General biology for students. Section: Biology for students

This section contains literature on biology, zoology, physiology for medical students. You can download reference books, textbooks on biology, various assignments and tests on general biology.

The section will be useful for students and applicants entering medical schools.

Section topics:

List of articles: "Section: Biology for students"

    M .: Publishing house-school, 2008 .-- 208 p. This manual contains in a visual form the school course "Anatomy, physiology and human hygiene" with the basics of medical ecology. Summary tables-characteristics, diagrams and figures will allow students ... Authors: Yarygin V.N., Vasilyeva V.I., Volkov I.N., Sinelshchikova V.V. 5th ed., Rev. and add. - M .: graduate School, 2003. Book 1 - 432s., Book 2- 334s. In the book (1st and 2nd) ... Authors: Bogoyavlensky Yu.K., Ulissova T.N., Yarovaya I.M., Yarygin V.N. M .: Medicine, 1984 .-- 560 p. The textbook highlights the main sections of biology and its tasks in the system of medical education - general biological ... M .: VUNMTs, 2000. - 592 p. Textbook for medical students "Biology", authors N. V. Chebyshev, G. G. Grineva, M. V. Kozar, S. I. Gulenkov, is intended for the faculties of higher nursing ... M .: VLADOS, 2000. - 288 p. ... The textbook describes the biophysical essence of the organization and functioning of biological objects at the cellular, tissue levels, at the level of organs and the body as a whole. The nature of the ionic ... Per. from English - M .: Mir, 1993; T1 - 384s.; T2 - 415s. This textbook of biological and medicinal chemistry and molecular biology is widely known in the world and translated into ... 4th ed., erased. - M .: Academy, 2003 .-- 464 p. The textbook (1st ed. - 1978) provides basic information about prokaryotic microorganisms: the structure and chemical composition of the cell, the characteristics of the energy ... 3rd ed., Rev. - M .: 2009 .-- 352 p. The textbook provides up-to-date information on the taxonomy of prokaryotes, their structure, regulation of metabolism, highlights the issues of heredity, variability, ecology of microorganisms, determination of their number ... Ulyanovsk: UlGU; Part 1 - 2005, 176s., Part 2 - 2006, 195s. The textbook reflects the current state of science about the general laws of the origin and development of life on Earth - general biology. Available for ... M .: Academy, 2008. - 256 p. The textbook is devoted to general issues of modern biology. It provides basic information about the structure of living matter and the general laws of its functioning. The topics of the training course are outlined: ...

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ОГЭ (ГИА) ЕГЭ school course University course Anatomy Biochemistry Botany +10 Genetics Zoology Microbiology Molecular biology Animal morphology Pathological physiology Topographic anatomy Topographic Surgery Physiology Plant physiology

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Biology

State educational institution higher professional education

Ryazan State Medical University named after acad. I.P. Pavlova

Federal Agency for Healthcare and Social Development "

Department of Histology and Biology

Kalygina T.A. Bryzgalina L.I. Shutov V.I.

Biology

a course of lectures for students studying in Russian

Reviewers: Endolov V.V., professor, head. Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Hygiene of Ryazan state university them. Esenina Darmogray V.N., professor, head. chair

pharmacognosy with a course of botany.

© T.A. Kalygina, L.I. Bryzgalina, Shutov V.I.

© GOU VPO Ryaz. GMU. 2008

Modern biology, as a fundamental discipline, plays a primary role in vocational training various specialists, including doctors.

In the field of medical education, a broad biological training of students is necessary for them to obtain fundamental knowledge in the field of biology and medicine, is human-oriented and meets the needs of practical medicine.

The main goal of this work is to form a holistic understanding of the foundations of biology, taking into account the modern achievements of this rapidly developing branch of science and to assist 1st year foreign students in assimilating theoretical knowledge in order to achieve the required level in the knowledge of educational material.

The material of this course of lectures is presented in the traditional sequence in accordance with the provisions on the theory of biological systems and ideas about the levels of organization of living nature. The material is divided into 16 topics and includes cytology, molecular biology, reproduction and development of organisms, general and medical genetics, the theory of evolution and anthropogenesis.

The basic theoretical material, studied in the first year by foreign students of the specialty "General Medicine", "Dentistry", "Pharmacy", is stated.

Introduction to the science of biology

1. Subject of biology. Classification of biological sciences.

2. Methods of studying (research) biology.

3. Basic properties of living beings. Definition of the concept of "life".

4. Levels of the organization of the living.

Biology subject. Classification of biological sciences

The term "biology" is formed from two Greek words (bios - life and logos - teaching).

The term was introduced in 1802 by two naturalists - J.B. Lamarck and G.R. Treviranus, independently of each other.

Biology studies general patterns, characteristic of all living things and revealing the essence of life, its forms and development.

Biology is a complex science. Sections of the science of biology are classified in the following areas:

1) the study of systematic groups (by research objects). For example, zoology, botany, virology.

IN within these sciences, there are narrow directions (or disciplines). For example, in zoology, protozoology, helminthology, entomology, etc. are distinguished.

2) the study of different levels of organization of living things: molecular biology, histology, etc.

3) the properties and manifestations of the life of individual organisms. For example, physiology, genetics, ecology.

4) links with other sciences (as a result of the integration of sciences). These are biochemistry, biophysics, biotechnology, radiobiology, etc.

Biology study methods

The main methods that are used in biological sciences are: 1) observation and description - the oldest (traditional) method of biology. This me-

tod is widely used in our time (in zoology, botany, cytology, ecology, etc.)

2) comparison, i.e. the comparative method makes it possible to find similarities and differences, general patterns in the structure of organisms.

3) experience or experiment. For example, the experiments of G. Mendel or the work of I.P. Pavlov in physiology.

4) modeling - creating a specific model or processes and studying them. For example, modeling of conditions and processes (inaccessible to observation) of the origin of life.

5) the historical method - the study of the laws of the appearance and development of organisms

Basic properties of living

Living things differ from inanimate bodies in a number of properties. The main properties of living things are:

Specific organization.

Living organisms have the necessary structures to ensure their vital activity.

The specific organization of living beings is manifested in particular in the chemical composition. Of chemical elements a large proportion is oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen. In total, they make up more than 98% of the chemical composition. These elements form in living organisms complex organic compounds - proteins, fats, nucleic acids, carbohydrates that are not found in inanimate nature.

Metabolism and energy.

Organisms constantly metabolize substances and energy with the environment - this is a prerequisite for existence.

The metabolism and energy is composed of 2 processes:

a) synthesis or assimilation, or plastic exchange (with energy absorption). b) decay or dissimilation, or energy exchange (with the release of energy)

Homeostasis - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment.

Complex self-regulating processes take place in living beings, which proceed in a strictly defined order and are aimed at maintaining the constancy of the internal environment (for example, at the constancy of the chemical composition). In this case, the body is in a state of dynamic equilibrium (i.e., mobile equilibrium), which is important when it exists under changing environmental conditions.

Reproduction.

Reproduction is the property of organisms to reproduce their own kind. Each living creature has a limited life span, but leaving behind offspring, ensures the continuity and succession of life.

Ability to develop - changing objects of living nature.

Individual development (ontogeny) - the development of an individual in most cases begins from the zygote (fertilized egg) or from the division of the mother cell until the end of life. In the course of ontogenesis, growth, differentiation of cells, tissues, organs, and the interaction of individual parts occur. The lifespan of individuals is limited by aging processes leading to death.

Phylogenesis is the historical development of the world of living organisms.

Phylogenesis is the irreversible and directed development of living nature, which is accompanied by the formation of new species and the progressive complication of life. The result of historical development is the diversity of living things.

Irritability.

Irritability is the body's ability to respond to influences with certain reactions. The manifestation of irritability is movement.

Have plants - tropism (for example, a change in the position of leaves in spacedue to illumination - phototropism).

Have unicellular animals - taxis.

The reactions of multicellular organisms to irritation are carried out using nervous system and are called reflexes.

Heredity.

Heredity is the property of organisms to pass from generation to generation characteristic signs species with the help of carriers of hereditary information, DNA and RNA molecules.

Variability.

Variability is the property of organisms to acquire new traits. Variability creates a variety of material for natural selection.

Based on the properties of living things, scientists are trying to define the concept of "life". The current state the development of biology is best suited to the definition of life given by the biophysicist M.V. Volkenstein: “Living bodies are open self-regulating, self-reproducing systems built of polymers - proteins and nucleic acids and supporting their existence as a result of the exchange of substances and energy with the environment. "

This definition includes signs of the living. Each cell and organism as a whole is a system, i.e. are a set of interacting, ordered structures (organelles, tissue cells, organs). Living beings are open systems that are in a state of dynamic equilibrium with the external environment. Living beings carry out a continuous exchange of substances and energy with the environment (absorption and excretion, assimilation and dissimilation).

Organizational levels of living beings

Life on Earth is an integral system consisting of various structural levels of organization of biological beings. There are several main levels of organization (the division is conditional)

Molecularly genetic.

Biology starts with molecular levelsince the atomic level bears no traces of biological specificity. This level explores DNA, RNA, proteins, genes and their role in storage and transmission genetic information, in metabolism and energy conversion. Biology studies the laws characteristic of this level.

Cellular.

The structural, functional and genetic unit of living beings is a cell. Viruses, being a non-cellular form of organization of living things, show their properties as living organisms only when they invade cells.

At the cellular level, they study the structure of cells and cellular components, self-reproduction, the implementation of hereditary information, metabolism and energy, occurring at the cell level.

Organic.

The structural unit at this level is an organism, an individual. An organism is a system independently existing in the environment. Ontogenesis processes take place at this level. In the course of ontogenesis, hereditary information is realized under certain conditions of the external environment, i.e. the phenotype of the organism of a given biological species is formed.

Population-specific.

The elementary unit of a species is the population. At this level, the exchange of genetic information during crossing, changes in the genetic composition of populations, factors affecting the dynamics of the genetic composition of populations, problems of preserving an endangered species are studied.

Ecosystem.

The structural unit of this level is ecosystems, which are understood as sites earth surface with certain natural and climatic conditions and the associated communities of microorganisms, animals and plants, which form an inseparable interdependent complex. This level studies the circulation of substances and the flow of energy, which are associated with the vital activity of all living organisms. Ecosystems make up the biosphere - the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of life on Earth. Allocate the social level characteristic of a person.

All levels of the organization are closely interconnected, which indicates the integrity of living nature. Without biological processes that are carried out at these levels, the existence of life on Earth is impossible.

Man and all mankind are part of the biosphere. Human health depends on the state of the biosphere, on the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. If this ability is insufficiently manifested, then disturbances can occur that affect different levels of life (cellular, organismal).

A cell is an elementary structural unit of a living organism

1. Cell theory.

2. The structure of the cell.

3. Evolution of the cell.

Cell theory.

In 1665. R. Hooke first discovered plant cells. In 1674. A. Levenguk discovered an animal cell. In 1839. T. Schwann and M. Schleiden formulated the cellular theory. The main point of the cell theory was that the cell is the structural and functional basis of living systems. But they mistakenly believed that cells are formed from a structureless substance. In 1859. R. Virkhov proved that new cells are formed only by dividing the previous ones.

The main provisions of the cell theory:

1) The cell is a structural and functional unit of all living things. All living organisms are made up of cells.

2) All cells are basically similar in chemical composition and metabolic processes. 3) New cells are formed by dividing existing ones.

4) All cells in the same way store and implement hereditary information. 5) The vital activity of a multicellular organism as a whole is due to the interaction of its constituent cells.

Cell structure

By structure, 2 types of cells are distinguished:

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

TO prokaryotes include bacteria andblue-green algae. Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in the following way: they do not have membrane organelles present in a eukaryotic cell (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, Golgi complex, chloroplasts).

The most important difference is that they do not have a membrane-surrounded nucleus. DNA of prokaryotes is represented by one coiled circular molecule. Prokaryotes also lack centrioles of the cell center, so they never divide by mitosis. They are characterized by amitosis - direct fast division.

Eukaryotic cells are cells of unicellular and multicellular organisms. They are made up of three main components:

- the cell membrane that surrounds the cell and separates it from the external environment;

- cytoplasm containing water, mineral salts, organic compounds, organelles and inclusions;

- the nucleus, which contains the genetic material of the cell.

Outer cell membrane

1 - polar head of the phospholipid molecule

2 - fatty acid tail of the phospholipid molecule

3 - integral protein

4 - peripheral protein

5 - semi-integral protein

6 - glycoprotein

7 - glycolipid The outer cell membrane is inherent in all cells (animal and plant),

has a thickness of about 7.5 (up to 10) nm and consists of lipid and protein molecules.

Currently, the common liquid-mosaic model of building a cell membrane. According to this model, lipid molecules are arranged in two layers, with their water-repellent ends (hydrophobic - fat-soluble) facing each other, and water-soluble (hydrophilic) - to the periphery. Protein molecules are embedded in the lipid layer. Some of them are located on the external or internal surface of the lipid part, others are partially submerged or penetrate the membrane through and through.

Membrane functions:

- protective, border, barrier;

Transport;

- receptor - carried out at the expense of proteins - receptors, which have a selective ability to certain substances (hormones, antigens, etc.), enter into chemical interactions with them, conduct signals into the cell;

- participate in the formation of intercellular contacts;

- provide movement of some cells (amoeba-like movement).

Animal cells have a thin layer of glycocalyx on top of the outer cell membrane. It is a complex of carbohydrates with lipids and carbohydrates with proteins. Glycocalyx is involved in cell-cell interactions. The cytoplasmic membranes of most cell organelles have exactly the same structure.

In plant cells outside of the cytoplasmic membrane. there is a cell wall made of cellulose.

Transport of substances through the cytoplasmic membrane.

There are two main mechanisms for the entry of substances into or out of the cell:

1. Passive transport.

2. Active transport.

Passive transport of substances occurs without energy consumption. An example of such transport is diffusion and osmosis, in which the movement of molecules or ions

is carried out from an area with a high concentration to an area with a lower concentration, for example, water molecules.

Active transport - with this type of transport, molecules or ions penetrate the membrane against the concentration gradient, which requires energy. An example of active transport is the sodium-potassium pump, which actively pumps sodium out of the cell and absorbs potassium ions from the external environment, transferring them into the cell. Pump

Is a special membrane protein that sets it in motion by ATP.

Active transport maintains a constant cell volume and membrane potential.

Transport of substances can be carried out by endocytosis and exocytosis. Endocytosis - the penetration of substances into the cell, exocytosis - from the cell.

During endocytosis, the plasma membrane forms invaginations or outgrowths, which then envelop the substance and, when detached, turn into bubbles. There are two types of endocytosis:

1) phagocytosis absorption of solid particles (phagocytic cells), 2) pinocytosis - absorption of liquid material. Pinocytosis is characteristic of amoeboid protozoa.

By exocytosis, various substances are removed from the cells: undigested food debris are removed from the digestive vacuoles, and their liquid secretion is removed from the secretory cells.

Cytoplasm - (cytoplasm + nucleus form protoplasm). The cytoplasm consists of a watery basic substance (cytoplasmic matrix, hyaloplasm, cytosol) and various organelles and inclusions in it.

Inclusions are waste products of cells. There are 3 groups of inclusions - trophic, secretory (gland cells) and special (pigment) values.

Organelles are permanent structures of the cytoplasm that perform certain functions in the cell.

Organelles of general importance and special ones are distinguished. Special ones are found in most cells, but they are present in significant quantities only in cells that perform a specific function. These include microvilli of intestinal epithelial cells, cilia of the epithelium of the trachea and bronchi, flagella, myofibrils (providing muscle contraction, etc.).

Organelles of general importance include EPS, Golgi complex, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, centrioles of the cell center, peroxisomes, microtubules, microfilaments. In plant cells - plastids, vacuoles. Organelles of general importance can be subdivided into organelles with membrane and non-membrane structure.

Organelles with a membrane structure are two-membrane and one-membrane. Mitochondria and plastids are referred to as two membranes. To one-membrane ones - endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, vacuoles.

Organelles without membranes: ribosomes, cell center, microtubules, microfilaments.

Mitochondria are round or oval organelles. They consist of two membranes: inner and outer. The inner membrane has outgrowths - cristae, which divide the mitochondria into compartments. The compartments are filled with a substance - a matrix. The matrix contains DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, calcium and magnesium salts. Autonomous protein biosynthesis takes place here. The main function of mitochondria is the synthesis of energy and its accumulation in aTP molecules... New mitochondria are formed in the cell as a result of the division of old ones.

Anatoly Vladimirovich is a teacher, of which there are few now, he thoroughly knows his subject, after a short interview he immediately finds weak points. I helped my daughter prepare for the exam in biology. He is a professional in his field, he explains everything very easily. But most importantly, it was always interesting in the classroom, and my daughter passed the exam. We are very pleased with the result, although we expected a higher mark, but it is our fault that we turned to him so late. Thank you very much for your preparation!

Vera Mikhailovna 06/27/2019

As a teacher, Anatoly Vladimirovich is a real professional - a competent, demanding biology tutor. She explains clearly, teaches you to quickly assimilate a huge amount of information and teaches you to cope with a large number of tasks without difficulty. He personally worries about each student, is always ready to help or give practical advice. He is open-minded, very friendly, he easily finds a common language with everyone. Many thanks to Anatoly Vladimirovich for everything: for the tremendous pleasure of communicating with him, and most importantly, for the knowledge, skills and abilities that, I think, will be useful to me in the future. We continue our classes and many thanks to the company for such wonderful, competent teachers.

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Our daughter is an external student in grade 10-11, she needs a tutor to prepare for the USE in biology and subsequent admission to a medical school, she is homeschooled. An excellent tutor Anatoly Vladimirovich was selected for us on your website. During our studies, we had many tutors, but this is the first time we see this. The atmosphere in the classroom is very comfortable and friendly; possessing such traits as kindness, sincerity, responsiveness and love for their work and subject. Anatoly Vladimirovich is able to find an approach to anyone, there is no such question that he would not be ready to answer without hesitation. A wonderful person and a teacher worthy of attention and respect, whom I want to follow the path of biology and endlessly thank for the work done and communication. We continue our classes, thanks!

Galina 03/31/2019

Anatoly Vladimirovich is a sensitive teacher, devoted to his work. He is always in search of new means and forms of education, full of strength, energy, enthusiasm and creative ideas. He successfully and effectively uses the latest in the educational process pedagogical technologies, skillfully uses in educational and extracurricular activities creative work, actively contributes to the development of the intellectual, moral, communicative potentials of the personality of each student. In his lessons, everything is thought out to the smallest detail, one task is replaced by another, and each requires from the student not just mechanical performance, but makes him think, compare, contrast, draw conclusions. The daughter says that during classes he has a favorable psychological climate. Although classes are held via Skype, his presence is felt. He teaches him to seek and find solutions on his own. Anatoly Vladimirovich teaches students and is constantly engaged in self-education. Thank you very much!

Elena 02/04/2019

We are grateful to fate for bringing us together with such a wonderful person and teacher as Anatoly Vladimirovich. A true professional in his field. Gives knowledge systematized according to its individual methodology. He has a wealth of teaching experience. She is a responsible, demanding and at the same time friendly biology teacher who can find an approach to each student. My son's vision of the subject has developed into a fairly harmonious system. Thanks to the presentation of the material given by Anatoly Vladimirovich, impressive results have been achieved in such a short time. We sincerely thank Anatoly Vladimirovich for his help in making this dream come true! We continue our studies.

Tatiana 09.01.2019

Our daughter, a 10th grade student, is assisted in biology for admission to honey. University Stepura Anatoly Vladimirovich. Only good words I want to talk about the teacher. Competent, punctual, moderately strict in terms of study, but that's even good. Classes are always interesting and fruitful, knowledge is already visible on the face. Its own individual training program, which is perfectly digestible. Thank you very much!

Juliana 11.12.2018

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Shashina Daria Anatolyevna 10.08.2018

My daughter Anastasia was a very poor student in biology. and in 6 months the teacher not only pulled her up in the subject, but she was able to send the OGE in biology! 1 point was not enough for her until 4. I am satisfied with the work of the tutor.

natalia Yurievna 08.08.2018

Two years ago, my daughter was preparing for the OGE with Anatoly Vladimirovich. We are so pleased with his work that this year we asked him to prepare for the Unified State Exam without a doubt! Anatoly Vladimirovich provides an accessible and competent presentation of the material, classes are held in a warm and comfortable atmosphere, constantly maintains feedback from parents, thank you very much for your help and support!

Svetlana 03/16/2018

With a tutor Anatoly Vladimirovich we are preparing for the Unified State Exam. We like him, gives his information, explains. He is very responsible, he approaches students individually. He explains clearly, we write tests. If any questions arose in parallel, of course, he answers them. He has no free time in class, he does not allow being distracted by conversations on abstract topics, he quickly directs in the right direction. The tutor gives a lot of such information that it would be difficult for us to collect on our own. This is quality information that is difficult to find. is he high level teacher!

Ibrahim 02/22/2018

In January of this year, we began classes with Anatoly Vladimirovich. Everything is great, we like everything very much, the child is happy. The lessons themselves are interesting, the child is drawn into the knowledge of the subject. Improving academic performance .. This is a very lively teacher. He immediately aroused the child's love for biology. The teacher works with an electronic board, he has his own method of conducting classes that are aimed at increasing knowledge and preparing for the exam. We are very happy! A friendly teacher, a good professional, helped our child to believe in himself. We are very grateful to him. The score is excellent.

Elizabeth 02/20/2018

The daughter is very pleased with the lessons with Anatoly Vladimirovich. The teacher is fluent in the subject, presents the material in a simple and accessible way, classes are held in a friendly atmosphere. Earlier, teachers at the school presented that the child knows the subject well, but it turned out that there is something to work on and we are happy about it, thanks

Tatyana Yurievna 02/12/2018

We are very pleased with the lessons with Anatoly Vladimirovich! The teacher is strong, knows his subject well and can teach material in an accessible and interesting way, uses modern technologies presentations, tests. He managed to find a common language with the child, he is not only a good teacher, but also a pleasant person.

Olga 26.12.2017

Anatoly Vladimirovich helped me a lot, my knowledge of biology has improved markedly. Classes are held in an interesting way, using visual material, he is very good-natured, I like it.

Angelina 12/25/2017

An excellent teacher! At first, the girl was against working with a man. The stereotype that a woman should be a teacher is quite persistent. Respectful attitude towards students and parents, accessible and competent presentation of the material, building warm relationships and constant feedback, these are just a few qualities inherent in Anatoly Vladimirovich. We live in the countryside and it's hard to find here good tutor, and Skype lessons were very convenient and effective.

Svetlana 08/14/2017

I liked the lessons with Anatoly Vladimirovich. The teacher presents a large amount of material in a grouped manner, in a system. He cares and worries about the passing of credits and exams and provides constant support in this. At the same time, he is a wonderful and pleasant person, it is very interesting and comfortable to communicate with him.

Igor 08/14/2017

I really liked the classes in biology, Anatoly Vladimirovich could easily and clearly explain the material. For 3 months I have perfectly prepared for the exam. I went to the exam with confidence. In addition, it was even pleasant to communicate with Anatoly Vladimirovich.

Muhammad 06/17/2016

We are absolutely delighted with biology! In 1 month, the teacher managed to give a program for a whole year, he has his own methods, some developments, thanks to which the student easily assimilates a large amount of material. Very rewarding activities! Recommended!

Nastasya Pepanyan 11.05.2016

We are just delighted with Anatoly Vladimirovich !!!. He is always punctual and delicate. Classes are always on top. The child is always with great pleasure studying and waiting for classes. He knows his subject just fine. And he teaches it the same way. We are ready to recommend Anatoly Vladimirovich to everyone. Grade 5

Irina Ivanovna 11.02.2016

The teacher suits us completely. Classes are always on time. There are no complaints. My daughter is happy to study. We rate it five.

Dmitry 01/27/2016

I was trained in:

DNU "93, Donetsk national University, specialty: Biology. (1993)

Specialization:

Preparation for the Unified State Exam in Biology, Preparing for the OGE in Biology, Preparing for the DWI in Biology, Advanced Study of Biology, Histology for Students, Preparing for admission to Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, Preparation for admission to medical universities, Preparation for admission to the classes of chemical, biological and medical profiles

Shortly about myself:

Editor of the site "I will solve the exam". I will qualitatively prepare for the exam in biology and internal exams (DWI) for admission to medical universities, veterinary and agricultural academies, biological and psychological faculties of pedagogical universities and universities. I am engaged with students with different levels ...