Lutheranism- one of the oldest Protestant movements in Christianity. The very emergence of the concept is connected with Lutheranism. Protestantism, since it was the Lutherans who began to be called Protestants after their protest in Speyer. It arose as a result of the reform movement in Germany in the 16th century, and then during the formation of the state churches of the Scandinavian countries. The basic principles of the doctrine of the Lutheran Church were formulated during the struggle of Martin Luther and his associates against the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, on the one hand, and more radical Protestant movements, on the other (Anabaptism, Calvinism, Zwinglianism, etc.).
naming
For the first time the term "Lutherans" was used by Johann Eck in 1520 in his polemic against Luther and his supporters. Moreover, this definition was used in a pejorative sense. Only over time the name acquired a neutral connotation. Luther rarely used it, it is not found in the Book of Concord. Even at the beginning of the 17th century, the term was not generally accepted - the theologian Philip Nicolai was surprised that German Protestants were called so in Holland. This name began to be used more widely only after the end of the Thirty Years' War. However, the terms "evangelical Christianity" and "evangelical Christians" are more correct.
Story
creed
Theology
Liturgical practice
Lutherans celebrate the Liturgy as the highest Divine service, including confession and absolution, with the blessings of the sign of St. cross, traditional liturgical chants (Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus, Agnus Dei).
Current state
More than 85 million people around the world identify themselves as Lutherans. However, due to geographical, historical and dogmatic reasons Lutheranism is not a single church. There are several large church associations that differ greatly in dogmatic and practical issues - Lutheran World Federation, International Lutheran Council, Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, and there are also a number of Lutheran denominations that are not members of any associations. Formally, the largest Lutheran denomination is currently the Church of Sweden (about 6.9 million people). Lutheranism is much less homogeneous than other groups of churches that recognize apostolic succession. Actually, in Lutheranism there is also a “high-church” direction, which considers itself (and not without reason) to be reformed Catholics.
Liberal denominations
The liberals, who formally make up the majority, consider belonging to the Evangelical Church a good tradition. Many of them do not attend or very rarely attend worship services. In some liberal communities, quite unusual worship services are sometimes held - for example, with the presence of pets (which is motivated by the community and value of all living beings). Most liberal denominations are united in the Lutheran World Federation. This association includes, among other things, the "old" state (or former state) Churches of the Old World. The liberal trend tries to include all people in the church, regardless of the biblical texts, the literal reading of which justifies the exclusion from the church of representatives of quite a few strata of modern society (the Church of Sweden turned out to be the most consistent in this regard). At the same time, it cannot be said that the liberals make up the majority in the VLF, nevertheless they are the most visible and influential.
Confessional denominations
Confessional Lutherans are more conservative, they do not recognize not only the female priesthood and same-sex marriage, but even intercommunion with Anglicans and Calvinists. In their polemics with liberals they appeal to the Bible and the Book of Concord. Most denominational churches are members of the International Lutheran Council. The most conservative are united in the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference.
Discussion questions
The subject of fierce debate are such innovations of liberal Lutheran denominations as the ordination of women (the Lutheran Maria Jepsen became the world's first female bishop) and the blessing of same-sex marriages, which are rejected by confessionals. Lutheran Bishop Gunnar Staalset criticized the position of Catholics who forbid the use of condoms.
Relations between Lutherans and other denominations
Lutherans, like other Protestants, were persecuted by the Catholic Church during the Counter-Reformation.
Lutheranism appeared on the territory of Russia in the 16th century, thanks to German settlers. In 1832, all movements and organizations of Lutheranism (with the exception of Finland and Poland proper) were merged into the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Russia (ELCR), which received a single charter, according to which the Russian emperor was the head of the church, but his non-interference in religious affairs was stipulated.
In Soviet times, the church was destroyed. In September, an Evangelical Lutheran community was registered in Latvia, first in the USSR and then in Estonia. In 1980, there were about 80 registered Lutheran congregations. However, they were all independent of each other, not united in the church.
During perestroika, the state recognized the entire Church and it was necessary to recreate the governance structure. The head of the newly formed church was Harald Kalninsh (who had previously visited communities in Russia on his own initiative for a long time), consecrated as a bishop in Riga. The rebuilt church was named "German Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Soviet Union". A Consistory (governing church) was created.
- After the collapse of the USSR, formally independent Lutheran denominations arose in most of the newly formed states, which, however, united into one union - ELKRAS. It is believed that ELKRAS is a church German tradition. However, today there is no strict ethnic focus, although some congregations receive official support and funding from the Evangelical Church of Germany. For a long time, ELKRAS did not have a single administrative and spiritual center. Today, the Spiritual Administration is carried out by the Archbishop; more recently, Dietrich Brauer has taken over his duties. central administration located in St. Petersburg. Administrative centers in Moscow and Omsk.
- In 1992, the Church of Ingria separated from it.
- In Siberia long time there was a mission of the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (EELC), which in 2003 became an independent Siberian Evangelical Lutheran Church with a center in Novosibirsk. It is a supra-ethnic Lutheran church with parishes located in both Eastern and European parts of Russia.
- The Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Augsburg Confession (ELTSAI) is a Lutheran denomination established in 2006 (received official registration in 2007). Positions itself as a supranational church. It was created after the refusal of the Church of Ingria and ELKRAS to accept new Lutheran communities created on the territory of the Russian Federation. She has repeatedly taken the initiative to unite with other Lutheran churches, stating that the only purpose of its creation is to enable legal registration of Lutheran communities that are not accepted into the previously existing churches. ELC AI consistently establishes cooperation with Lutheran churches outside Russian Federation, in particular with the Lutherans of Germany, Sweden and Finland.
- The Evangelical Lutheran Church "Consent" is one of the five officially registered Lutheran churches in the Russian Federation. It was formed with the assistance of American missionaries from the Wisconsin Synod at the end of the 20th century. It is a confessional (conservative) Lutheran church and is a member of the International Conference of Confessional Lutheran Churches (CELC).
Lutheranism in Ukraine
Spreading
Historically, Lutheranism has been the predominant religion in the following countries and regions:
- Nordic lands of Germany (Evangelical Church of Germany)
- Denmark (Church of the Danish People)
- Sweden (Church of Sweden)
- Norway (Church of Norway)
- Iceland (Church of Iceland)
- Faroe Islands (People's Church of the Faroe Islands)
- Finland (Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland)
- Estonia (Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church)
- Latvia (Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia)
Art
Architecture
Unlike many Protestant denominations, the Lutherans attached great importance and attach great importance to architecture, as a result, most of the churches are, if not architectural masterpieces, then sights of the settlements in which they are located. Some of the buildings passed to the Lutherans from the Catholics (although not always peacefully), then buildings were built in modern (at the time of construction) styles - baroque, then classical. FROM late XIX century, the neo-gothic style was very actively used, later, in the 20th century, a large number of churches were built in the Art Nouveau style. The doctrine itself does not impose any restrictions on the style of church buildings, therefore, if the customer has the means and desire, the architect has a noticeable freedom for creativity.
Music
Lutheran liturgical meetings are characterized by the choral performance of hymns (including by all those gathered, and there may be several thousand of them), as well as active use organ music, which can both accompany the singing of chorales, and be performed separately. One of the most famous and prolific composers who has composed music for Lutheran meetings is Johann Sebastian Bach. In the XX and XXI centuries modern musical styles began to be actively used, including since 2004 metal masses have been held in Finland.
Painting
Unlike the Calvinists, the Lutherans never rejected church painting, but it is not given such a sacred meaning as the Catholics. Since the creed does not attach significant importance to the decor of churches, images in churches are often limited to the presence of a picture or mosaic behind the altar, stained glass windows can be found. On the other hand, if desired and possible, complex decoration with paintings in a variety of styles can be created. For example, the Ascension Church in Jerusalem, the Protestation Memorial Church in Speyer, etc. are richly decorated.
In addition to the painting of buildings, there is a Lutheran portrait painting. So, the appearance of many figures of the Reformation is known from works created, among other things, by Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach the Elder.
Graphic arts
This genre has been developed, among other things, in connection with the need to illustrate printed books, including the Bible. A similar trend appeared already in the period of the Reformation, but did not stop in subsequent centuries. For example, in the 19th century, the German romantic artist Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld created a cycle of engravings on various biblical subjects, which is being actively reprinted to the present.
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Notes
Literature
- Bobylev A.V. Pre-reformation period and Reformation: Bibliographic list / In 2 volumes - M., 1999. - V.1: Books and brochures published in Russian; T.2: Foreign bibliographies and reference books.
- Branitsky A. G., Kornilov A. A.. - Nizhny Novgorod: N. I. Lobachevsky UNN, 2013. - 305 p.
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
- Sokolov, I. I. The attitude of Protestantism towards Russia in the 16th and 17th centuries. (1880) / Cm.: Luther, Martin. On the freedom of a Christian. [Collection]. Ufa: ARC, 2013, pp. 553–599. ISBN 978-5-905551-05-5
Links
Depiction of basic Christian teachings. Not all Christian currents are shown.
An excerpt characterizing Lutheranism
“Because it’s better for me to visit you less often ... Because ... no, I just have business to do.”- From what? no, tell me, - Natasha began decisively and suddenly fell silent. They both looked at each other in fear and embarrassment. He tried to smile, but could not: his smile expressed suffering, and he silently kissed her hand and went out.
Pierre decided not to visit the Rostovs with himself anymore.
Petya, after receiving a decisive refusal, went to his room and there, locking himself away from everyone, wept bitterly. Everyone did as if they had not noticed anything when he came to tea silent and gloomy, with tearful eyes.
The next day the Emperor arrived. Several of the Rostovs' servants asked to go and see the tsar. That morning, Petya spent a long time dressing, combing his hair and arranging his collars like the big ones. He frowned in front of the mirror, made gestures, shrugged his shoulders, and finally, without telling anyone, put on his cap and left the house from the back porch, trying not to be noticed. Petya decided to go straight to the place where the sovereign was, and directly explain to some chamberlain (it seemed to Petya that the sovereign was always surrounded by chamberlains) that he, Count Rostov, despite his youth, wants to serve the fatherland, that youth cannot be an obstacle for devotion and that he is ready ... Petya, while he was getting ready, prepared many beautiful words that he would say to the chamberlain.
Petya counted on the success of his presentation to the sovereign precisely because he was a child (Petya even thought how surprised everyone would be at his youth), and at the same time, in the arrangement of his collars, in his hairstyle and in a sedate, slow gait, he wanted to present himself as an old man. But the farther he went, the more he entertained himself with the people arriving and arriving at the Kremlin, the more he forgot to observe the degree and slowness characteristic of adults. Approaching the Kremlin, he already began to take care that he was not pushed, and resolutely, with a menacing look, put his elbows on his sides. But at the Trinity Gates, despite all his determination, people who probably did not know for what patriotic purpose he was going to the Kremlin pressed him against the wall so that he had to submit and stop, while at the gate with a buzzing under the arches the sound of carriages passing by. Near Petya stood a woman with a footman, two merchants and a retired soldier. After standing for some time at the gate, Petya, without waiting for all the carriages to pass, wanted to move on before the others and began to work decisively with his elbows; but the woman standing opposite him, on whom he first directed his elbows, angrily shouted at him:
- What, barchuk, pushing, you see - everyone is standing. Why climb then!
“That’s how everyone will climb,” said the footman, and, also beginning to work with his elbows, squeezed Petya into the stinking corner of the gate.
Petya wiped away the sweat that covered his face with his hands and straightened his collars, soaked with sweat, which he arranged as well as the big ones at home.
Petya felt that he had an unpresentable appearance, and was afraid that if he presented himself to the chamberlains like that, he would not be allowed to see the sovereign. But there was no way to recover and go to another place because of the tightness. One of the passing generals was an acquaintance of the Rostovs. Petya wanted to ask for his help, but considered that it would be contrary to courage. When all the carriages had passed, the crowd poured in and carried Petya out to the square, which was all occupied by people. Not only in the area, but on the slopes, on the roofs, there were people everywhere. As soon as Petya found himself on the square, he clearly heard the sounds of bells and joyful folk talk that filled the entire Kremlin.
At one time it was more spacious on the square, but suddenly all the heads opened, everything rushed somewhere forward. Petya was squeezed so that he could not breathe, and everyone shouted: “Hurrah! hooray! hurrah! Petya stood on tiptoe, pushed, pinched, but could see nothing but the people around him.
All faces were one general expression tenderness and delight. One merchant's wife, who was standing near Petya, was sobbing, and tears flowed from her eyes.
- Father, angel, father! she said, wiping her tears with her finger.
- Hooray! shouted from all sides. For a minute the crowd stood in one place; but then she rushed forward again.
Petya, beside himself, clenched his teeth and rolled his eyes brutally, rushed forward, working with his elbows and shouting "Hurray!", as if he was ready to kill himself and everyone at that moment, but exactly the same brutal faces climbed from his sides with the same cries of "Hurrah!".
"So that's what a sovereign is! thought Petya. – No, I can’t apply to him myself, it’s too bold! but at that moment the crowd staggered back (from the front the policemen were pushing those who had advanced too close to the procession; the sovereign was passing from the palace to the Assumption Cathedral), and Petya unexpectedly received such a blow to the ribs in the side and was so crushed that suddenly everything became dim in his eyes and he lost consciousness. When he came to, some kind of clergyman, with a tuft of graying hair behind him, in a shabby blue cassock, probably a sexton, held him under the arm with one hand, and guarded him from the oncoming crowd with the other.
- Barchonka crushed! - said the deacon. - Well, so! .. easier ... crushed, crushed!
The sovereign went to the Assumption Cathedral. The crowd leveled off again, and the deacon led Petya, pale and not breathing, to the Tsar Cannon. Several people took pity on Petya, and suddenly the whole crowd turned to him, and there was already a stampede around him. Those who stood closer served him, unbuttoned his frock coat, seated cannons on a dais and reproached someone - those who crushed him.
- That way you can crush to death. What is this! Murder to do! Look, my heart, it has become white as a tablecloth, - said the voices.
Petya soon came to his senses, the color returned to his face, the pain disappeared, and for this temporary inconvenience he received a place on the cannon, with which he hoped to see the sovereign who was due to go back. Petya no longer thought about filing a petition. If only he could see him - and then he would consider himself happy!
During the service in the Assumption Cathedral - a joint prayer service on the occasion of the arrival of the sovereign and a prayer of thanksgiving for making peace with the Turks - the crowd spread; sellers of kvass, gingerbread, poppy seeds, which Petya was especially fond of, appeared shouting, and ordinary conversations were heard. One merchant's wife showed her torn shawl and reported how expensive it was bought; another said that nowadays all silk fabrics have become expensive. The sexton, Petya's savior, was talking to the official about who and who is serving with the bishop today. The sexton repeated the word soborne several times, which Petya did not understand. Two young tradesmen were joking with yard girls gnawing nuts. All these conversations, especially jokes with girls, which for Petya at his age had a special attraction, all these conversations now did not interest Petya; ou sat on his cannon dais, still agitated at the thought of the sovereign and of his love for him. The coincidence of the feeling of pain and fear, when he was squeezed, with the feeling of delight, further strengthened in him the consciousness of the importance of this moment.
Suddenly, cannon shots were heard from the embankment (these were fired in commemoration of peace with the Turks), and the crowd quickly rushed to the embankment - to watch how they were shooting. Petya also wanted to run there, but the deacon, who took the barchon under his protection, did not let him go. Shots were still going on when officers, generals, chamberlains ran out of the Assumption Cathedral, then others came out more slowly, their hats were again taken off their heads, and those who had run away to look at the guns ran back. Finally, four more men in uniforms and ribbons came out of the doors of the cathedral. "Hooray! Hooray! the crowd shouted again.
- Which the? Which the? Petya asked around him in a weeping voice, but no one answered him; everyone was too carried away, and Petya, choosing one of these four faces, whom he could not clearly see because of the tears that came out of his eyes with joy, focused all his delight on him, although it was not the sovereign, shouted “Hurrah! in a frantic voice and decided that tomorrow, no matter what it cost him, he would be a military man.
The crowd ran after the sovereign, escorted him to the palace and began to disperse. It was already late, and Petya hadn't eaten anything, and the sweat was pouring down from him; but he did not go home, and together with a smaller, but still rather large crowd, stood in front of the palace, during the emperor’s dinner, looking into the windows of the palace, expecting something else and envying the dignitaries who drove up to the porch - for the emperor’s dinner, and the lackeys of the chambers who served at the table and flashed through the windows.
At dinner, the sovereign Valuev said, looking out the window:
“The people still hope to see Your Majesty.
Dinner was already over, the emperor got up and, finishing his biscuit, went out onto the balcony. The people, with Petya in the middle, rushed to the balcony.
"Angel, father!" Hurray, father! .. - the people and Petya shouted, and again the women and some weaker men, including Petya, wept with happiness. A rather large piece of biscuit, which the sovereign held in his hand, broke off and fell on the railing of the balcony, from the railing to the ground. The coachman in the coat, who was standing nearest, rushed to this piece of biscuit and grabbed it. Some of the crowd rushed to the coachman. Noticing this, the sovereign ordered a plate of biscuits to be served to him and began to throw biscuits from the balcony. Petya's eyes were filled with blood, the danger of being crushed excited him even more, he threw himself on the biscuits. He did not know why, but it was necessary to take one biscuit from the hands of the king, and it was necessary not to succumb. He rushed and knocked down an old woman who was catching a biscuit. But the old woman did not consider herself defeated, although she lay on the ground (the old woman caught biscuits and did not hit with her hands). Petya knocked her hand away with his knee, grabbed the biscuit and, as if afraid of being late, again shouted "Hurrah!", in a hoarse voice.
The sovereign left, and after that most of the people began to disperse.
- So I said that you still have to wait - and it happened, - with different parties people spoke happily.
Happy as Petya was, he was still sad to go home and know that all the enjoyment of that day was over. From the Kremlin, Petya did not go home, but to his comrade Obolensky, who was fifteen years old and who also entered the regiment. Returning home, he resolutely and firmly announced that if they did not let him in, he would run away. And the next day, although not yet completely surrendered, Count Ilya Andreich went to find out how to put Petya somewhere safer.
On the morning of the 15th, on the third day after that, an innumerable number of carriages stood at the Sloboda Palace.
The halls were full. In the first there were nobles in uniforms, in the second, merchants with medals, in beards and blue caftans. around the hall Nobility Assembly there was noise and movement. At one large table, under the portrait of the sovereign, the most important nobles were sitting on chairs with high backs; but most of the nobles walked about the hall.
All the nobles, the same ones that Pierre saw every day either in the club or in their houses, were all in uniforms, some in Catherine’s, some in Pavlov’s, some in new Alexander’s, some in a general noble one, and this general character of the uniform gave something strange and fantastic to these old and young, the most diverse and familiar faces. Especially striking were the old people, blind, toothless, bald, swollen with yellow fat or shriveled, thin. For the most part they sat in their places and were silent, and if they walked and talked, they would attach themselves to someone younger. Just as on the faces of the crowd that Petya saw on the square, on all these faces there was a striking feature of the opposite: a common expectation of something solemn and ordinary, yesterday - the Boston party, Petrushka the cook, the health of Zinaida Dmitrievna, etc.
Pierre, from early morning pulled together in an awkward, narrow noble uniform that had become him, was in the halls. He was in a state of agitation: an extraordinary gathering not only of the nobility, but also of the merchants - estates, etats generaux - evoked in him a whole series of thoughts long abandoned, but deeply embedded in his soul, about the Contrat social [Social contract] and french revolution. The words he noticed in the appeal, that the sovereign would arrive in the capital for a conference with his people, confirmed him in this look. And he, believing that in this sense something important was approaching, something that he had been waiting for a long time, he walked, looked closely, listened to the conversation, but nowhere did he find an expression of those thoughts that occupied him.
The sovereign's manifesto was read, which caused delight, and then everyone dispersed, talking. In addition to the usual interests, Pierre heard rumors about where the leaders should stand at the time the sovereign entered, when to give the sovereign a ball, whether to be divided into districts or the entire province ... etc.; but as soon as the matter concerned the war and what the nobility was gathered for, the rumors were indecisive and indefinite. They were more willing to listen than to speak.
One middle-aged man, courageous, handsome, in a retired naval uniform, was talking in one of the halls, and people crowded around him. Pierre went up to the circle formed near the talker and began to listen. Count Ilya Andreevich, in his Catherine’s voivodship caftan, walking with a pleasant smile among the crowd, familiar with everyone, also approached this group and began to listen with his kind smile, as he always listened, nodding his head approvingly in agreement with the speaker. The retired sailor spoke very boldly; this was evident from the expressions of the faces listening to him, and from the fact that Pierre, known for being the most submissive and quiet people, disapprovingly departed from him or contradicted him. Pierre pushed his way into the middle of the circle, listened, and became convinced that the speaker was really a liberal, but in a completely different sense than Pierre thought. The sailor spoke in that especially sonorous, melodious, noble baritone, with pleasant grazing and contraction of consonants, in that voice with which they shout: “Cheak, pipe!”, And the like. He spoke with a habit of revelry and power in his voice.
- Well, that the Smolensk people offered the militias to the gosuai. Is it a decree for us Smolensk? If the bourgeois nobility of the Moscow province finds it necessary, they can show their devotion to the Emperor by other means. Have we forgotten the militia in the seventh year! Caterers and robber thieves have just made a profit...
Count Ilya Andreich, smiling sweetly, nodded his head approvingly.
- And what, did our militias make a benefit to the state? No! only ruined our farms. Better still a set ... otherwise neither a soldier nor a peasant will return to you, and only one debauchery. The nobles do not spare their lives, we ourselves will go without exception, we will take another recruit, and all of us just call the goose (he pronounced the sovereign so), we will all die for him, - the orator added, animated.
Ilya Andreich swallowed his saliva with pleasure and pushed Pierre, but Pierre also wanted to speak. He moved forward, feeling animated, not knowing what else and not knowing what he would say. He had just opened his mouth to speak, when one senator, completely without teeth, with an intelligent and angry face, standing close to the speaker, interrupted Pierre. With a visible habit of debating and holding questions, he spoke quietly, but audibly:
“I believe, my dear sir,” said the senator, mumbling his toothless mouth, “that we are not called here to discuss what is more convenient for the state at the present moment - recruitment or militia. We are called to respond to the proclamation with which the Sovereign Emperor honored us. And to judge what is more convenient - a recruitment or a militia, we will leave to judge the highest authority ...
Pierre suddenly found an outlet for his animation. He became hardened against the senator, who introduced this correctness and narrowness of views into the upcoming classes of the nobility. Pierre stepped forward and stopped him. He himself did not know what he was going to say, but he began animatedly, occasionally breaking through in French and expressing himself bookishly in Russian.
“Excuse me, Your Excellency,” he began (Pierre was well acquainted with this senator, but considered it necessary to address him officially here), “although I do not agree with the lord ... (Pierre faltered. He wanted to say mon tres honorable preopinant), [my esteemed opponent,] - with the lord ... que je n "ai pas L" honneur de connaitre; [whom I do not have the honor to know] but I believe that the estate of the nobility, in addition to expressing their sympathy and delight, is also called upon to discuss and discuss those measures by which we can help the fatherland. I believe, - he said, inspired, - that the sovereign himself would be dissatisfied if he found in us only the owners of the peasants whom we give him, and ... chair a canon [meat for cannons], which we make of ourselves, but would not have found co-co-counsel in us.
Many moved away from the circle, noticing the contemptuous smile of the senator and the fact that Pierre speaks freely; only Ilya Andreich was pleased with Pierre's speech, as he was pleased with the speech of the sailor, the senator, and in general always with the speech that he had last heard.
“I believe that before discussing these issues,” Pierre continued, “we should ask the sovereign, most respectfully ask His Majesty to communicate to us how many troops we have, what is the position of our troops and armies, and then ...
A. A. Pastor,
President of the General Synod of the ELC
Information about the fundamentals of the doctrine
Evangelical Lutheran Church
The Evangelical Lutheran Church belongs to the Western branch of Christianity. Its religion and structures were formed in the 16th century. (after 1520) as a result of the Reformation, which proclaimed the need to renew the Christian life on the basis of St. Scripture and especially the Gospel, which is the foundation for all Christian Churches. The name reflects the principle of following the ideas of the Reformation, laid down by Martin Luther. The Lutheran faith became widespread both in Europe and in other parts of the world. Currently, the Lutheran Church is the state Church in Sweden (92% of the population), Norway (93% of the population), Denmark (95% of the population). Lutheranism is professed by the absolute majority of believers in Finland (90.6%), Estonia, and Latvia (80%). In Germany, Lutheranism is professed by approximately 50% of believing Christians, especially in the northern lands. In the United States, among other denominations, Lutheranism ranks third in terms of the number of parishioners. There are about 75 million Lutherans in the world.
The first Lutheran communities appeared in Russia already in the 16th century. The first oldest church was built in Moscow in 1576, the second - in Nizhny Novgorod in 1593. During the XVI-XVII centuries. the number of parishioners steadily increased. The sharp growth of Lutherans in Russia occurred as a result of the annexation of the Baltic territories to the Empire under Peter I, as well as the invitation of Catherine II colonists to Russia. South Russia and the Volga region. Since then, the Evangelical Lutheran Church has been an integral part of the life of Russia - persons of the Lutheran faith have held responsible government positions (up to the position of State Chancellor). The first Charter of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Russian Empire was adopted in 1832 and approved by Emperor Nicholas I. Reorganization of church structures after October revolution ended with the adoption in 1924 of a new Charter, on the basis of which the current Charter was created.
The basis of the doctrine (as well as for the Orthodox, Catholic and other Christian denominations) is the Holy Scripture of the Old and New Testaments - the only source and firm, unmistakable norm of Church Teaching and activity, as well as the Nicene and Apostolic Creeds. Practical worship is recorded in the "Book of Concord", which includes the unaltered Augsburg Confession of 1530, the Short and Large Catechisms of Dr. Luther, the Schmalkaldic Articles and other symbolic books.
The basis of the structure of the ELC is the community. The leadership of the community is carried out by the Community Council. The spiritual leadership of the community is carried out by a preacher or pastor. communities major region form a Regional Church (eparchy). The highest legislative body of the Regional Church is the Synod of the Regional Church, which also determines the issues of spiritual leadership of the Regional Church. The Synod of the Regional Church has the right to create probate. Probstvos unite communities located within small regions. The Provost's highest governing body is the Probate Synod, which elects the Probate Council. The synod of probation has the right to create parishes that unite small neighboring communities. Decisions of general ecclesiastical significance of the Evangelical Lutheran Church are made by the regularly convened General Synod, which is the highest legislative body of the ELC and consists of representatives of all Regional Churches and Provosts. The General Synod elects the Presidium of the General Synod, headed by the President, as well as the Archbishop, who is responsible for the spiritual leadership of the Church. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Russia is formed by the Regional Church of European Russia and the Regional Church of the Urals, Siberia and Far East. In addition, the Evangelical Lutheran Church includes the Regional Evangelical Lutheran Churches of Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, as well as the Evangelical Lutheran communities of Georgia, Belarus, Azerbaijan and Tajikistan. The governing and executive bodies of the ELC, headed by the Archbishop, are located in St. Petersburg.
The training of preachers and pastors is provided by the Theological Seminary and special courses.
The basis of the spiritual life of the communities are regular services. Liturgical service includes prayers, reading of St. Scriptures, preaching and celebration of St. Sacraments. The practical life of communities, and of the entire Church as a whole, includes diaconal work, i.e. helping people in difficult circumstances.
Marriage and family in the ELC is a respected institution. “... the marriage life of believers is holy because it is sanctified by the Word of God... For Christ calls marriage the Divine Union...” (Apology of the Augsburg Confession, article 23) “... God honors and exalts this state (marriage life) , in view of the fact that by His commandment He sanctioned and protected it... Thus, He wants us to also honor this, support and fulfill it in life, as a divine and blessed state. Because, in the first place, He instituted this before all else, and thus created man and woman as separate persons, not for a life of debauchery, but that they might legally live together, be fruitful, have children, raise and train them. to the glory of God" (Large Catechism). Divorces are allowed, but not approved.
The ELC considers medicine and its services as a gift from God and does not know any restrictions in the use of medical institutions.
Members and ministers of the ELC are aware of themselves as citizens of their country and respect its laws. “With regard to secular affairs, our churches teach that lawful state decrees are the good deeds of God, and that Christians can rightfully fulfill public service, to be judges, to serve as soldiers, to enter into lawful transactions, to own property... They also condemn those who associate gospel perfection not with the fear of God and not with faith, but with the renunciation of worldly affairs...” (Augsburg Confession, article 16 ) “... it should also be said about obedience secular power... because God gives and saves us through them, as through our parents, food, home, and yard, protection and security. Therefore ... we must also honor them and place them high ... Whoever is obedient in this, zealous and helpful and willingly does everything that relates to showing honor, he knows that he pleases God ... ”(Large Catechism, interpretation 4th commandment) The history of Russia shows that the Lutherans have always been a reliable support of the state.
WHAT DO LUTHERANS BELIEVE?
The most important and, in fact, the only thing that God requires of us is that we honor Him as God: that we put all our hope only in Him, that we completely and completely in life and death, in time and in eternity, trust To him.
Man's sin lies precisely in the fact that he is not capable of such things, that he thinks more about himself than about God, that his heart does not belong wholly and completely to the Lord. Sin is not individual actions, but the remoteness of a person from God, in a person's turning towards himself.
In most religions, and in many Christian Churches, they teach that a person himself must, in one way or another, become pleasing to God, must work on himself, that sin must be overcome by the inner forces of a person. Because of such calls, a person again and again turns to himself. Salvation becomes his business. He relies, at least in part, on himself. And therefore he cannot put all his hope wholly and completely in God. Thus, the more pious and religious a person is, the more he relies on his own strength, and the further he is from God. It's a vicious circle. This is the tragedy of human sin: even if a person really becomes better by his efforts, he still, thereby, moves away from God. And this tragedy is inevitable, because man is so arranged. Everything around us teaches us that if we want to achieve something, we need to make an effort, we need to change something in ourselves. In Lutheran teaching this is called law. Fulfilling the law outwardly, a person may look very righteous, but since this righteousness is achieved through the efforts of the person himself, it leads him away from God, and therefore such righteousness is the offspring of sin.
The way out of this vicious circle was given to us by God Himself in Jesus Christ: through His death and Resurrection, God forgave us, accepted us. Accepted without any conditions, once and for all. This story is called the Gospel. The gospel completely overturns the usual worldview. If a person comprehends the Gospel, then he no longer has to do anything for his salvation. He just realizes that he's already saved. Saved without merit. He owes his salvation only to God Himself. Man now sees his salvation and all the best and greatest not in himself, but only in God. This is what faith is: a look outside of yourself, a look at Christ, a refusal to save yourself - complete trust in God. The believer turns out to be righteous - precisely when he refuses to achieve his righteousness and accepts that he, such as he is - righteous or unrighteous - is accepted by God. As if without looking back, a person rushes into the open arms of God, no longer thinking about himself. This is the righteousness of the gospel, the righteousness of faith. A righteousness based not on one's own achievements and deeds, but only on the forgiveness of God. The believer does not ask himself: “Have I done enough for my salvation, have I sincerely repented of my sins, do I firmly believe?” The believer thinks only of Christ, of what He has done.
To believe means to understand that nothing that is inside me can cause my salvation.
To believe means: in the midst of all doubts and temptations, to look beyond oneself, to the crucified Christ and only to Him.
This is the fulfillment of what God requires: to completely and completely trust in Him, to be focused only on Him, only in Him, and not in oneself to seek salvation. Therefore, only faith (and not deeds, not work on oneself) is saving. Or rather: not faith itself, but what we believe in - God, as He revealed to us in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Around this central statement (confession), this radical focus on Jesus Christ, the rest of the dogma of the Lutheran Church is formed, while it retains most of the traditional dogmas of Christianity.
LUTHERAN SERVICE
Do not look for your own merits, but, recognizing your helplessness before sin, completely trust God - to believe. Because of his sinfulness, this is very difficult for a person, almost impossible. Therefore, it is necessary to proclaim the Gospel to him again and again, turning his gaze beyond himself - to the cross of Jesus Christ. Again and again, a person needs to proclaim the forgiveness given to him by God. Again and again to remind that he does not save himself, that his salvation is the merit of Christ alone. This is the main meaning of Lutheran worship. The entire course of worship and the entire arrangement of each church building is subordinated to this goal.
The story (announcement) about salvation is carried out in various forms, primarily in a sermon.
Therefore, in every church there is a pulpit from which the pastor or preacher reads his sermon. The sermon is the proclamation of the Gospel in a lively and free form, focusing on the current situation of believers, accessible and understandable to them. Therefore, preaching is the center of Lutheran worship.
The second center is the Sacrament of Communion (Eucharist), which is performed at Lutheran services regularly (in some communities every week or even more often). The altar in every church is the table for this sacred meal. The sacrament of Communion for Lutherans is the same Word of forgiveness, "said" in a special material form. Taking bread and wine in Communion, those gathered partake of the Body and Blood of Christ. This means that God's love itself in a material, tangible way touches them, that they literally take into themselves the forgiveness proclaimed by God in the death of Jesus Christ. Therefore, on the altar, as a rule, there is a crucifix lit by candles, reminiscent of the Savior's death on the cross. Also on the altar lies the Bible, which is the oldest and most authoritative testimony of Christ.
The altar is open (everyone can approach it: an adult and a child, a woman and a man): Christ calls everyone to His meal; He calls everyone to hear and taste the Word of salvation. All Christians are usually invited to Communion in the Lutheran Church, regardless of their affiliation to a particular Church, if they recognize that in this Sacrament they receive the Body and Blood of Christ.
Often in the church you can see a board with numbers. These are numbers of hymns from special collections, which are in the hands of parishioners. At each divine service, as a rule, several church hymns are heard. These hymns were written by Christians of various times and peoples. These are testimonies of their faith, their prayers and their confessions, to which we join with our singing today.
In the Lutheran Church, it is customary to sit on benches or chairs during worship so that nothing interferes with the concentrated perception of the sermon. It is customary to rise from the pew or kneel only during prayer or at especially important and solemn moments of the liturgy.
Often, after the sermon, donations are collected for community or charitable needs.
The service is usually led by an ordained pastor or preacher. However, he does not have any special "grace", he is no different from other believers. A pastor is a person who has received the appropriate education and who, on behalf of the Church, is officially entrusted with the public preaching of the Gospel and the administration of the Sacraments.
Focus on the diverse proclamation of the Gospel (a story about forgiveness and salvation that God grants to man), openness, simplicity, modesty and, at the same time, careful preservation of the ancient traditions of the Christian Church - these are the main features of Lutheran worship.
THE ORIGIN OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH
The medieval German theologian and clergyman Martin Luther (1483-1546) was one of those believers who was particularly sensitive to the question of his salvation. He was taught in the monastery that only he will be saved who can sincerely and deeply repent of his sins before God. Luther invariably asked himself: “How can I know that my repentance is sincere and deep enough, how can I know if I have done enough for my salvation?” In the end, his answer was, “I don't know if my repentance is enough, I don't know if I'm worthy of salvation. Probably not. But I know one thing: Christ died for me. Can I doubt the power of His Sacrifice? Only in her, and not in myself, I will trust. This discovery shocked and inspired many of his contemporaries. Within the Western medieval Church, a party of his supporters is rapidly forming, who wish to renew the church doctrine and preaching. Thus begins the Reformation. Luther himself did not seek to separate from the existing Church and create a new one. His sole purpose was that in the Church, whatever its external structures, traditions and forms, the preaching of the Gospel should sound freely. However, due to historical reasons, a split was inevitable. One of its consequences was the emergence of the Lutheran Church.
THE LUTHERAN CHURCH TODAY
Separate Lutheran Churches, each of which is independent, are most common today in Germany, Scandinavia, the Baltics and the USA. many Lutherans in Latin America and Africa. There are about 70 million Lutherans in the world. Most of the Lutheran Churches are united in the Lutheran World Federation (WLF). Also, most of the Lutheran Churches are in full communion with the Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian) Church and with a number of other Protestant Churches that have remained faithful to the traditional principles of the Reformation. Lutheran theologians are engaged in an interested and fruitful dialogue with representatives of Orthodoxy.
The contribution of the Lutheran Church to the development of theology, to world and Russian culture is enormous. Albrecht Dürer, Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Wilhelm Küchelbecker, Paul Tillich, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Rudolf Bultmann are just some of the famous names. Each of them was a staunch Lutheran.
Many researchers associate the economic well-being and political successes of the modern West precisely with the ethics of the Reformation, which values hard work, responsibility, honesty, adherence to duty, caring for others, the ability to stand firmly on one's own two feet, but condemning excessive luxury.
Already in the sixteenth century, Lutherans appeared in Russia. Until the October Revolution of 1917, Lutheranism was the second largest church in the Russian Empire in terms of the number of believers, and numbered several million believers, mostly of German origin. The head of the Russian Lutheran Church was the emperor himself Russian Empire. In Soviet times, the Lutheran Church in Russia was almost completely destroyed. Only a few scattered communities managed to survive.
Today there is a complex and laborious process of the revival of the Lutheran Church in Russia and the search for new ways for her to preach the Gospel in a completely new situation for her in the modern world.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church is a gathering of people deeply affected by the event of the life, death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Only in this event they see the basis and center of their spiritual life.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church is a community of people who recognize the depth of their guilt before God, all their sinfulness, but at the same time boldly hope in God's love and His forgiveness.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church is a traditional Church that recognizes and accepts the main Christian creeds:
- about the trinity of God
- about the divinity of Jesus Christ
- about the need for the Sacraments (Baptism and Communion).
But, at the same time, this is the Church, constantly striving for a new understanding of ancient truths, not afraid to reflect on theological problems, pose new, sometimes “uncomfortable” questions and seek their own answers to them.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church recognizes the truth of other Christian Churches proclaiming Jesus Christ, is open to dialogue with them and is ready to learn from them.
In its teaching, worship and customs, the Evangelical Lutheran Church is guided by the forms and traditions developed over thousands of years in Western Christianity.
Members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church are not fanatics, but ordinary people who do not close themselves exclusively in their own circle, but are ready for communication. People living normal everyday life who know how to appreciate the joys of the world around them and do not refuse them.
Euclidean space
Euclidean space(also Euclidean space) - in the original sense, a space whose properties are described by the axioms of Euclidean geometry. In this case, the space is assumed to have dimension 3.
In the modern sense, in a more general sense, it can refer to one of the similar and closely related objects defined below. Usually -dimensional Euclidean space is denoted by , although not quite acceptable notation is often used.
,in the simplest case ( euclidean norm):
where (in Euclidean space, one can always choose a basis in which exactly this simplest version is true).
2. Metric space corresponding to the space described above. That is, with the metric entered by the formula:
,Related definitions
- Under euclidean metric the metric described above can be understood as well as the corresponding Riemannian metric.
- Local Euclideanity usually means that each tangent space of a Riemannian manifold is a Euclidean space with all the following properties, for example, the possibility (due to the smoothness of the metric) to introduce coordinates in a small neighborhood of a point in which the distance is expressed (up to some order ) as described above.
- A metric space is also called locally Euclidean if it is possible to introduce coordinates on it in which the metric is Euclidean (in the sense of the second definition) everywhere (or at least on a finite region) - which, for example, is a Riemannian manifold of zero curvature.
Examples
Good examples of Euclidean spaces are the following spaces:
More abstract example:
Variations and Generalizations
see also
Links
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A space whose properties are studied in Euclidean geometry. In a broader sense, Euclidean space is an n-dimensional vector space in which the scalar product is defined ... Big encyclopedic Dictionary
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A space whose properties are studied in Euclidean geometry. In a broader sense, Euclidean space is an n-dimensional vector space in which the scalar product is defined. * * * Euclidean space Euclidean… … encyclopedic Dictionary
A space whose properties are studied in Euclidean geometry. In a broader sense, E. p. n dimensional vector space, in which the scalar product is defined … Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary
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- (in mathematics) a space whose properties are described by the axioms of Euclidean geometry (See Euclidean geometry). In a more general sense, E. p. is called an n-dimensional vector space in which it is possible to introduce some special ... ... Big soviet encyclopedia
- [by the name of other Greek. mathematics of Euclid (Eukleides; 3rd century BC)] space, including multidimensional, in which it is possible to enter coordinates x1, ..., xn so that the distance p (M, M) between points M (x1 ..., x n) and M (x 1, .... xn) can be ... ... Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary
Corresponding to such a vector space. In this article, the first definition will be taken as the initial one.
N (\displaystyle n)-dimensional Euclidean space is denoted E n , (\displaystyle \mathbb (E) ^(n),) the notation is also often used (if it is clear from the context that the space has a Euclidean structure).
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Formal definition
To define the Euclidean space, it is easiest to take as the basic concept of the scalar product . A Euclidean vector space is defined as a finite-dimensional vector space over the field of real numbers , on whose vectors a real-valued function is given (⋅ , ⋅) , (\displaystyle (\cdot ,\cdot),) with the following three properties:
Euclidean space example - coordinate space R n , (\displaystyle \mathbb (R) ^(n),) consisting of all possible tuples of real numbers (x 1 , x 2 , … , x n) , (\displaystyle (x_(1),x_(2),\ldots ,x_(n)),) scalar product in which is determined by the formula (x , y) = ∑ i = 1 n x i y i = x 1 y 1 + x 2 y 2 + ⋯ + x n y n . (\displaystyle (x,y)=\sum _(i=1)^(n)x_(i)y_(i)=x_(1)y_(1)+x_(2)y_(2)+\cdots +x_(n)y_(n).)
Lengths and angles
The scalar product given on the Euclidean space is sufficient to introduce the geometric concepts of length and angle. Vector length u (\displaystyle u) defined as (u , u) (\displaystyle (\sqrt ((u,u)))) and denoted | u | . (\displaystyle |u|.) The positive definiteness of the inner product guarantees that the length of a non-zero vector is non-zero, and it follows from the bilinearity that | a u | = | a | | u | , (\displaystyle |au|=|a||u|,) that is, the lengths of proportional vectors are proportional.
Angle between vectors u (\displaystyle u) and v (\displaystyle v) is determined by the formula φ = arccos ((x, y) | x | | y |) . (\displaystyle \varphi =\arccos \left((\frac ((x,y))(|x||y|))\right).) It follows from the cosine theorem that for a two-dimensional Euclidean space ( euclidean plane) this definition angle coincides with the usual. Orthogonal vectors, as in three-dimensional space, can be defined as vectors, the angle between which is equal to π 2 . (\displaystyle (\frac (\pi )(2)).)
Cauchy-Bunyakovsky-Schwarz inequality and triangle inequality
There is one gap left in the definition of angle given above: in order to arccos ((x , y) | x | | y |) (\displaystyle \arccos \left((\frac ((x,y))(|x||y|))\right)) was defined, it is necessary that the inequality | (x, y) | x | | y | | ≤ 1. (\displaystyle \left|(\frac ((x,y))(|x||y|))\right|\leqslant 1.) This inequality is indeed satisfied in an arbitrary Euclidean space, it is called the Cauchy - Bunyakovsky - Schwarz inequality. From this inequality, in turn, follows the triangle inequality: | u+v | ⩽ | u | + | v | . (\displaystyle |u+v|\leqslant |u|+|v|.) The triangle inequality, together with the length properties listed above, means that the length of a vector is a norm on a Euclidean vector space, and the function d(x, y) = | x − y | (\displaystyle d(x,y)=|x-y|) defines the structure of a metric space on the Euclidean space (this function is called the Euclidean metric). In particular, the distance between elements (points) x (\displaystyle x) and y (\displaystyle y) coordinate space R n (\displaystyle \mathbb (R) ^(n)) given by the formula d (x , y) = ‖ x − y ‖ = ∑ i = 1 n (x i − y i) 2 . (\displaystyle d(\mathbf (x) ,\mathbf (y))=\|\mathbf (x) -\mathbf (y) \|=(\sqrt (\sum _(i=1)^(n) (x_(i)-y_(i))^(2))).)
Algebraic properties
Orthonormal bases
Dual spaces and operators
Any vector x (\displaystyle x) Euclidean space defines a linear functional x ∗ (\displaystyle x^(*)) on this space, defined as x ∗ (y) = (x , y) . (\displaystyle x^(*)(y)=(x,y).) This mapping is an isomorphism between the Euclidean space and