July 9, 1789 in France. The French Revolution

1789–1791
1791–1793
1793–1799
1799–1814
Napoleon's coup and the establishment of an empire
1814–1848
1848–1851
1851–1870
1870–1875
Revolution of 1870 and establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, which gradually turned into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; added to this were crop failures and natural disasters that led to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France has spent a lot on failed wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788 expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took out loans, the interest on which was unaffordable for it. The only way to increase revenue to the treasury was to deprive the first and second estate of tax privileges. Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three estates: the first was the clergy, the second was the nobility, and the third was all the rest. The first two estates enjoyed a number of privileges, including exemption from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting resistance from the noble parliaments Parliaments - before the revolution, the supreme courts of fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Paris Parliament existed, then the other thirteen appeared. (i.e. the higher courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the States General States general - a body that included representatives of the three estates and convened at the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three estates. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public upsurge: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters drew up instructions to deputies: few aspired to revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, at the same time counting on the limitation of its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land as property; among the townspeople, the ideas of enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the widely known brochure of Abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes "What is the third estate?" was published, containing the following passage: ? - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something "). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation should have the supreme power in the country, not the king, that an absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly written laws that are uniform for all citizens.

Great French Revolution and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

Taking of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Uel. 1789 year

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

Start of work of the States General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

Taking of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the States General was opened at Versailles. According to tradition, when voting, each class had one vote. The deputies from the third estate, of whom there were twice as many as the deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up only financial reforms for discussion. On June 17, deputies from the third estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drawn up. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new political system in France.

Soon there was a rumor in Paris that the government was pulling troops to Versailles and plans to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people took the Bastille by storm. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the supreme power in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from 5 to 11 August, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were canceled.

Overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted a constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. Laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. The executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official, obeying the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; church property was nationalized and sold.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood\u2028". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790 in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected in 1789 to the States General from the third estate.

Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its assault had a symbolic rather than pragmatic meaning, although they took it in the hope of finding weapons there. By the decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the rights of man and citizen. The Declaration of Human Rights stated that “people are born and remain free and equal in rights” and declared the natural and inalienable human rights to freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression. In addition, she consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and is still the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

Execution of the king and establishment of a republic

The last moments of the life of Louis XVI. Engraving after a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793 year

Wellcome library

Chronology

The beginning of the war with Austria

Overthrow of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

The execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian King Frederick William II and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military ... Girondins Girondins - a circle that formed around the deputies from the Gironde department, advocating further transformations, but adhering to relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the execution of the king., the supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned: now, in the absence of the king, a new constitution had to be written. For these purposes, a new legislative body was assembled - the elected National Convention, which first proclaimed France a republic.

In December, a trial began, which found the king guilty of misconduct against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March, written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, also poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost this status under Napoleon, and finally returned it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of leftist resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870 year

Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin

Chronology

The Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established by a decree of the Convention, which will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal in October

Creation of the Committee of Public Safety

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Constitution of the 1st year, or the Montagnar Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution of the III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup of 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to fail in the war. Inside the country, monarchist revolts broke out. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to judge "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the domestic and foreign policy of the country.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the imposition of emergency measures, some expressed indignation that Paris was imposing its will on the country. The Montagnards who competed with them Montagnards - a relatively radical group based, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at Legislative meetings, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. directed against the Girondins disgruntled urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention, demanding the exclusion of the Girondins from it, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to a civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution, adopted in 1793, did not come into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Virtually all power was now concentrated in his hands; the Convention sent commissars to the places with enormous powers. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotine. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell emigrant lands to peasants. In addition, they introduced the maximum up to which the prices of the most essential goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid a shortage, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.

By the end of 1793, most of the revolts had been suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went over to the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the "Suspicious Law", which ordered to keep under arrest all people who were not accused of any crime, but could commit it. From June 1794, the Revolutionary Tribunal abolished the interrogation of the defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as the obligatory interrogation of witnesses; for people found guilty by the tribunal, there was now only one punishment - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup  

In the spring of 1794, the robespierres started talking about the need for the last wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were at stake. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II according to the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards Maximilian Robespierre and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention, who feared for their lives. They were executed on July 28.

After the coup, the terror quickly subsided, the Jacobin Club Jacobin Club - a political club formed in 1789 and gathered in a Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies, and then to the Convention; they played an important role in the ongoing policy of terror. was closed. The authority of the Public Safety Committee has diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians - members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Coup 18 Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire of the VIII year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, made a coup, dispersed the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also stripped of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. They were all three conspirators.

Symbols

 Tricolor.In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. To the white Bourbon color used on the flag before the revolution, blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard, were added.

Republican calendar.On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was introduced into circulation, the first year according to which was 1792. All months in the calendar received new names: the time from the revolution was to start anew. In 1806, the calendar was canceled.

Louvre Museum.Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of an empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Detail of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804 years

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, establishing the dictatorship of the first consul

Adoption of the Constitution of X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution of the VIII year), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). The first of the three consuls was named Napoleon Bonaparte. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, to appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were virtually abolished.

In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became life-long, and the first consul received the right to appoint a successor.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was discovered, the purpose of which was the assassination of Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary, in order to exclude such things in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by a referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "emperor of the French", whom Napoleon Bonaparte was declared to be. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that regulated the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of land ownership and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: through constant recruits in the army, both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with the surplus of workers, which led to higher incomes. He harshly cracked down on the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda became enormous, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France.

Symbols

Eagle.In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee.This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor.Under Napoleon, a coin called Napoleon d'or (literally "golden Napoleon") received circulation: it depicted Bonaparte's profile.

Legion of Honor.Order established by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802, following the example of the orders of knighthood. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special services to France.

The Bourbon Restoration and the July Monarchy

Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830 year

Musée du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Taking Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of Louis XVIII as king

Proclamation of the Charter of 1814

Napoleon's escape from Elba

Taking Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Abdication of Napoleon

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July Ordinances

Mass riots

Abdication of Charles X from the throne

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on, he became King of the French Louis Philippe I

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and well-organized finances. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries under his control to trade with England — as a result of the Industrial Revolution, England drove French goods out of the markets. The so-called continental blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis had affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French forces in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin their retreat from Moscow, which had been occupied in September.

Bourbon restoration
On October 16-19, 1813, the Battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two houses of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was re-established, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who had a certain level of income.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII had no popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate peace with European countries failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated the throne again, and on July 15 surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the chambers of deputies were not working, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as foreign minister. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, an increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

Charles X's Ordinances sparked widespread outrage. On July 27, riots broke out in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution was over, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated the throne and left for England.

The new king of France was the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a member of the younger branch of the Bourbons, with a relatively liberal reputation. During his coronation, he swore an oath on the Charter of 1830, drawn up by the deputies, and became not "king by the grace of God", as his predecessors, but "king of the French." The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies.After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with the eagle was replaced by the coat of arms with three lilies, which symbolized royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Freedom leading the people."The famous painting by Eugene Delacroix, in the center of which depicts Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) with the French tricolor in hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and the establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Filippoto

Musée du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

The beginning of riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of a new constitution, which consolidated the republican form of government

General Presidential Election, victory of Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded an increase in suffrage, others - the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. There was a poor harvest in 1846 and 1847. Hunger began. Since rallies were banned, political banquets gained popularity in 1847, at which the monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts to the republic were proclaimed. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. Prime Minister François Guizot resigned on 23 February. A huge crowd was waiting for him to leave the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired a shot - most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated the throne and fled to England. In France, a republic was proclaimed and universal suffrage was introduced for men over the age of 21. Parliament (which returned the name "National Assembly") again became unicameral.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election was held, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the votes. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, Republicans won only 70 seats.

Symbols

 Barricades. Barricades were erected on Parisian streets with every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. The Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for the barricades.

The coup of 1851 and the Second Empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Detail from a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855 year

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

The promulgation of a new constitution. The changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year created the Second Empire

The proclamation of Napoleon III as Emperor of the French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of the president, parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's term as president was drawing to a close. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon demanded several times to revise this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, relying on the support of the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition-minded members. The riots that broke out in Paris and in the provinces were brutally suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was drafted, extending the presidency for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, and the deputies of its upper house were appointed by the president for life.

Rebuilding an empire
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, parliament's powers were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but since the 1860s the course has changed. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon began new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Vienna Congress and rebuild the whole of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Republic proclamation
On September 4, France was proclaimed a republic again. A provisional government was elected, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began a siege of Paris. There was famine in the city, the situation escalated. In February 1871, elections to the National Assembly were held, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became the head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, which was followed by a German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many townspeople perceived as treason.

In March, the government, which had no funds, refused to pay the salaries of the National Guard and tried to disarm it.

Paris commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops went on the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally suppressed - the week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists strengthened again, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was preserved. In 1875, Constitutional Laws were passed, establishing the office of president and parliament, elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The third republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power transferred from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag.The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but members of the commune, among whom there were many socialists, preferred the one-color red. The attributes of the Paris Commune - one of the key events for the formation of communist ideology - were taken over by Russian revolutionaries as well.

Vendome Column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875, the column was re-installed.

Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material.

The last decade of the 18th century was marked by an event that not only changed the existing order in a single European country, but also influenced the entire course of world history. The French Revolution of 1789-1799 became for the preachers of the class struggle for several subsequent generations. Its dramatic events brought heroes out of the shadows and exposed antiheroes, destroying the habitual attitude of millions of inhabitants of monarchical states. The basic premises and the French Revolution itself of 1789 are briefly described below.

What led to the coup?

The reasons for the French Revolution of 1789-1799 were repeatedly rewritten from one history textbook to another and boil down to the thesis of the overflowing cup of patience of that large part of the French population, which, in conditions of hard daily work and extreme poverty, was forced to provide a luxurious existence for representatives of the privileged classes.

The reasons for the revolution in France at the end of the 18th century:

huge external debt of the country;
unlimited power of the monarch;
bureaucracy of officials and lawlessness of high-ranking officials;
heavy tax oppression;
harsh exploitation of peasants;
exorbitant requests of the ruling elite.

More about the causes of the revolution

The head of the French monarchy at the end of the 18th century was Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty. The power of his crowned greatness was limitless. It was believed that she was given to him by God by anointing during the coronation. In making the decision, the monarch relied on the support of the smallest, but the most high-ranking and wealthy inhabitants of the country - nobles and representatives of the clergy. By this time, the external debts of the state had grown to monstrous proportions and became an unbearable burden not only for the mercilessly exploited peasants, but also for the bourgeoisie, whose industrial and commercial activities were imposed exorbitant taxes.

The main reasons for the French Revolution of 1789 are discontent and the gradual impoverishment of the bourgeoisie, which until recently put up with absolutism, which patronized the development of industrial production in the interests of national welfare. However, it became more and more difficult to satisfy the demands of the upper classes and the big bourgeois. There was a need to reform the archaic system of government and the national economy, choked with bureaucracy and corruption of government officials. At the same time, the enlightened part of French society was infected with the ideas of the philosopher writers of that time - Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu, who insisted that the absolute monarchy infringed upon the rights of the main population of the country.

Also, in the causes of the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1799, one can write down the natural disasters that preceded it, which worsened the already difficult living conditions of the peasants and reduced the income of a few industrial enterprises.

The first stage of the French revolution 1789-1799

Consider in detail all the stages of the French Revolution of 1789-1799.

The first stage began on January 24, 1789, with the convening of the States General at the behest of the French monarch. This event was out of the ordinary, since the last time a meeting of the highest estate-representative body of France took place at the beginning of the 16th century. However, the situation when the government had to resign and urgently elect a new chief finance officer in the person of Jacques Necker was extraordinary and required decisive measures. Representatives of the upper classes set the goal of the meeting to find funds to replenish the state treasury, while the whole country was expecting total reforms. Disagreements began between the estates, which led to the formation of the National Assembly on June 17, 1789. It consisted of delegates from the third estate and two dozen deputies from the clergy who joined them.

Formation of the Constituent National Assembly

Soon after the meeting, the king made a sole decision to abolish all decisions adopted at it, and already at the next meeting the deputies were placed according to their class. A few days later, another 47 deputies joined the majority, and Louis XVI, forced to take a compromise step, ordered the remaining representatives to join the ranks of the assembly. Later, on July 9, 1789, the abolished States General were transformed into the Constituent National Assembly.

The position of the newly formed representative body was extremely precarious due to the unwillingness of the royal court to put up with defeat. The news that the royal troops were on alert to disperse the Constituent Assembly stirred up a wave of popular discontent, which led to dramatic events that decided the fate of the French Revolution of 1789-1799. Necker was removed from office, and it seemed that the short life of the Constituent Assembly was drawing to a close.

Taking of the Bastille

In response to the events in Parliament in Paris, an uprising broke out, which began on July 12, reached its climax the next day and was marked by the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. The capture of this fortress, which was in the minds of the people a symbol of absolutism and the despotic power of the state, forever went down in French history as the first victory of the insurgent people, forcing the king to admit that the French Revolution of 1789 had begun.

Declaration of human rights

Riots and unrest spread throughout the country. Large-scale demonstrations of the peasants consolidated the victory of the Great French Revolution. In August of the same year, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, a landmark document that laid the foundation for the building of democracy throughout the world. However, not all representatives of the lower class had a chance to taste the fruits of the revolution. The assembly abolished only indirect taxes, leaving direct taxes in force, and as time passed, when the fog of romantic illusions dissipated, numerous townspeople and peasants realized that the big bourgeoisie removed them from government decisions, ensuring financial well-being and legal protection.

Hike to Versailles. Reforms

The food crisis that broke out in Paris in early October 1789 provoked another wave of discontent, which culminated in the campaign against Versailles. Under pressure from the crowd that burst into the palace, the king agreed to authorize the Declaration and other decrees issued in August 1789.

The state took a course towards the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. This meant that the king exercised his rule within the framework of the existing legislation. The changes affected the structure of the government, which had lost the royal councils and secretaries of state. The administrative division of France was greatly simplified, and instead of a multi-stage complex structure, 83 departments of equal area appeared.

The reforms affected the judicial system, which lost its corrupt positions and acquired a new structure.

The clergy, some of which did not recognize France's new civil status, found themselves at the mercy of a split.

Next stage

The Great French Revolution of 1789 was just the beginning in a chain of events, including the attempt to escape Louis XVI and the subsequent fall of the monarchy, military conflicts with the leading European powers that did not recognize the new state structure of France and the subsequent proclamation of the French Republic. In December 1792, the king's trial was held, which found him guilty. Louis XVI was beheaded on January 21, 1793.

Thus began the second stage of the French Revolution of 1789-1799, marked by a struggle between the moderate party of the Girondins, seeking to stop the further development of the revolution, and the more radical Jacobins, who insisted on expanding its actions.

The final stage

The deterioration of the economic situation in the country as a result of the political crisis and hostilities exacerbated the class struggle. Peasant uprisings broke out again, leading to the unauthorized division of communal lands. The Girondins, who had conspired with counter-revolutionary forces, were expelled from the Convention, the highest legislative body of the First French Republic, and the Jacobins came to power on their own.

In the years that followed, the Jacobin dictatorship developed into an uprising of the National Guard, which ended with the transfer of power to the Directory at the end of 1795. Her further actions were aimed at suppressing hotbeds of extremist resistance. Thus ended the ten-year French bourgeois revolution of 1789 - a period of social and economic upheaval, which was ended by the coup d'etat that took place on November 9, 1799.

The character of the revolution is bourgeois-democratic. During the revolution, there was a polarization of political forces and military intervention.

On July 12, 1689, the 1st armed clashes begin. The reason is that Louis XVI dismissed the Comptroller General of Finance Necker. On the same day, the Paris Committee is created in Paris - the body of the municipal government of Paris. July 13, 1789... this committee creates a national guard. Its task is to protect private property. What is the manifestation of the petty-bourgeois character of the guard. July 14, 1789... the revolutionary forces of Paris capture the Bastille, where a large arsenal of weapons was kept. July 14, 1789 - the official date of the beginning of the Great French Revolution. From this moment on, the revolution is gaining strength. In the cities - a municipal revolution, in the course of which the aristocracy was removed from power and organs of popular self-government arose.

In the villages, the same process is taking place, in addition, before the revolution, a rumor spread that the nobles were going to destroy the peasant harvest. The peasants, in order to prevent this, attack the nobles. During this period, there was a wave of emigration: the nobles who did not want to live in revolutionary France move abroad and begin to prepare countermeasures, hoping for the support of foreign states.

On September 14, 1789, the constituent assembly adopted a series of decrees that abolish the personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords. Church tithe was abolished, but quitrent, qualification and corvee were subject to redemption.

August 26, 1789... the constituent assembly adopts the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen”. The document was drawn up on the ideas of enlightenment and fixed the natural right of the people to freedom, property and to resist oppression. This document spelled out the freedoms of speech, press, religion, and other bourgeois freedoms. These ideas are sent to the king for signature, who refuses to sign this declaration.

On October 6, 1789, the masses went to the Palace of Versailles. The king is forced to sign a declaration.

November 2, 1789... the constituent assembly adopts a decree on the confiscation of all church lands. These lands were transferred under state control and sold in large plots. The measure was designed for the big bourgeoisie.

In May 1790, the constituent assembly adopted a decree according to which the peasants could redeem feudal payments and duties at once by the whole community and the amount of payment should be 20 times more than the average annual payment.

June 1790... The Constituent Assembly adopts a decree abolishing the division of people into estates. According to it, noble titles and coats of arms are also eliminated. Since 1790, supporters of the king - royalists, who planned to disperse the constituent assembly and restore the king in rights, began to activate, returning the old order. For this, they are preparing the escape of the king. June 21-25, 1791 - The king's unsuccessful escape. This escape marked the polarization of political forces in France. Many clubs have advocated the preservation of the constitutional monarchy and the monarch as head of the executive branch. Other clubs argued that everything cannot and should not depend on one person. This means that the most rational form of government, in their opinion, will be a republic. They were talking about the execution of the king.

In 1791... the constituent assembly adopts a constitution, according to which the constitutional monarchy was consolidated in France. Legislative power was concentrated in the 1-chamber parliament (term of office 2 years), executive power - the king and the ministers appointed by him. Participation in the elections was limited. All citizens were divided into active and passive. The latter did not have the right to stand for election. Of the 26 million people in France, only 4 million were considered active.

The Constituent Assembly, having adopted a constitution, dissolved itself and transferred power to the Legislative Assembly, which functioned since October 1. 1791 to 20 Sept. 1792 g.

In August 1791, a coalition of Prussia and Austria began to form with the aim of restoring the absolutist system in France. They are preparing an offensive and in 1792 Sweden and Spain are adjacent to them. This coalition invades France and from the very first days the French army begins to suffer defeat from the coalition forces. Radical measures were needed and the revolutionary forces completely break with the king. Radical politicians are preparing to declare France a republic.

1789-1799 - truly folk. All strata of French society took part in it: the urban mob, artisans, the intelligentsia, the petty and large bourgeoisie, and the peasants.

Before the revolution, as in the Middle Ages, the monarchy protected the division of society into three estates: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility, the third - all the rest of the population. The ancient formula clearly defined the place of each estate in the life of the country: "The clergy serve the king with prayers, the nobility - with a sword, the third estate - with property." The first and second estates were considered privileged - they owned land, did not pay land tax. Together they made up 4% of the country's population.

Causes of the Great French bourgeois revolution

Political: the crisis of the feudal-absolutist system, the arbitrariness and wastefulness of the royal power against the background of their unpopularity.

Economic: unbearable taxes, restriction of land turnover, internal customs, financial crisis of 1787, poor harvest in 1788, famine in 1789.

Social: lawlessness of the people, luxury of the aristocracy against the background of popular poverty.

Spiritual: ideas of the Enlightenment, an example of the American Revolutionary War.

The course of the Great French Revolution.

1st stage. May 1789 - July 1792.

1789, May 5 - Convocation of the States General (to introduce new taxes). Notables rejected the offer

1789, June 17 - Transformation of the States General into a National Constituent Assembly, establishing a new political system in France.

1789, August 24 - Approval by the Constituent Assembly of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The declaration read: “People are born and remain free and equal in rights. Articles 7, 9, 10, 11 affirmed freedom of conscience, freedom of speech and press. The last article declared that "property is an inviolable and sacred right." Elimination of class division. Nationalization of church property, state control over the church. Change of administrative division, introduction of a new one, consisting of departments, districts, cantons and communes. Elimination of obstacles that hindered the development of industry and trade. Le Chapelier's anti-labor law, which prohibited strikes and labor unions.

During 1789 - 1792 - riots throughout the country: peasant uprisings, riots of the urban poor, counter-revolutionary conspiracies - some were not satisfied with the half-heartedness of the reforms, others - with their radicalism. New militia, municipalities, revolutionary clubs. The threat of intervention.

1791, June 20 - an unsuccessful attempt by members of the royal family to secretly leave Paris (Varennes crisis), a sharp exacerbation of political contradictions in the country.

1791, September 3 - The king's approval of the constitution, developed back in 1789. The supreme legislative power was transferred to a unicameral Legislative Assembly. A supreme court independent of the executive and legislative branches was created. The constitution abolished all internal customs and guild systems. The “aristocracy of origin” was replaced by the “aristocracy of wealth”.

2nd stage. August 1792 - May 1793.

1792, August 10 - Another Parisian popular uprising. Overthrow of the monarchy (Louis XVI arrested). The Marseillaise, a hymn to the first French Revolution and then to France, was written in Strasbourg in June 1791 by officer Rouge de Lille. It was brought to Paris by a battalion of federates from Marseilles, which took part in the overthrow of the monarchy.

1792, September 22 - France is declared a republic. Slogans of the Great French Revolution: freedom, equality, brotherhood; peace to huts - war to palaces

1792, September 22 - New calendar introduced. 1789 was named the First Year of Freedom. The republican calendar officially began to operate from 1 Vandemier II year of freedom

1793, spring - defeat of French troops in battles with coalition armies, deterioration of the economic situation of the people

3rd stage. June 1793 - June 1794.

1793, June 2 - uprising, coming to power of the Jacobins, arrest and expulsion from the Convention of the Girondins

1793, end of July - The invasion of the troops of the anti-French coalition in France, the occupation of Toulon by the British

1793, September 5 - A huge demonstration of the Parisians demanding the creation of an internal revolutionary army, the arrest of the "suspicious" and the purge of the committees. In response: on September 9 - the creation of a revolutionary army, on the 11th - the decree on the "maximum" for bread (general control of prices and wages - September 29), on the 14th reorganization of the Revolutionary Tribunal, on the 17th the law on the "suspicious" ...

1793, October 10 - The Convention renews the composition of the Committee of Public Safety. Provisional Revolutionary Order Act (Jacobin Dictatorship)

1793, December 18 - Revolutionary troops liberated Toulon. Napoleon Bonaparte participated in the battle as an artillery captain

4th stage. July 1794 - November 1799.

1794, July 27 - The Thermidorian coup, which brought the big bourgeoisie back to power. Cancellation of the law on "suspicious" and maximum prices, the Revolutionary Tribunal was dissolved.

1794, July 28 -Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couton, 22 more people were executed without trial. The next day, 71 more people from the Commune were executed.

1794, end of August - the Paris Commune was abolished and replaced by the "administrative police commission"

1795, June - the very word "revolutionary", the word-symbol of the entire Jacobin period, was prohibited

1795, August 22 - The Convention adopted a new Constitution, which secured a republic in France, but abolished universal suffrage. Legislative power was entrusted to two chambers - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. Executive power was placed in the hands of the Directory, five directors selected by the Council of Elders from candidates nominated by the Council of Five Hundred.

1795 - France forced Spain and Prussia to sign a peace treaty

April 1796 - General Bonaparte leads French troops to Italy and wins crushing victories there

1798, May - Bonaparte's 38,000-strong army on 300 ships and barges sailed from Toulon to Egypt. Ahead are victories in Egypt and Syria, defeat at sea (the British defeated almost the entire French fleet in Egypt).

1799, November 9-10 - A coup d'état without bloodshed. On 18 Brumaire, the government was forced to "voluntarily" sign a letter of resignation. The next day, Bonaparte with his loyal soldiers appeared in the Legislative Corps and forced the Council of Elders to sign a decree transferring all power in France to the three consuls. The Great French Revolution is over. A year later, Napoleon Bonaparte became the first consul, in whose hands all power was concentrated.

Significance of the French Revolution

Destruction of the old order (overthrow of the monarchy, destruction of the feudal order).
Establishment of bourgeois society and clearing the way for the further capitalist development of France (liquidation of the feudal-estate order)
Concentration of political and economic power in the hands of the bourgeoisie.
The emergence of forms of bourgeois land ownership: peasant and large property of the former nobles and the bourgeoisie.
Creation of prerequisites for an industrial revolution.
Further formation of a single national market.
Influence of the ideas of the French Revolution. The ideas about the liberation of man, about freedom, the equality of all people have found a response on all continents; they developed and penetrated into European society for 200 years.

Have you watched the synopsis on the topic "The French Revolution". Choose further actions:

CHECK KNOWLEDGE:.
Go to the next grade 7 synopsis:.
Go to class 8 history synopsis:

Almost all peoples have had revolutions in history. But today we will talk about the French Revolution, which has come to be called the Great Revolution.

The largest transformation of the social and political system of France, which led to the destruction of the absolute monarchy, and the proclamation of the First French Republic.

We will tell you about the Great French Revolution from various sources.

Source I - Wikipedia

Causes of the revolution

The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and historians consider the end of the revolution on November 9, 1799 (the coup of 18 Brumaire).

France in the eighteenth century was an absolute monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and a regular army. The socio-economic and political regime that existed in the country was formed as a result of complex compromises developed during the long political confrontation and civil wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. One of these compromises existed between the royal power and the privileged estates - for the renunciation of political rights, the state power by all means at its disposal protected the social privileges of these two estates.

Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - during the long series of peasant wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. the peasants achieved the abolition of the overwhelming majority of monetary taxes and the transition to subsistence relations in agriculture. The third compromise existed with respect to the bourgeoisie (which at that time was the middle class, in whose interests the government also did a lot, preserving a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which constituted the French stratum. bourgeois). However, the regime that emerged as a result of these complex compromises did not ensure the normal development of France, which in the XVIII century. began to lag behind its neighbors, especially England. In addition, over-exploitation increasingly armed the masses against the monarchy, whose vital interests were completely ignored by the state.

Gradually during the XVIII century. At the top of French society, the understanding was ripening that the old order, with its underdevelopment of market relations, chaos in the management system, a corrupt system of selling public offices, the absence of clear legislation, an intricate taxation system and an archaic system of estate privileges, needed to be reformed. In addition, the royal power was losing confidence in the eyes of the clergy, nobility and the bourgeoisie, among whom the idea was asserted that the power of the king was usurpation in relation to the rights of estates and corporations (the point of view of Montesquieu) or in relation to the rights of the people (point of view of Rousseau). Thanks to the activities of the enlighteners, of which the physiocrats and encyclopedists are especially important, a revolution took place in the minds of the educated part of French society. Finally, under Louis XV and even more so under Louis XVI, liberal reforms in the political and economic fields were initiated. The granting of some political rights to the third estate, along with a significant deterioration in its economic situation as a result of reforms, inevitably led to the collapse of the Old Order.

Signs of the Great French Revolution

Accelerated the development of capitalism and the collapse of feudalism
Influenced the entire subsequent struggle of peoples for the principles of democracy
Became a lesson, an example and a warning to transforming life in other countries
Promoted the development of national identity of European peoples

Source II - catastrofe.ru

Characteristic look

The Great French Revolution is the largest transformation of the social and political systems of France, which took place at the end of the 18th century, as a result of which the Old Order was destroyed, and France from a monarchy became a de jure republic of free and equal citizens. The motto is Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood.
The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and various historians consider it to be the end of July 27, 1794 (Thermidorian coup) or November 9, 1799 (Coup of 18 Brumaire).

Marxist historians argue that the Great French Revolution was "bourgeois" in nature, consisted in the change of the feudal system to the capitalist, and the leading role in this process was played by the "bourgeois class", which overthrew the "feudal aristocracy" during the revolution. Most other historians do not agree with this, pointing out that feudalism in France disappeared several centuries before the revolution, the French aristocracy actually included not only large landowners, but also large capitalists) it was the French aristocracy that imposed capitalist (market) relations for 25- 30 years before 1789, the revolution began with massive uprisings of peasants and townspeople, which were of an anti-capitalist nature, and they continued throughout its course, and the bourgeoisie, representing the French middle class, also actively participated in them) Those who came to power after of the first stage of the revolution, especially in the provinces, most of them did not come from the bourgeoisie, but were nobles who, even before the revolution, were at the helm of power - they collected taxes, rent from the population, etc.

Among non-Marxist historians, two views on the nature of the Great French Revolution, which do not contradict each other, prevail. The traditional view that arose in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. (Sieyès, Barnave, Guizot), considers the revolution as a popular uprising against the aristocracy, its privileges and its methods of oppression of the masses, whence the revolutionary terror against the privileged estates, the desire of revolutionaries to destroy everything that was associated with the Old order and build a new free and democratic society ... The main slogans of the revolution - freedom, equality, brotherhood - followed from these aspirations.

According to the second view, which is shared by a large number of modern historians (including I. Wallerstein, P. Huber, A. Cobbo, D. Guerin, E. Leroy Laduri, B. Moore, Huneke, etc.), the revolution was anti-capitalist in nature and represented is an explosion of mass protest against capitalism or against those methods of its spread that were used by the ruling elite.

There are also other opinions about the nature of the revolution. For example, the historians F. Fure and D. Richet consider the revolution to a large extent as a struggle for power between various groups that replaced each other several times during 1789-1799. There is a view of the revolution as the liberation of the bulk of the population (peasants) from a monstrous system of oppression or some kind of slavery, whence the main slogan of the revolution is freedom, equality, brotherhood.

From the taking of the Bastille to the campaign against Versailles

When the preparation of the royal court for the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly became evident, it was enough to cause an even greater explosion of discontent among the Parisians, who linked the prospects for improving their situation with the work of the National Assembly. On July 12, 1789, there were new clashes between the people and the troops in Paris; Camille Desmoulins called the people to arms by attaching a green ribbon to his hat. On July 13, the alarm sounded over Paris.
On the morning of July 14, 12 cannons, 32 thousand guns and gunpowder were seized at the Invalides. Countless crowds of people, armed partly with guns, as well as pikes, hammers, axes and clubs, flooded the streets adjacent to the Bastille, a military fortress and the main political prison of Paris. The officers of the regiments in Paris no longer counted on their soldiers. Communication with Versailles was cut off. At about one o'clock in the afternoon, the cannons of the fortress began firing at the people.

However, the people continued the siege, and the guns captured in the morning were prepared for shelling the fortress. The garrison realized that resistance was pointless and surrendered at about five o'clock.
The king was forced to acknowledge the existence of a Constituent Assembly. In the weeks that followed, the revolution spread throughout the country. On July 18 there was an uprising in Troyes, on July 19 - in Strasbourg, on July 21 - in Cherbourg, on July 24 - in Rouen. In a number of cities, uprisings took place under the slogan “Bread! Death to buyers! " The rebels seized bread, took possession of the local town halls, burned the documents stored there.

Subsequently, new, elected bodies of power - municipalities - were formed in the cities, and a new armed force, the National Guard, was created.
The rebellious peasants burned down the lords' castles, seizing their lands. In some provinces, about half of the landowners' estates were burned or destroyed. (These events of 1789 were called the "Great Fear" - Grande Peur).

By decrees of August 4-11, the Constituent Assembly abolished personal feudal duties, seigneurial courts, church tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations and declared the equality of all before the law in the payment of state taxes and in the right to hold civil, military and ecclesiastical offices. But at the same time it announced the elimination of only "indirect" obligations (the so-called banalities): the "real" obligations of the peasants were left, in particular, land and poll taxes.

On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" - one of the first documents of democratic constitutionalism. The “old regime”, based on class privileges and the arbitrariness of the authorities, was opposed by the equality of all before the law, the inalienability of “natural” human rights, popular sovereignty, freedom of opinion, the principle “everything is allowed that is not prohibited by law” and other democratic principles of revolutionary enlightenment. which have now become the requirements of law and current legislation. The declaration also affirmed the right to private property as a natural right.

On October 5, a march to Versailles to the king's residence took place in order to force Louis XVI to authorize decrees and a Declaration, the approval of which the monarch had previously refused. At the same time, the National Assembly ordered Lafayette, commander of the National Guard, to lead the guards to Versailles. As a result of this campaign, the king was forced to leave Versailles and move to Paris, to the Tuileries palace.

Source III - studopedia.ru

I'm a kobin dictatorship

On September 21, the Republic (First Republic) was proclaimed in France. The slogan "Freedom, equality and brotherhood" became the slogan of the Republic.

The question that worried everyone at that time was the fate of the arrested king Louis XVI. The convention decided to judge him. On January 14, 1793, 387 of the 749 members of the Convention voted to impose the death penalty on the king. One of the members of the Convention explained his participation in the voting as follows: "This process is an act of public safety or a measure of public safety ..." On January 21, Louis XVI was executed, in October 1793 Queen Marie Antoinette was executed.

The execution of Louis XVI served as a pretext for the expansion of the anti-French coalition, which included England and Spain. Failures on the external front, deepening economic difficulties at home, tax increases - all this shook the position of the Girondins. Unrest intensified in the country, pogroms, murders began, and on May 31 - June 2, 1793 a popular uprising took place. The third stage of the Revolution starts from this event.

Power passed into the hands of the radical strata of the bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. The victory of the Montagnards on a national scale was preceded by their victory over their opponents at the Jacobin Club; therefore, the regime they established was called the Jacobin dictatorship. To save the revolution, the Jacobins considered it necessary to introduce an emergency regime. The Jacobins recognized the centralization of state power as an indispensable condition. The Convention remained the highest legislative body. In his subordination was a government of 11 people - the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre. The Public Security Committee of the Convention for Struggle and Counter-Revolution was strengthened, revolutionary tribunals became more active.

The position of the new government was difficult. The war was raging. In most departments of France, especially the Vendée, there were riots. In the summer of 1793, a young noblewoman Charlotte Corday was killed by Marat, which had a serious impact on the course of further political events.

The Jacobins continued their attack on the Catholic Church and introduced the republican calendar. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution, according to which France was declared a single and indivisible Republic; the supremacy of the people, the equality of people in rights, broad democratic freedoms were consolidated. The property qualification was abolished when participating in elections to state bodies; all men over the age of 21 received voting rights. The wars of conquest were condemned. This constitution was the most democratic of all French constitutions, but its introduction was delayed due to the state of emergency in the country.

The Jacobin dictatorship, which successfully used the initiative of the social lower classes, demonstrated a complete rejection of liberal principles. Industrial production and agriculture, finance and trade, public celebrations and the private life of citizens were all subject to strict regulation. However, this did not stop the further deepening of the economic and social crisis. In September 1793, the Convention "put terror on the agenda."

The Public Safety Committee carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which, in a fairly short time, the Republic managed to create not only a large, but also a well-armed army. And by the beginning of 1794 the war was transferred to the territory of the enemy. The decisive victory of General JB Jourdan on June 26, 1794 at Fleurus (Belgium) over the Austrians gave guarantees of the inviolability of the new property, the tasks of the Jacobin dictatorship were exhausted, and the need for it disappeared.

Internal disagreements among the Jacobins intensified. Thus, from the autumn of 1793 Danton demanded a weakening of the revolutionary dictatorship, a return to constitutional order, and a renunciation of the policy of terror. He was executed. The lower classes demanded deepening reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policy of the Jacobins, who pursued a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, went over to the position of counterrevolution, dragging along large masses of peasants.

On 9 Thermidor (July 27), 1794, the conspirators succeeded in making a coup, arresting Robespierre, and overthrowing the revolutionary government. “The republic has perished, the kingdom of robbers has come,” - these were the last words of Robespierre in the Convention. 10 Thermidor Robespierre, Saint-Just, and their closest associates were guillotined.

The Thermidorian coup and the Directory. In September 1794, for the first time in the history of France, a decree was passed on the separation of church and state. The confiscation and sale of emigrant property did not stop.

In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, according to which power passed to the Directory and two councils - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. Universal suffrage was abolished, property qualifications were restored (though small). In the summer of 1795, the republican army of General L. Gauche defeated the forces of the rebels, the Chouans and Royalists, who landed from British ships on the Quiberon Peninsula (Brittany). On October 5 (13th Vendemier), 1795, the republican troops of Napoleon Bonaparte suppressed the royalist revolt in Paris. However, in the politics of the groups that were replacing in power (Thermidorians, Directory), the struggle against the masses of the people acquired an ever greater scope. Popular uprisings were suppressed in Paris on April 1 and May 20-23, 1795 (12-13 Germinal and 1-4 Prairial). On November 9, 1799, the Council of Elders appointed Brigadier General Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) to command the army. Large-scale external aggression - the Napoleonic wars in Italy, Egypt, etc. - defended Thermidorian France both from the threat of the restoration of the old order and from a new upsurge of the revolutionary movement.

The revolution ended on November 9 (18 Brumaire), 1799, when the Directory regime was "legally" liquidated and a new state order was established - the Consulate, which existed from 1799 to 1804. "Solid power" was established - the dictatorship of Napoleon.

The main results of the Great French Revolution

1. It consolidated and simplified the complex variety of pre-revolutionary forms of ownership.

2. The lands of many (but not all) nobles were sold to peasants with 10-year installments in small plots (parcels).

3. Abolished the privileges of the nobility and the clergy and introduced equal social opportunities for all citizens. All this contributed to the expansion of civil rights in all European countries, the introduction of constitutions.

4. The revolution took place under the auspices of representative elected bodies: the National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791), the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792), the Convention (1792-1794). This contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, despite subsequent setbacks.

5. The resolution gave birth to a new state structure - a parliamentary republic.

6. The state was now the guarantor of equal rights for centuries of citizens.

7. The financial system was transformed: the estate character of taxes was abolished, the principle of their universality and proportionality to income or property was introduced. The publicity of the budget was proclaimed.

Great French Revolution - history, reasons, events and more updated: December 21, 2017 by the author: site