Slavic languages \u200b\u200bby groups. Slavic

Its total area is 1.3 million km2. Moreover, 90% of the territory is occupied by two islands - Novaya (829 thousand km) and (269 thousand km2).

Oceania became known to Europeans in the 16th century, from the time of F. A special chapter in the history of its discovery and research is made up by the voyages of Russian seafarers. In the 19th century alone, more than 40 Russian expeditions visited it, which collected valuable scientific information... A great contribution to the study of Oceania was made by N.N. , who described the life and life of the peoples inhabiting the islands, as well as the islands and shores of the tropical sea. Russian names on its map testify to the contribution of compatriots to the study of Oceania. The origin of the islands is different:

The modern political map of Oceania has developed as a result of the stubborn struggle of the colonial powers for the division of islands and archipelagos among themselves. Until the early 60s of the 20th century, Oceania had one independent state, created by colonists from England.

In the states of Oceania, the production of coconuts, coffee, spices is of great importance. Timber harvesting is a promising industry in a number of countries (Solomon Islands, Fiji, Western Samoa). Manufacturing enterprises have been built in Oceania in recent years. They are focused mainly on the domestic market.

Oceania is an extremely peculiar region of the world with amazingly beautiful nature, original culture, so its unique one is beginning to be actively used, and it becomes a place of pilgrimage for tourists and vacationers (Fiji, Papua New Guinea).

In terms of the level of socio-economic development, the states of Oceania differ significantly from each other. The most developed is New Zealand, the least - the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu. A serious obstacle in the development of countries is the distance from the economically developed centers of the world.

The Slavic group of languages \u200b\u200bis a large branch of the Indo-European languages, since the Slavs are the largest group of people in Europe united by a similar speech and culture. More than 400 million people use them.

General information

The Slavic language group is a branch of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bused in most of the Balkans, parts of Central Europe and northern Asia. It is most closely related to the Baltic languages \u200b\u200b(Lithuanian, Latvian and the extinct Old Prussian). The languages \u200b\u200bbelonging to the Slavic group originated from Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, Ukraine) and spread to the rest of the above territories.

Classification

There are three groups: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic branches.

In contrast to the clearly diverging literary, linguistic boundaries are not always obvious. There are transitive dialects connecting different languages, with the exception of the area where the southern Slavs are separated from other Slavs by the Romanians, Hungarians and German-speaking Austrians. But even in these isolated areas there are some remnants of the old dialectal continuity (for example, the similarity between Russian and Bulgarian).

Therefore, it should be noted that the traditional classification in the form of three separate branches should not be considered as a true model of historical development. It is more correct to imagine it as a process in which the differentiation and reintegration of dialects was constantly taking place, as a result of which the Slavic group of languages \u200b\u200bhas striking homogeneity throughout the territory of its distribution. Centuries of the way different nations crossed, and their cultures mixed.

Differences

But it would still be an exaggeration to assume that communication between any two speakers of different Slavic languages \u200b\u200bis possible without any linguistic difficulties. Many differences in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary can cause misunderstandings even in simple conversation, not to mention difficulties in journalistic, technical and artistic speech. Thus, the Russian word "green" is recognizable for all Slavs, but "red" means "beautiful" in other languages. Suknja is “skirt” in Serbo-Croatian, “coat” in Slovenian, a similar expression for “suknya” - “dress” in Ukrainian.

Eastern group of Slavic languages

It includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Russian is the native language of almost 160 million people, including many residents of countries that were part of the former Soviet Union... Its main dialects are northern, southern and transitional central. It also includes the Moscow dialect, on which the literary language is based. In total, about 260 million people speak Russian in the world.

In addition to the "great and mighty", the Eastern Slavic group of languages \u200b\u200bincludes two more major languages.

Ukrainian, which is divided into northern, southwestern, southeastern and Carpathian dialects. The literary form is based on the Kiev-Poltava dialect. More than 37 million people speak Ukrainian in Ukraine and neighboring countries, and more than 350,000 people speak this language in Canada and the United States. This is due to the presence of a large ethnic community of settlers who left the country at the end of the 19th century. The Carpathian dialect, also called Carpatorusinian, is sometimes viewed as a separate language.
Belarusian - it is spoken by about seven million people in Belarus. Its main dialects are: southwestern, some of the features of which can be explained by the proximity to Polish lands, and northern. The Minsk dialect, which serves as the basis for the literary language, is located on the border of these two groups.

West Slavic branch

It includes Polish and other Lechits (Kashubian and its extinct version - Slovinsky), Lusatian and Czechoslovak dialects. This Slavic group is also quite common. More than 40 million people speak Polish not only in Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe (in particular in Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Belarus), but also in France, the United States and Canada. It is also divided into several subgroups.

Polish dialects

The main ones are the northwestern, southeastern, Silesian and Mazovian. The Kashubian dialect is considered part of the Pomeranian languages, which, like Polish, are classified as Lechitic. Its speakers live west of Gdansk and on the Baltic Sea coast.

The extinct Slovinian dialect belonged to the northern group of Kashubian dialects, which differs from the southern one. Another unused Lechitic language is Polabian, which was spoken in the 17th and 18th centuries. Slavs who lived in the region of the Elbe River.

His is Serbolic, which is still spoken by the inhabitants of Lusatia in East Germany. It has two literary (used in Bautzen and the surrounding area) and Lower Sorbian (common in Cottbus).

Czechoslovak language group

It includes:

Czech, spoken by about 12 million people in the Czech Republic. His dialects are Bohemian, Moravian and Silesian. The literary language was formed in the 16th century in Central Bohemia based on the Prague dialect.
Slovak, used by about 6 million people, the majority are residents of Slovakia. Literary speech was formed on the basis of the dialect of Central Slovakia in the middle of the 19th century. Western Slovak dialects are similar to Moravian and differ from the central and eastern dialects, which have common features with Polish and Ukrainian.

South Slavic language group

Among the three main ones, it is the smallest in terms of the number of speakers. But this is an interesting group of Slavic languages, the list of which, as well as their dialects, is very extensive.

They are classified as follows:

1. Eastern subgroup. It includes:

2. Western subgroup:

Serbo-Croatian language - about 20 million people use it. The basis for the literary version was the Shtokav dialect, which is common in most of the Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian and Montenegrin territories.
Slovenian - spoken by more than 2.2 million people in Slovenia and the surrounding regions of Italy and Austria. It shares some common features with the Croatian dialects and includes many dialects with great differences between them. In Slovene (in particular, its western and northwestern dialects), traces of old ties with the West Slavic languages \u200b\u200b(Czech and Slovak) can be found.

Slavic countries are states that have existed or still exist, with most of their population of Slavs (Slavic peoples). The Slavic countries of the world are those countries in which the Slavic population is about eighty to ninety percent.

And which countries are Slavic?

Slavic countries of Europe:

But still to the question "the population of which country belongs to the Slavic group?" the answer immediately suggests itself - Russia. The population of the Slavic countries today is about three hundred million people. But there are other countries in which Slavic peoples live (these are European states, North America, Asia) and speak Slavic languages.

The countries of the Slavic group can be divided into:

West Slavic.
East Slavic.
South Slavic.

The languages \u200b\u200bin these countries originated from one common language (called Proto-Slavic), which once existed among the ancient Slavs. It was formed in the second half of the first millennium AD. It is not surprising that most of the words are consonant (for example, Russian and Ukrainian languages \u200b\u200bare very similar). There are also similarities in grammar, sentence structure, phonetics. This is easy to explain if we take into account the duration of contacts between the inhabitants of the Slavic states. Russian takes the lion's share in the structure of the Slavic languages. Its speakers are 250 million people.

It is interesting that the flags of the Slavic countries also have some similarities in color, in the presence of longitudinal stripes. Is this somehow related to their common origin? Most likely yes than no.

Countries in which Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare spoken are not so numerous. But still, the Slavic languages \u200b\u200bstill exist and flourish. And several hundred years have passed! This only means that the Slavic people are the most powerful, persistent, unshakable. It is important that the Slavs do not lose the originality of their culture, respect for their ancestors, honor them and keep traditions.

Today there are many organizations (both in Russia and abroad) that revive and restore Slavic culture, Slavic holidays, even names for their children!

The first Slavs appeared in the second or third millennium BC. Of course, the birth of this mighty people took place in the region modern Russia and Europe. Over time, the tribes mastered new territories, but still they could not (or did not want to) go far from their ancestral home. By the way, depending on the migration, the Slavs were divided into eastern, western, southern (each branch had its own name). They had differences in their way of life, agriculture, and some traditions. But still the Slavic "core" remained intact.

An important role in the life of the Slavic peoples was played by the emergence of statehood, war, mixing with other ethnic groups. The emergence of separate Slavic states on the one hand greatly reduced the migration of Slavs. But, on the other hand, from that moment on, their mixing with other nationalities also fell sharply. This allowed the Slavic gene pool to become firmly established on the world stage. This affected both the appearance (which is unique) and the genotype (hereditary traits).

Slavic countries during World War II

The second world War made great changes in the countries of the Slavic group. For example, in 1938 the Czechoslovak Republic lost its territorial unity. The Czech Republic ceased to be independent, and Slovakia became a German colony. The next year the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth came to an end, and in 1940 the same thing happened with Yugoslavia. Bulgaria took the side of the fascists.

But there were also positive aspects. For example, the formation of anti-fascist trends and organizations. A common misfortune united the Slavic countries. They fought for independence, for peace, for freedom. Especially such movements gained popularity in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia.

The Soviet Union played a key role in the Second World War. Citizens of the country selflessly fought against Hitler's regime, against the cruelty of German soldiers, against the Nazis. The country has lost a huge number of its defenders.

Some Slavic countries during the Second World War were united by the All-Slavic Committee. The latter was created by the Soviet Union.

What is Pan-Slavism?

The concept of Pan-Slavism is interesting. This is the direction that appeared in slavic states in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It aimed to unite all the Slavs of the world on the basis of their national, cultural, everyday, linguistic community. Pan-Slavism promoted the independence of the Slavs, praised their originality.

The colors of Pan-Slavism were white, blue and red (the same colors appear on many flags of countries). The emergence of such a trend as Pan-Slavism began after the Napoleonic wars. Weakened and "tired", the countries supported each other in difficult times. But over time, they began to forget about Pan-Slavism. But now there is again a tendency to return to the origins, to the ancestors, to the Slavic culture. Perhaps this will lead to the formation of the neopanslavist movement.

Slavic countries today

The twenty-first century is a time of some kind of discord in relations between the Slavic countries. This is especially true for Russia, Ukraine, and the countries of the European Union. The reasons here are more political, economic. But despite the discord, many residents of countries (from the Slavic group) remember that all the descendants of the Slavs are brothers. Therefore, none of them wants wars and conflicts, but only want warm family relations, as our ancestors once had.

The Slavic group of languages \u200b\u200bis closest of this family to the Baltic group, so some scientists combine these two groups into one - balto-Slavic subfamily Indo-European languages. The total number of speakers of Slavic languages \u200b\u200b(for whom they are native languages) is more than 300 million. The majority of Slavic speakers live in Russia and Ukraine.

The Slavic group of languages \u200b\u200bis divided into three branches: east Slavic, west Slavic and south Slavic... The East Slavic branch of languages \u200b\u200bincludes: russian language or great russian, Ukrainian, also known as Little Russian or Ruthenian, and Belarusian... Together, these languages \u200b\u200bare spoken by about 225 million people. The West Slavic branch includes: Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian, Kashubian, and the extinct Polabian language. The living West Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare spoken today by about 56 million people: mainly in Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The South Slavic branch consists of Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages. The Church Slavonic language also belongs to this branch. The first four languages \u200b\u200bare spoken by more than 30 million people in total in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia, Macedonia and Bulgaria.

All Slavic languages, according to linguistic research data, are rooted in one common ancestor language, usually called proto-Slavic language, which in turn separated much earlier from proto-Indo-European language (about 2000 BC), the ancestor of all Indo-European languages. The Proto-Slavic language was probably common to all Slavs as early as the 1st century BC, and already starting from the 8th century AD. separate Slavic languages \u200b\u200bbegan to form.

General characteristics

Conversational slavic languagesvery similar to each other, stronger than Germanic or Romance languages \u200b\u200bamong themselves. However, even though there are similarities in vocabulary, grammar and phonetics, they still differ in many aspects. One of the common characteristics of all Slavic languages \u200b\u200bis the relatively large number of consonants. A striking example of different uses is the variety of positions of the main stress in individual Slavic languages. For example, in Czech, the stress falls on the first syllable of a word, and in Polish, on the next last syllable, while in Russian and Bulgarian, the stress can fall on any syllable.

Grammar

Grammatically, Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, have a highly developed system of noun inflections, up to seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional and vocative). The verb in Slavic languages \u200b\u200bhas three easy times (past, present and future), but it is also characterized by such a complex characteristic as species. The verb can be imperfect (indicates the continuity or repetition of the action) or perfect (indicates the completion of the action). The participles and participles are widely used (you can compare their use with the use of participles and participles in english language). In all Slavic languages, except for Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no article. The languages \u200b\u200bof the Slavic subfamily are more conservative and, therefore, are closer to proto-Indo-European languagethan the languages \u200b\u200bof the Germanic and Romance groups, as evidenced by the preservation by the Slavic languages \u200b\u200bof seven of the eight cases for nouns that were typical for the Proto-Indo-European language, as well as the development of the form of the verb.

Vocabulary

The vocabulary of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bis predominantly of Indo-European origin. There are also important element mutual influence the Baltic and Slavic languages \u200b\u200bagainst each other, which is reflected in the vocabulary. Borrowed words or word translations go back to iranian and Germanic groups,and also to Greek, Latin, and Turkic languages... Influenced vocabulary and languages \u200b\u200bsuch as italian and French. Slavic languages also borrowed words from each other. Borrowing foreign words tends to be translated and imitated rather than simply absorbed.

Writing

Perhaps it is in the written form that the most significant differences between the Slavic languages \u200b\u200blie. Some Slavic languages \u200b\u200b(in particular, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian and Polish) have a writing system based on the Latin alphabet, since the speakers of these languages \u200b\u200bbelong mainly to the Catholic confession. Other Slavic languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Macedonian, and Bulgarian) use adapted versions of the Cyrillic alphabet as a result of the influence of the Orthodox Church. The only language, Serbo-Croatian, uses two alphabets: Cyrillic for Serbian and Latin for Croatian.
The invention of the Cyrillic alphabet is traditionally attributed to Cyril, a Greek missionary who was sent by the Byzantine emperor Michael III to the Slavic peoples at that time - in the 9th century AD. on the territory of what is now Slovakia. There is no doubt that Cyril created the predecessor of the Cyrillic alphabet - verb, based on the Greek alphabet, where new symbols were added to denote Slavic sounds that did not find a match in the Greek language. However, the very first texts in Cyrillic dating back to the 9th century AD. has not survived. The oldest Slavic texts preserved in the Old Church Slavonic language date back to the 10th and 11th centuries.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher education

"CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky "(FGAOU VO" V.I. Vernadsky KFU ")

TAVRIC ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

by discipline: "Introduction to Slavic Philology"

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Academic Supervisor: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbian language

2.5 Polabian language

3. South Slavic language group

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Slavic languageand- a group of related languages \u200b\u200bof the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed in Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is over 290 million people. They are distinguished by a large degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained both by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages, and by their long and intense contacts at the level literary languages and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature, due to the long-term independent development of Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with related and unrelated ethnic groups.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and West Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Sorbian). Small local groups of Slavs with their own literary languages \u200b\u200bare also known. Not all Slavic languages \u200b\u200bhave come down to us. In the late 17th - early 18th centuries. the Polabian language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bwithin each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. ABOUTgeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbolic languages \u200b\u200b(upper and lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Cieszyn Silesia and Orava). Kashubs live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula, mainly in the Maritime and Kartuz regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. Closely related Czech and Slovak languages \u200b\u200bare represented on the territory of Czechoslovakia: In the western regions, about 10 million. people use Czech, in the East, about 5 million speak Slovak. Outside Czechoslovakia, about 1 million people live. Czechs and Slovaks.

Serbolozhitsky language is common in western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; Lower Lusatians live in the state of Brandeburg. Luzhitsa residents are a national minority of the former GDR; before the Second World War, there were about 180 thousand of them; currently their number is estimated at 150 thousand.

Thus, the West Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare used by about 50 million people, which is about 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the entire population of Europe.

On the territory of eastern Germany, the West Slavic languages \u200b\u200bunderwent German assimilation in the XII-XVI centuries and disappeared. The data of modern place names indicate the ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other regions. Back in the 18th century. Preserved Slavic speech on the Elbe, in the Lyukhov district on the river. Ece. The language of the Polabian Slavs is being reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of living speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of that time. In Slavic studies, it is called the "Polabian language".

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian languages. They are common in most Balkan Peninsula... From the eastern Slavs, the southern ones are distant by the territory of Romania, from the western ones - by Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages \u200b\u200bare represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovene language is spoken by about 1.5 million Lovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenes live outside Yugoslavia. The Kaikavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovenian to Serbo-Croatian.

The Serbo-Croatian language is spoken by over 18 million people, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosnians. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. The Serbo-Croatian language is distant from Bulgarian by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vrane, up to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by the population south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of the spread of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyanskoe lakes, in the east, by the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it hardly exceeds 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary processing only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that a hundred outside Bulgaria and Yugoslavia live: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) - in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of the South Slavs is about 31 million.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare used as the main languages \u200b\u200bthroughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Caucasus Range, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. The Russian language is especially widespread, which is a means of interethnic communication for many Slavs (over 60 million).

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. For the transmission of some sounds, diacritics are used in Latin letters and letter combinations.

There are eight vowel sounds in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same, in some positions the nasal overtones are lost.

The area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Mazovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by the dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mausosh.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) Mazuria, 2) the peculiarities of interword phonetics. Mazuria dominates in Mausoshie, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selsia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is spread west of the lower reaches of the Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scholars believe that the Kashubian dialect should be understood as independent language and refer to the West Slavic subgroup.

Features of the dialect:

1. Different place of stress from Polish. In the southern part of the Kashubian region, the stress falls on the initial syllable, in the north the stress is free and ubiquitous.

2. Pronunciation of solid s, dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and how ё.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in longitude and brevity.

2.2 Czech

Czech graphics use the Latin alphabet. For the transmission of Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made based on the use of accents.

The Czech spelling is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical spellings.

The area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the Czech language is characterized by dialectal diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Czech Republic and West Moravia), Middle Moravian and Lyash (Silesia and northeastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the dialect groups noted, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group, they distinguish: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Bohemian dialects; dialectal diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of East Moravia are close to the Slovak language

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in the eastern regions of Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it has a common grammatical structure and a significant part of the basic vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc. are identical) ..

The Slovak language is made up of three dialects: West Slovak, many features of which are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Middle Slovak is the dialect basis of the modern literary language, East Slovak, some dialects of which testify to Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 Serbologian languageto

The Luzhitsky Serbs are the descendants of the Western Slavs who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and were Germanized. They speak quite sharply different dialects from each other: Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, in connection with which there are two corresponding literary languages. In addition, it should be noted the presence of the East Uzhitsky (muzhakovsky) dialect.

Writing in both Lusatian languages \u200b\u200bappeared in the 16th century.

The graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polabian language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory of the Oder and Elbe, only information about the language of the Drevlyan tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Luneburg (Hannovrer), has survived. The last speakers of the Polabian language died out at the end of the 18th century, and our information about it is based on the notes and dictionaries of that language made by German lovers of folk art.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Velet, Obodrit and Drevlyan dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic language group

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

The Serbo-Croatian language is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosnians, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Currently, the differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are only in vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these options differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet, and the Croatian alphabet. The Serbo-Croatian language is characterized by a significant dialectal diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokav, Chakav and Kaikav. These names were received by them on the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokava dialect occupies most of the territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brač, Korcula, etc. located on the territory of this dialect).

3.2 Slovenian language

Slovenian literary language uses Croatian graphics.

The territory of the Slovenian language is distinguished by an extraordinary dialectal diversity. This is due to the fragmentation of the people and partly the nature of the relief. Up to six dialect groups are distinguished: 1) Horutan (extreme northwest); 2) seaside (west of Slovenia); 3) Vekhnekrainskaya (north-west of Ljubljana in the Sava river valley); 4) Lower Krai (south-east of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Savoy); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with the Zamur dialect (beyond the Mura River), which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet. Bulgarian differs from the Russian alphabet by the absence of letters s and eh.

A characteristic feature that allows the grouping of Bulgarian dialects is the pronunciation of the replacements of the old ? . In this connection, the All-Bulgarian dialects are divided into western and eastern. The border separating these two adverbs goes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Solunya. There are also northeastern dialects.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and most Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, in the course of the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, it was decided to transform Yugoslavia into a federal state based on the national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo) formed the basis of the new literary language, where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages \u200b\u200bwas relatively weaker. In 1945, a unified spelling was adopted, close to the graphics in 1946 The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. A northern dialect that extends north from Skopje and Kumanova, and also occupies Dolny Polog, characterized by features similar to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics that go back to the Cyrillic alphabet. By order of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slianic alphabet was replaced by the so-called "civil" one. The letters were given a more rounded and simple formconvenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters have been eliminated. The civil alphabet, with some changes, is used by all Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is subdivided into two main dialects - North Great Russian and South Great Russian, between which the Middle Great Russian dialects stretch from the gray-west to the southeast in a narrow strip, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The North Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features inherent in all its dialects: okaniem, distinction of vowels and and about not only under stress but also in unstressed positions, the presence r explosive and - t (solid) in the ending of the 3rd person present tense of verbs. There are also clinking and clinking (not distinguishing c and h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by acan, the naichi of the fricative and -t "(soft) in the 3rd person of the verbs.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in Russian. A feature of e is primarily the absence of letters e, b, s, e... For transmission e in the Ukrainian language the combination is used yoand oh... In the meaning of a separating solid b the apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is subdivided into three dialects: northern (north of the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - Belaya Tserkov - Zhitormir - Volodymyr-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvira through Uman, Ananiev to the lower flow of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features mostly coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from Russian in the following features: vowel th always denoted by the letter i; letter b is absent and the separating value is transmitted with an apostrophe; to convey non-syllable y is used superscript; missing letter u, since in Belarusian there is no such sound, but there is a combination shh... The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

Territory belarusian language subdivided into two dialects: southwest and northeast. The approximate border between them runs along the line Vilnos - Minsk - Rogachev - Gomel. The principle of division follows the character of akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative akanya and yakan. It should be noted that on the border with ukrainian language there is a wide band of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

Emergence slavic writing in the second half of the 9th century. (863) was of great importance for the development of Slavic culture. A very perfect graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on the translation of some parts of the Bible and the creation of other liturgical texts. The Old Church Slavonic language became a common language due to Western influence and the conversion to Catholicism. Therefore, the further use of the Old Slavonic language is associated mainly with the Slavic south and east. The use of the Old Slavonic language as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has gone through a long history. It was during the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristic signs Slavic languages. Among such phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Textbook. A handbook for students of philology. special, ped, in-tov. - 3rd edition, pererad. and add. - M .: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov PS Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigall R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meye A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, M., 1951.

6. Trubachev ON Ethnogenesis and culture the most ancient Slavs: linguistic research. M., 1991.

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