connections
In the west and north-west they border on Iranian (Baluch, Pashto) and Dardic languages, in the north and north-east - with Tibeto-Burmese languages, in the east - with a number of Tibeto-Burmese and Mon-Khmer languages, in the south - with Dravidian languages \u200b\u200b(Telugu, Kannada). In India, the array of Indo-Aryan languages \u200b\u200bis interspersed with linguistic islands of other linguistic groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, Dravidian, etc.).
see also
Write a review on the article "Indo-Aryan languages"
Literature
- Elizarenkova T. Ya. Research on the diachronic phonology of the Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1974.
- Zograf GA Morphological structure of the new Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1976.
- Zograf G.A. Languages \u200b\u200bof India. Pakistan. Ceylon and Nepal, M. 1960.
- Trubachev O. N. Indoarica in the Northern Black Sea Region. M., 1999.
- Chatterjee S.K. An Introduction to Indo-Aryan Linguistics. M., 1977.
- Languages \u200b\u200bof Asia and Africa. T. 1: Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1976.
- Languages \u200b\u200bof the World: Indo-Aryan Languages \u200b\u200bof Ancient and Middle Periods. M., 2004.
- Bailey T. G. Studies in North Indian languages. L., 1938.
- Beames, John. A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages \u200b\u200bof India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. V. 1-3. London: Trübner, 1872-1879.
- Bloch J. Indo-Aryan from the Vedas to modern times. P., 1965.
- Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan Languages \u200b\u200b// Encyclopedia Britannica, 15.1974.
- Chatterji, Suniti Kumar: The Origin and Development of Bengali Language. Calcutta, 1926.
- Deshpande, Madhav. Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers, 1979. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
- Erdosy, George. The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1995. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
- Grierson, George A. Linguistic survey of India (LSI). Vol. I-XI. Calcutta, 1903-28. Reprint Delhi 1968.
- Grierson, George A. On the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars. Delhi, 1931-33.
- Hoernle R. A comparative grammar of the Gaudian languages. L., 1880.
- Jain, Dhanesh; Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan languages. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
- Katre, S. M .: Some Problems of Historical Linguistics in Indo-Aryan. Poona 1965.
- Kobayashi, Masato; Cardona, George. Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages \u200b\u200band Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2004. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
- Masica, Colin P. The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-23420-4.
- Misra, Satya Swarup. The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1-2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan, 1991-1993.
- Nigam, R.C .: Language Handbook on Mother Tongue in Census. New Delhi 1972.
- Sen, Sukumar. Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages \u200b\u200band Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1995.
- Turner, R.L .: Some Problems of Sound Change of Indo-Aryan. Poona 1960.
- Vacek, Jaroslav. The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University, 1976.
- Turner R. L. A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages, L., 1962-69.
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||
An excerpt characterizing the Indo-Aryan languages
and be nice ...]- But it's also foldable. Well, well, Zaletaev! ..
- Kyu ... - with an effort uttered Zaletaev. - Kyu yu yu ... - he stretched out, diligently protruding his lips, - letriptala, de boo de ba and detravagala, - he sang.
- Ay, important! That's a guardian! oh ... go go go! - Well, you still want to eat?
- Give him some porridge; After all, it will not soon be full of hunger.
They gave him porridge again; and Morel, chuckling, set to work on the third pot. Joyful smiles were on all the faces of the young soldiers who looked at Morel. The old soldiers, who considered it indecent to engage in such trifles, lay on the other side of the fire, but from time to time, propping themselves up on their elbows, looked at Morel with a smile.
“People, too,” said one of them, dodging his overcoat. - And wormwood grows on its root.
- Oo! Lord, Lord! How stellar passion! By the frost ... - And everything was quiet.
The stars, as if knowing that now no one would see them, played out in the black sky. Either flashing, now dying out, now shuddering, they busily whispered about something joyful, but mysterious among themselves.
X
The French troops gradually melted away in a mathematically correct progression. And that crossing over the Berezina, about which so much has been written, was only one of the intermediate stages of the destruction of the French army, and not at all a decisive episode of the campaign. If so much was written and written about Berezina, then on the part of the French it happened only because on the Berezinsky broken bridge, the disasters that the French army had suffered evenly before, suddenly grouped here in one moment and into one tragic spectacle that everyone remembered. On the part of the Russians, they talked and wrote so much about the Berezina only because, far from the theater of war, in St. Petersburg, a plan was drawn up (by Pfulm) to capture Napoleon in a strategic trap on the Berezina River. Everyone was convinced that everything would be in fact exactly as in the plan, and therefore insisted that it was the Berezinskaya crossing that killed the French. In essence, the results of the Berezinskaya crossing were much less disastrous for the French in the loss of guns and prisoners than Krasnoye, as the figures show.
The only meaning of the Berezinsky crossing is that this crossing obviously and undoubtedly proved the falsity of all plans for cutting off and the validity of the only possible course of action required by Kutuzov and all the troops (mass) - only to follow the enemy. The crowd of Frenchmen fled with an ever-increasing force of speed, with all the energy directed towards the goal. She ran like a wounded animal, and she could not stand on the road. This was proved not so much by the construction of the crossing as by the movement on the bridges. When the bridges were broken, unarmed soldiers, Moscow residents, women with children who were in the French train - everything, under the influence of inertia, did not give up, but ran forward into boats, into the frozen water.
This aspiration was reasonable. The position of both the fleeing and the pursuing was equally bad. Remaining with his own people, each in distress hoped for the help of a comrade, for a certain place he occupied among his own. Having surrendered himself to the Russians, he was in the same position of disaster, but he was on a lower level in the section of meeting the needs of life. The French did not need to have accurate information that half of the prisoners with whom they did not know what to do, despite all the Russians' desire to save them, were dying of cold and hunger; they felt it could not be otherwise. The most pitiful Russian commanders and hunters before the French, the French in the Russian service could not do anything for the prisoners. The French were destroyed by the calamity in which russian army... It was impossible to take away bread and clothes from hungry, necessary soldiers, so that they could not be given to the harmful, not hated, not guilty, but simply unnecessary French. Some have done it; but that was just an exception.
Nazadi was certain death; there was hope ahead. The ships were burned; there was no other salvation than a joint flight, and all the forces of the French were directed towards this joint flight.
The farther the French fled, the pity their remnants were, especially after the Berezina, on which, as a result of the Petersburg plan, special hopes were pinned, the more the passions flared up of the Russian leaders, who accused each other and especially Kutuzov. Believing that the failure of the Berezinsky Petersburg plan would be attributed to him, dissatisfaction with him, contempt for him and teasing over him were expressed more and more strongly. The teasing and contempt, of course, was expressed in a respectful form, in a form in which Kutuzov could not even ask what and for what he was accused. They did not speak to him seriously; reporting to him and asking for his permission, they pretended to perform a sad rite, and behind his back they winked and tried to deceive him at every step.
All these people, precisely because they could not understand him, recognized that there was nothing to talk to the old man; that he would never understand the profundity of their plans; that he would answer with his phrases (they thought they were just phrases) about the golden bridge, that it was impossible to come abroad with a crowd of vagabonds, and so on. They had already heard all this from him. And everything he said: for example, that you have to wait for food, that people without boots, it was all so simple, and everything they offered was so complicated and clever that it was obvious to them that he was stupid and old, but they were not imperious, brilliant generals.
Especially after the joining of the armies of the brilliant admiral and the hero of Petersburg, Wittgenstein, this mood and gossip from the staff reached the highest limits. Kutuzov saw this and, sighing, shrugged only his shoulders. Only once, after Berezina, he became angry and wrote to Bennigsen, who reported to the sovereign separately, the following letter:
"Due to your painful seizures, if you please, your Excellency, from this receipt, go to Kaluga, where you expect further orders and appointments from his imperial majesty."
But after Bennigsen's referral to the army came grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, who started the campaign and was removed from the army by Kutuzov. Now the Grand Duke, having arrived at the army, informed Kutuzov about the displeasure of the emperor for the weak successes of our troops and for the slowness of the movement. The Emperor himself the other day intended to come to the army.
An old man, as experienced in court affairs as in military affairs, that Kutuzov, who in August of the same year was elected commander-in-chief against the will of the sovereign, the one who removed the heir and the Grand Duke from the army, the one who, by his power, in opposition At the will of the sovereign, ordered the abandonment of Moscow, this Kutuzov now immediately realized that his time was over, that his role had been played and that he no longer had this imaginary power. And he understood this not only from court relations. On the one hand, he saw that military affairs, the one in which he played his role, was over, and felt that his calling was fulfilled. On the other hand, at the same time, he began to feel physically tired in his old body and the need for physical rest.
On November 29, Kutuzov drove into Vilna - his good Vilna, as he said. Twice in his service, Kutuzov was governor in Vilna. In the rich surviving Vilna, in addition to the comforts of life, which he had been deprived of for so long, Kutuzov found old friends and memories. And he, suddenly turning away from all military and state concerns, plunged into an even, familiar life as much as the passions boiling around him gave him peace, as if everything that was happening now and had to happen in the historical world did not concern him in the least.
Chichagov, one of the most passionate cut-off and overturners, Chichagov, who first wanted to sabotage Greece and then Warsaw, but did not want to go where he was ordered, Chichagov, known for his bold speech with the sovereign, Chichagov, who considered Kutuzov himself blessed, because when he was sent in the 11th year to conclude peace with Turkey besides Kutuzov, he, convinced that peace had already been concluded, admitted to the sovereign that the merit of concluding the peace belongs to Kutuzov; this then Chichagov first met Kutuzov in Vilna near the castle in which Kutuzov was supposed to stay. Chichagov in a naval uniform, with a dagger, holding his cap under his arm, gave Kutuzov a combat report and the keys to the city. That contemptuous respectful attitude of young people to an old man who was out of his mind was expressed in the highest degree in the entire appeal of Chichagov, who already knew the accusations against Kutuzov.