- Political importance
- Economic importance
- Military significance
- Demogrofic value
- Public
- New ideologies
The first itself world War And her results, briefly, had tremendous historical importance for the subsequent development of not only European states, but also the whole world. First, she forever changed the world orders. And secondly, its outcome became one of the prerequisites for the emergence of the second world armed conflict.
Politics
The greatest value of the war had for the further political interaction of countries.
After the war, the political map of the world has changed quite a lot. It disappeared at once four major empires, who played a significant role in world politics. Instead of 22 European states upon completion of the military confrontation on the continent, 30 countries became. Appeared new state Education and in the Middle East (instead of completing his days Ottoman Empire). At the same time, in many countries, the form of the board and the political structure has changed. If, before the start of the war on the European map there were 19 monarchical states and only three republican, then after its ending the first it became 14, but the number of seconds increased immediately to 16.
A great impact on further international relations was provided by a new Versailles-Washington system, formed to a greater extent, taking into account the interests of the winning countries (Russia did not enter there, as he left the war earlier). At the same time, the interests of the newly educated states, as well as countries, victims of defeat in the war completely ignored. And even, on the contrary, young states had to become obedient puppets in the fight against the Russian Bolshevik system and the German thirst for revenge.
In a word, the new system was completely unfair, unbalanced, and, consequently, ineffective and could not bring anything else, as soon as the new large-scale war.
Economy
Even with a brief review, it becomes clear, but no less meaning of the First World War had for the economy of all countries that participated in it.
As a result of hostilities, large territories were in ruins, settlements and infrastructure were destroyed. The arms race led to a disturbance of the economy in many industrialized countries towards the military industry, to the detriment of other areas.
At the same time, the changes were touched by not only the largest powers who tracked the colossal amounts for re-equipment, but also their colonies, where production was transferred, and where more and more resources were supplied.
According to the results of the war, many countries refused the Golden Standard, which led to the crisis of the monetary system.
Not almost the only country that received quite greater benefit from the First World War - the United States. Observing in the early years of the war neutrality, the states took and carried out orders of warring parties, which led to their significant enrichment.
However, despite all the negative points in the development of the economy, it is worth noting that the war gave an incentive to develop new technologies, and not only in the production of weapons.
Demography
Human losses of this tightened bloody conflict were calculated by millions. And they did not end with the last shot. Many died due to the received wounds and the exposed Pandemic of Spanish flu ("Spanish") in the post-war years. European countries literally were bleeding.
Public development
A considerable importance, briefly, had the First World War and for the development of society. While men fought on numerous fronts, women worked in shops and production, including those who were considered exclusively male. This largely affected the formation of female views and rethinking their place in society. Therefore, the post-war years were marked by mass emancipation.
Also, the war played a huge role in strengthening the revolutionary movement and, as a result, improving the position of the working class. In some countries, workers achieve the realization of their rights through the change of power, in other government and monopolists themselves went on concessions.
New ideologies
Perhaps, one of the most significant results of the first world was the fact that she made it possible to appear new ideologies, such as fascism, and gave a chance to strengthen and climb the new level for example, for example, socialism.
Subsequently, many researchers have repeatedly proved that precisely such large-scale and protracted conflicts contribute to the establishment of totalitarian regimes.
Thus, it can be said that the world after the end of the war was already completely not the one who entered into it four years earlier.
Ministry of Education and Higher School of RK GOU SPO PPT Petera
Abstract on the topic:
"Settlement international relations After the First World War "
Introduction
The theme of world war is relevant. Many people talk about it and every person has their own attitude towards war. We chose a report on the first world, because I wanted to learn more about the causes of war, its results, and how after the war of the country solved a difficult problem - the settlement of international relations. After all, from how countries will agree, the further life of all people on Earth will depend on.
The theme of world war is well covered in the literature. Notice that the war is written not only in the documentary, but also in the artistic literature. There are a lot of books from famous writers who, unfortunately, had to face the war and they had enough courage to write about it. But after all, I took the basic information in documentaries.
By choosing this topic, I pursued personal goals - I wanted to learn about the reasons and results of the war 1914-1918., To find out why this war began, and whether the chances were to avoid her?!
Of course, the chances of avoiding the war were, but on the other hand - it is not known as it would be further fate Humanity, if it were not. No one can change the story, and talk about what could be used differently does not make sense - there will never be different.
It is known that the reason for the beginning of the war was the murder on June 28, 1914. In Sarajevo, the heir to the Austrian throne of Ertzgertzog Franz Ferdinand, who arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the teachings of the Austro-Hungarian troops.
In this war, each country has pursued its goals. France was measured to return lost in 1871. territory and if possible, grab the Bank of the Rhine. The aim of Great Britain was the crushing of Germany as the main opponent on the continent. Austria-Hungary expects to end with Serbia and Panzlavan movement in the Balkans and the main stronghold - Russia. Germany achieved not only the defeat of France and Great Britain, but also the seizure for the colonization of the part of the Russian territory. Some claims of the participants of the two military-political blocs were decorated with secret treaties.
World War II (1914-1918) is one of the longest, bloody and significant, consequences in the history of mankind. She lasted for more than 4 years. It was attended by 33 of 59 countries with state sovereignty at that time. The population of warring countries was over 1,5 billion. man, i.e. About 87% of all residents of the Earth. Under guns were delivered a total of 73.5 million people. More than 10 million 20 million were killed and 20 million wounded. Victims among the civilians affected by epidemics, hunger, cold and other wartime disasters were also estimated tens of millions.
Chapter I. Versailles Treaty
Positions of powers in the international arena as a result of the First World War
By the end of World War II, the capitalist countries approached the peaceful settlement in 1918. In an unusual situation. The problem of the world stood as a direct task not only because one of the struggling coalitions suffered defeat on the military front. There was also a threat of a revolutionary exit from the war - especially for the central powers.
The placement of forces in the world after the end of the First World War reflected the contradictions of the system of international relations, which has developed by the end of the war. One of the most important results was the October Revolution in Russia, to disappear from the capitalist system 1/6 of the land, the beginning of the general crisis of capitalism.
Significant shifts occurred within the capitalist world. The most significant were, on the one hand, the defeat of the state of world rank - Germany, on the other - the US outlet for the international arena as an active applicant for world domination. War unheardly enriched the United States. During the war years, they turned into a military arsenal of the Entena, its most important source of food and equipment. The United States not only redeemed his own debt, but turned into one of the main lenders of the world. They leaned about $ 10 billion to the European countries. About $ 6.5 billion amounted to private investments of American capitalists.
The position of the World Lender ruling circles of the United States sought to use to achieve world domination. They expected to dictate their will on peace conference. Back in July 1917. President Wilson wrote: "England and France do not in any way share our views, but when the war is over, we will be able to make them join our opinion, since by this time they will be in our hands financially." On this confidence, the American "World Program" was based, proclaimed in the "14 points" of Wilson on January 81918. Declaration of commitment to "open peace negotiations" (claim 1), the US government thus declared the non-recognition of all the secret treaties and agreements signed by the countries without participation and the US knowledge. Wilson put forward the principles of "freedom of the seas" and "freedom of trade" (paragraph 2, 3), which were considered as the tools of "peaceful" martial arts and the victory of the United States in the struggle, primarily with the UK, France and Japan. The requirement of "reduction of national armaments" (p.4) was to cover the arms race that began in the United States, and in a statement about the "free settlement" of colonial problems (claim 5), complaints of the United States were put forward to strengthen their positions in colonies and affiliates. In paragraphs 7-11, it was about issues that were solved in the circuit breeding negotiations. Clause 12 demanded the autonomy of the peoples who were part of Turkey, and the opening of the Black Sea Straits, in paragraph 13, was referred to the creation of independent Poland, in paragraph 14 - to create the League of Nations. As already noted relative to the "Russian issue" (p. 6), the entire American program of "peaceful settlement" was designed to cover the expansionist interests of the US imperialists by the pacifyology.
The compiece truce formally was based on the "14 points" of Wilson. Germany appealed to them. But a sharp contradiction arose between the former allies. One of the first problems that caused conflict situationThere were attempts to keep the Antacts to link their US debts with reparations, which were supposed to recover from Germany, and with the "General settlement of international debts." However, these attempts were not successful.
The fierce struggle was conducted by the United States and for European markets. For this purpose, the US Food Administration was created. Under the motto of assistance to nations, American capital sought to strengthen his position in the post-war world to the detriment of competitors.
The United Kingdom retained after the war the status of the Great Power, although he was pushed into the second plan of the United States. By the beginning of the peace conference, she had already received almost everything, for which he led the war. Germany stopped being her rival on the sea and a competitor in world markets.
The position of France was quite strong. But the French "World program" was still far from sales. Recalling the need to ensure the safety of France, French diplomacy expects to deprive Germany the possibility of revenge and establish French hegemony in Europe. France's intentions were recorded in a secret agreement with Russia signed in February 1917. He provided rejection from Germany a number of territories. France returned to Alsace Lorraine, she received the Saar coal pool, her borders with Germany moved to Reina.
Representatives of Italy, Japan and other countries arrived with their claims to the Peace Conference. Despite the fact that the first two of them belonged to the "great powers", their real influence was insignificant and affected only in solving local issues.
Inspectorial Contradictions at the Paris Peace Conference
Peace conference began in Paris on January 18, 1919. - On the same day, when in 1971. The German Empire was proclaimed. The conference was attended by representatives of 27 countries. It is widely advertised as an example of "open diplomacy". Over thousands of delegates gathered in Paris. But there were no representatives of Germany, whose fate was solved at the conference. But there were no representatives Soviet Russia. Paris conference, in essence, turned into an anti-Soviet intervention headquarters. It was on the day that its discovery allies approved the document "On the need to intervention allies in Russia". "Russian question" was one of the most important at the conference. There was not a single meeting on which he was not discussed either directly or in connection with other problems. There were periods when the Paris conference was engaged only by him, that is, a complex of issues related to the intervention in Russia and its blockade. Contrary to statements about the "fair world" and the refusal of "secret diplomacy", the main decisions of the Conference were the result of the unlawful conspiracy of representatives of the largest powers, primarily the United States, Great Britain and France. In parallel, numerous commissions on certain problems of the peace treaty with Germany and the post-war device of the world worked. Wilson insisted on the priority of the development and discussion of the League of Nations, stressing that it should be an integral part of all contracts. The United States expect to play a leading role in the new organization "Conservation of Peace".
Against the US hegemony actively performed the United Kingdom, France and Japan. They feared that the adoption of the Charter of the League of Nations would make it difficult to discuss territorial and financial problems. The question decided by creating a special commission on the League of Nations, whose chairman became Wilson.
February 14, Wilson in the pathetic style presented a peaceful conference by the Charter of the League of Nations, describing it as finally found by him, tool for saving " eternal world" In the Charter of the Nations, some general international legal principles were recorded, the refusal of wars was proclaimed, an attempt was made to identify the distinction between the aggressor and his victim, sanctions were provided for the aggressor. However, the "principles" were crucially crucial, and their interpretation. In fact, the League of Nations secured the victory of the allies in the war and the preservation of the status quo in the divine world. The adoption of Soviet Russia in the League of Nations in those years was excluded. In the Charter of the League of Nations at the insistence of Wilson and as a result of the forced consent of the Allies, the principle of the mandate was enshrined (management authority) - new form Colonial policy of imperialist powers.
American diplomacy sought to link the system of mandates with the principle " open doors"And" equal opportunities ", proclaimed by the United States at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The United States insisted on the inclusion of the Nations of the Nations of Monroe, demanded the dissemination of the principle of "open doors" on colonial possessions of other countries, their "internationalization". The essence of this "new diplomacy" was reduced to attempts to strengthen the position of the United States.
The acute struggle went on the issue of "Freedom of the Seas". Only in April 1919 It was possible to achieve a compromise solution. In accordance with him, the United States refused to fulfill their naval programs, promising to exchange information on this issue. They recognized the "special position" of Great Britain as a marine power. In turn, Great Britain recognized the league of nations as an integral part of peace treaties. Later was the question is resolved On the inclusion in the charter of the monroment doctrine. France went to this concession in response to the recognition of the United States claims concerning the status of Saara and the Rhine region.
The Paris Peace Conference and Reparation Problems could not solve. Based on the principle of the maximum weakening of Germany, France demanded the establishment of a huge amount of reparations. However, such a prospect did not comply with the British post-war world program. The United Kingdom considered Germany as the market for the sale of their products. Weakened Germany, argued Wilson, will not be able to pay reparations, and the damage to American creditors will affect this.
After long discussions, the Reparation Commission was created, which was commissioned until May 1, 1921. Examine the problem and submit final reparation requirements to the German government.
Versailles peace treaty
The Versailles Agreement was the main document of the post-war peaceful settlement. Then peace treaties were signed with the Allies of Germany - Bulgaria, Turkey and, since Austria-Hungary fell apart, separately with Austria and Hungary. Each of the treaties began with the Charter of the League of Nations.
According to the Versailles Agreement, Elsas-Lorraine, France, District, Eiphen, Malmondi and Morene were transferred to Belgium, North Schleswig - Denmark. Germany recognized the independence of Poland and Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia retired part of the Silesian territory. Poland received separate areas of Polaria, Poznan, most of the western and part of Eastern Prussia and, moreover, part of the upper silesia. The city of Danzig (Gdansk) with the territory adjacent to it turned into a "free city" under the control of the League of Nations. It was included in the customs borders of Poland. The territory of the so-called Danzig Corridor separated Eastern Prussia from the rest of Germany. Germany recognized the independence of Luxembourg, undertook to "strictly respect" the independence of Austria. Memel (Klaipeda) and adjacent areas were transmitted under the control of the League of Nations (in 1923 included in Lithuania). The territory of Germany on the left bank of the Rhine and the right shore to the depth 50km. Demilitarization was subject to demilitarization. The Saari coal pool passed "in full and unlimited property" of France, the region itself remained 15 years under the control of the League of Nations. In general, Germany lost 1/8 of the territory and 1/12 of the population.
The Versailles Contract deprived Germany of all colonies, spheres of influence, property and privileges outside the country. The German colonies were divided (in the form of mandates) between France, Japan, Belgium, Portugal, Great Britain and its dominiones. Cameroon and Togo shared the United Kingdom and France. Australia received a part of New Guinea, and New Zealand is Western Samoa. Japan received German concessions in Shandong, as well as the Germany in the Pacific, who had previously belonged to Germany in the Pacific, lying north of the Equator.
Versailles agreement provided for the disarmament of Germany. The land army has decreased to 100 thousand. Man (at 4 thousand officers). Abruptly limited to surface navy Germany, and underwater boats to have forbidden. The same applied to military and naval aviation. Germany was declared responsible for the unleashing of world war and caused damage to it. Thus, the legal basis for recovery from Germany reparation payments to compensation for "all losses and all losses" of the allies was created. Some articles of the Agreement were led by Germany to the situation of the dependent country.
The text of the Versailles Agreement in a special section called "Labor" provided for the creation of an international bureau of Labor in the League of Nations. This organization was founded on the principles of the "class world", collaborated with the reformist Amsterdam International Trade Union. The International Labor Office was an information body and practical importance in solving the problems of "social justice" did not have.
The Versailles Agreement was the basis of the post-war system of peaceful settlement. He proceeded from the imperialist principles of solving world problems, fixed the established alignment of forces in the world. However, positions occupied by the powers in 1919, could not remain unchanged. In accordance with the law of uneven development of capitalist powers, "equilibrium", recorded in post-war treaties, was unstable.
Chapter II. Washington contract
The collision of the imperialist interests of Great Britain, USA, and Japan in the Far East
world War Agreement Imperialist
An important object of the post-war peaceful settlement was the Far Eastern node of the minionsperialist contradictions. Japan, who actually did not participate in the war, took advantage of the fact that its main rivals were busy at the European Theater of Military Activities, strengthened their positions in the Pacific and Far East, especially in China. Almost half of China's foreign trade was in the hands of Japan. According to the Versailles Agreement, she got a significant part of the German "inheritance", which, according to the American ruling circles, the interests of the United States in the Far East seriously infrigious.
The Japanese expansion in the area caused opposition to both Great Britain and the United States, although his forms were different. Having created the international banking consortium after the end of the war, the United States demanded the "internationalization" of China under the slogans of "open doors" and "equal opportunities". The United Kingdom defended the traditional principle of China's section on "spheres of influence." The atmosphere inside this triple of imperialist powers was very tense. In the ruling circles of the United States and Japan, even the possibility of military collision was discussed. In addition, American intelligence has established that military ships under construction under construction in Great Britain and Japan exceeded American. The United States has large material opportunities to, ultimately win naval rivalry, but for this required time.
Japan became a serious rival of the United States and the United Kingdom in the Far East. The Anglo-Japanese Union, concluded in 1902. Mainly against Russia, Japan intended to be used against the United States. Relations between the United Kingdom and the United States remained tense. By the beginning of the 20s, the amount of various forms of debt of European countries by the United States was already over $ 18 billion. US demanded debts, attacked the British spheres of influence in China, insisted on the revocation of these privileges, adopt American slogans of "open doors" and "equal opportunities "in trade and entrepreneurship in all areas of China.
Opening of the Washington Conference. Treatise of four powers
The conference, which began on November 12, 1921, was invited to nine powers: USA, United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China. People's Commissaria of the RSFSR expressed a decisive protest against exclusion from the participants of the Conference of Soviet Russia. He declared the non-recognition of decisions taken without the consent of the Soviet state. The Far Eastern Republic (DVR) was not invited. The special position of DVR, which was not then part of the RSFSR, aggravated the Japaway American rivalry in the struggle for domination in Eastern Siberia. In Direene's negotiations with representatives, Japan, Japan tried to impose a full economic and political challenge. These reasons were categorically rejected.
Officially, the organizers of the Washington Conference announced the goal of "restriction of weapons", appealing to the pacifist moods of peoples. State figures And diplomats renounced "Secret diplomacy", the plenary meeting of the conference was held publicly. The speech of the speech of the chairman of the Washington Conference of the US Secretary of State Hughes was a proposal to stop in all countries the construction of heavy-duty warships and out of order of them. However, during concrete negotiations, which, by the way, were not public, sharp discussions unfolded. The representative of Great Britain led to the restriction of the power of the fleet by a reduction in the enormous French land army. The French Prime Minister rejected such requirements, referring to the "danger of Bolshevism." The United States has supported the position of France in this matter to isolate the UK, deprive of her harager harak by the Versailles world. Other powers made against the reduction of the army. It was not possible to achieve an acceptable result for all agreements on this issue.
December 13, 1921 Representatives of the United States, Great Britain, Japan and France signed a treatise of four powers. He guaranteed the island possession of his participants in the Pacific Pool. Anglo-Japanese Union 1902g. was terminated. The contract was military. This, at first glance, the usual agreement caused an acute controversy in the United States during its ratification. And it's not by chance. It was about guaranteeing possessions that were "in the state of the mandate". It could have happened that the United States who did not receive mandates would have to protect other people's possessions. Therefore, during the ratification of the treatise, amendment was adopted that "without the consent of the Congress", the US government should not assume the obligations of the protection of the possessions of other nations in the Pacific Ocean. This circumstance could not but weaken the effectiveness of the treatise. But at the same time, the declaration of December 13, 1921, attached to the treatise of four powers, clearly looked through the fact that the signing of the treatise does not mean the consent of the United States to existing mandates and "does not exclude the possibilities of conclusions of agreements" between the United States and the Mandatory Power on Islands that are "In the state of the mandate." Thus, the possibility of acquiring the islands and the United States remained.
In general, this agreement had a stabilizing effect on the position of the powers in the Pacific Ocean. To some extent, it was the embodiment of the American idea of \u200b\u200bthe "Association of Nations", that is, the creation of the block of the most powerful powers in the Far East, which could be used in the fight against Soviet Russia and the national liberation movement in China.
The agreement achieved for a number of controversial issues made it possible to take another step towards strengthening the position of the United States.
Contract of five powers
February 6, 1922 The treatise of five powers - the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France and Italy was signed - about the "restriction of marine arms". The following proportions of the linear fleet were installed between them: 5: 5: 3: 1,75: 1.75. The powers pledged not to build linkers with displacement more than 35 thousand. tons. However, the contract did not limit the tonnage of the cruising and underwater fleet. He forbade it to create new marine bases and strengthen the coastal protection. The exception was made only in favor of the United States and the United Kingdom: the United States received the right to strengthen the islands, protecting the immediate approaches to their territorial waters; Similar exceptions were made for British Dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. If the US refusal to strengthen the Philippines and Guam took into account the interests of Japan, the transformation of the British possession of Singapore to the military fortress was directed against it.
The treatise of five powers was not "disarmament." There was only moving strength in favor of the United States. Great Britain had to go to essential concessions. It was forced to abandon the traditional principle of the "Standard of the two powers", according to which the British fleet should not give up the fleet of the two largest marine powers. At the same time, Great Britain retained its positions: getting rid of expenses on linear ships, she had the opportunity to build high-speed cruisers and commercial vessels that were easily turned into a military.
The Japanese delegation sharply objected to the five-powered proportions recorded in the contract of five. However, its claims to the "equality" of fleets were rejected. In the press, Japan was inspired by a noisy campaign against the "Washington Shame". In fact, the forces value installed in Washington was quite favorable for Japan. In addition, Japan had well-fortified naval databases in the area.
Treaty of nine powers
Special attention was paid to China's Washington Conference. China did not sign the Versailles Agreement, demanding the return of the German colonies transferred to Japan on its territory. In response to Versailles Robbery in 1919. China began a national liberation "Movement on May 4". The United States tried to flirt with the leaders of this movement, but there was no question about the restoration of China in the rights of a really sovereign, independent state. Speaking under the slogans of "open doors" and "equal opportunities", under the mask of "Chinese friends", the United States expects to strengthen the position of American capital in this country and eliminate the "spheres of influence" of other powers.
British diplomacy sought to preserve his traditional positions in China, counting on an agreement with Japan on the principles of the Versailles world. In the face of Japan, she saw not only an opponent, but also an ally, moreover, she was intended for the role of gendarme in the Far East. However, all attempts to defend the colonial status of China in traditional form did not have success.
February 6, 1922 A treatise of nine powers was signed - all conference participants. He hypocritically proclaimed the principle of sovereignty and territorial integrity of China. POWERS, said in this document, pursue the goal "to protect the rights and interests of China", "" Provide China is fully and unfortunate the opportunity to develop and maintain a viable and solid government. " Essentially, this document meant the formation of a single front of imperialist powers against the national liberation movement in China. The recognition of the principles of "open doors" and "equal opportunities" created a threat to China's challenge the strongest imperialist state, which the United States did not consider itself without reason. Japan refused the monopoly position in China and pledged to return to him former German concessions in Shandong and bring his troops from there. However, non-equivance contracts with China were not canceled, foreign control over Chinese customs remained. Japan rejected China's requirements for the withdrawal of troops from South Manchuria, which allowed her to later use Manchuria as a springboard for expanding expansionist policies in the Far East.
The contradictions between imperialist powers during the Washington Conference accelerated the liberation of the Soviet Far East from foreign interventory. Negotiations in Direene convinced the Soviet government in the fact that Japan, tightening the evacuation of his troops, builds plans for the transformation of Eastern Siberia to its "sphere of influence." In this situation, the delegation of the Russian Federation appeared in Washington. Declare the desire to cooperate with the United States, she began negotiations with Hughes. Soon, however, it turned out that the United States is not averse to changing the Japanese at the Soviet Far East. After that, the delegation of the Russian Federation prepassed the results of negotiations with representatives of Japan and the United States. The publication of documents on the true intentions of imperialist forces in relation to Soviet Russia caused in diplomatic circles and in the capital of the largest powers of the real perobula. MERSERPERIALISTIC CONTRACTING, and the main thing - the successful actions of the Red Army had their result an accelerated conclusion of Japanese troops from the territory of Eastern Siberia and complete liberation in 1922. Soviet Republic from the interventionists.
Contradictions of the Versailles-Washington System
During the post-war peaceful settlement, a whole range of contracts known in history as a Versailles-Washington system was created. If the Versailles system regulated the post-war problems of Western Europe, as well as the interests of its leading powers in Africa and in the Middle East, the Washington tried to resolve contradictions in the Far East and in the Pacific Ocean in the interests of the United States. In this sense, Washington was a continuation of Versailles, his geographical supplement; And not the first, and at the second conference there was an imperialist redistribution of peace.
At the same time, the Washington Conference was the beginning of the audit of Versailles. Its initiator - the United States - after the wasting of the first round of struggle in Paris, began searching for a new foreign policy course to solve all the same goals - American leadership in the capitalist world. This new application for leadership was made at the Washington Conference. However, rivalry with Great Britain and Japan somewhat changed its initial intent. The results of the conference showed that the United States managed to achieve recognition of the principle of "freedom of the seas", weaken the Great Britain as a great maritime power, to press Japan in China, to make the approval of the principle of "equal opportunities", but the strategy of complete US domination in the Far East and in the Pacific Ocean It was implemented only partially. Japan has retained enough positions in order to create the first focus of the Second World War in 10 years, and after 20 years - to be able to attack the United States.
Acute character was also contradiction between European powers. In 1921-1922. Under the auspices of France, the so-called Small Anntan (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia) has developed. Relying on this military-political union, France sought to approve its influence in post-war Europe. He was also directed against the revisionist claims of the defeated states, against Soviet Russia and the revolutionary movement.
The Versailles system of contracts created a "powder cellar" in Europe, and in the Middle East - the focus of almost continuous cataclysms and explosions of the national liberation movement. The fierce struggle between the winner powers began immediately after the truce. The United States, without achieving the "American world" in Paris, rejected the Versailles system, expecting the right moment for revenge.
Arriving under the sign of deep contradictions. The system of robbing contracts began to fall apart. One of the first to leave the Sevra Treaty with Turkey. Trying to weaken action centrifugal forcesThe winner of the winner went to the creation of numerous commissions, which were prescribed by the implementation of various articles of the Versailles Agreement, which entered into force on January 10, 1920. The overall observation of its performance was entrusted to the periodically convened conferences of the Ambassadors of Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy, chaired by the representative of France. The United States had their observer on them. During these conferences, sharp Anglo-French contradictions were manifested. Only the concessions of Great Britain in the Middle East of France received it often inconsistent support in solving European issues, especially concerned in Germany. Germany tried to split the allies to achieve concessions. Moreover, in Berlin never hidden dreams of revenge, but officially preferred not to demand ignition with "loud cries".
Especially sharp discussions were deployed on the issue of reparations. The Reparation Commission first identified the total amount of German reparations in the amount of 269 mld. Gold brands. But a month later, in the city of Spa at the request of Germany, the issue was again raised to the discussion. However, it was possible only to establish the principles of the distribution of reparations between the powers. France was to receive 52% of the total, United Kingdom - 22%, Italy - 10%, the rest was transferred to other countries, including the United States. It was envisaged to obtain a certain amount of reparations and Russia. The subsequent conference has reduced the total amount of reparations to 226mld. Gold brands. However, Germany refused to accept this requirement. Finally, May 5, 1921. She was sent by London ultimatum, which established the final amount of reparations in 132 billion. Gold brands. In the conditions of the political crisis and after the change of government, this ultimatum eventually was adopted. However, Germany performed it only for one year. In January 1923 The English-French disagreements on the repair issue reached the unprecedented sharpness. London's proposal to reduce the total amount of German reparations up to 50mld. Gold brands Paris with indignation rejected. French President Poincare wrote in this regard, in the event of the adoption of the British version after 15 years, "Germany hegemony over Europe will be established."
Without having achieved UK's support, France decided to take possession of the so-called productive collateral: coal mines of the Ruhr pool and the steel industry of the Rhine Province. January 11, 1923 The Franco-Belgian army occupied the RUR. The "Ruhr Conflict" began. In the autumn 1923 The United Kingdom and the United States intervened in it. The Ruhr conflict turned around by the collapse of the claims of France on hegemony in Europe.
Equally acute character was disagreement about the number of the German army and the nature of its weapons. Some orders of the Versailles Agreement Germany rejected categorically, and the winner's powers were unable to make them perform. There were no articles on the prosecution of persons, "accused of committing actions, opposite laws and customs of war." I avoided the court and Wilhelm II. From the very beginning, many military regulations of the Versailles Agreement were not fulfilled. But German revenge was not the only source of international tension and the threat of a new world war. She was laid the whole set of antagonisms of the imperialist system of international relations created in Versaille.
In general, the Versailles-Washington system completed the process of post-war peaceful settlement, the transition from the war to the world and prepared the conditions for the temporary relative stabilization of capitalism and in the field of international relations.
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coursework, added 04.06.2014
International relations in 1919-1929, prerequisites for the conclusion of the Versailles peace treaty. The final registration of the results of the First World War, the creation of a system for maintaining international security. Changing the balance of power in Europe after the war.
abstract, added 12/14/2011
The development of German armored troops in the pre-war (after the First World War) period. Bans of the Versailles Treaty on the production of armored vehicles in Germany. Evolution of the composition of the Panzerwaff of the Wehrmacht. Improving tanks during World War II.
report, added 14.10.2015
Japan's history on the eve of the establishment of fascism. Socio-economic and political changes in Japan after the First World War. Internal policy of Japan after the First World War. Foreign policy of Japan during the establishment of a fascist dictatorship.
abstract, added 12.02.2015
The concepts of foreign policy activities of the United States and Great Britain and the tradition of American-English relations on the eve of the First World War. US-English relations (August 1914-1916): problems of history and historiography. Entry of America in the war.
thesis, added 03/18/2012
The imperialist nature of the First World War. Unleashing war. Military actions in 1914-16. 1917 year. The increase in revolutionary activity and "peaceful" maneuvers of warring countries. The exit of Russia from the First World War, its completion.
examination, added 26.03.2003
Russia in the First World War. Military plans of the main warring powers. The exit of Russia from the First World War. Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The first decrees and the Constitution of the RSFSR. The first Soviet socio-economic and political transformations.
abstract, added 12/10/2011
Causes, character and main stages of the First World War. Socio-economic situation in Russia during the First World War. Power, society and man during the First World War. The results of the First World War. The ratio of forces to the beginning of the war.
1. The First World War has ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies. After the conclusion of the compision truce, the winner of the winner began to develop plans for post-war "settlement". The post-war peaceful "settlement" in the interests of the Winner's powers completed the Washington Conference 1921-1922. Contracts with Germany and its former allies and agreements signed at the Washington Conference amounted to the so-called Versailles-Washington system of the world. As a result of compromises and transactions, it not only did not eliminate the contradictions between imperialist powers, but significantly increased them.
Between the main powers began the struggle for the new redistribution of the world.
2. In terms of its scale and consequences, the First World War had no equal in the whole preceding history of mankind.
She lasted 4 years 3 months and 10 days (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918), covering 38 countries with a population of over 11.5 billion people.
In the countries of the Ententes, about 45 million people were mobilized, in the coalition of the central powers - 25 million, and only 70 million people.
The most workable part was withdrawn from material production and broken into mutually content.
By the end of the war, the number ground Forces In comparison with peaceful time in Russia, 8.5 times, in France in 5, in Germany in 9, in Austria-Hungary 8 times.
The large number of armies led to the formation of extensive fronts, the total length of which reached 3-4 thousand km.
3. The war demanded the mobilization of all material resources, showing the decisive role of the economy during the armed struggle. World War II was characterized by the massive use of diverse combat equipment.
The industry of warring powers gave the front millions of rifles, over 1 million manual and machine guns, over 150 thousand artillery guns, 47.7 billion cartridges, over 1 billion projectiles, 9,200 tanks, about 18 thousand aircraft. During the war years, the number of heavy artillery implements increased 8 times, machine guns 20 times, 24 times aircraft. Multimillion armies demanded continuous provision of their food, outfit, fodder.
The growth of military production was made mainly due to peaceful industries and overvoltage of the national economy. This led to a violation of proportions between various industries, and, ultimately, to a decrease in the economy indicators.
It was especially undermined agriculture. Mobilization in the army deprived the village of the most productive workforce and tax.
Sowing areas have declined, the yield fell, livestock has decreased and its productivity.
In the cities of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia acutely felt the lack of food, and then the real hunger broke out. He spread to the army where the norms of satisfaction were reduced.
4. The First World War required enormous financial costs, which many times exceeded costs in all previous wars. There is no scientifically based evaluation of the total value of the First World War.
The most common estimate is the assessment given by the American economist E. Bogard, who identified the total cost of the war $ 359.9 billion. Gold (699.4 billion rubles), including direct (budget) costs 280.3 billion. dollars (405 billion rubles) and indirect - 151.6 billion dollars (294.4 billion rubles).
5. The First World War was an important stage in the history of martial art, in the construction of the armed forces.
In 1916, tanks appeared - powerful shock and maneuverable power. Tank forces Rightly developed and by the end of the war in the countries of the Ententes numbered 8 thousand tanks.
Stormy development worried aviation. The various kinds of aviation were distinguished - fighter, intelligence, bombarding, assault. By the end of the war, the fought countries had over 10 thousand combat aircraft. In anti-airflow defense developed by air defense.
There were chemical troops.
The value of the cavalry as a kind of troops decreased, and by the end of the war its number declined sharply.
Significantly increased the role of military rear and material and technical support of troops.
Important acquired railway and road transport.
6. The war brought unprecedented deprivation and suffering, universal hunger and ruin, led all humanity to the edge of the abyss.
During the war, mass destruction of material values \u200b\u200boccurred, the total value of which was 58 billion rubles. Whole areas (especially in Northern France) were turned into a desert.
9.5 million people It was killed and died of wounds, 20 million people were injured, of which 3.5 million remained crippled. The greatest losses suffered Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The population decline for these reasons only in 12 fought states amounted to over 20 million people, including 5 million people in Russia, in Austria-Hungary 4.4 million people, in Germany 4.2 million people.
Unemployment, inflation, tax growth, price increase - all this aggravated the need, poverty, extremely insecurity of the overwhelming majority of the population of warring countries.
7. The collapse of the Russian army in the First World War is a natural stage in the development of socio-economic processes in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century, the result of its internal and foreign Policy in this period.
Having won a number of brilliant victories and the victims of several defeats, the Russian army in the First World War declared itself as a serious military force.
However, due to serious domestic and external reasons, the Russian army failed to take a firm position in matters in a timely manner in matters of war and revolution and as a result, it was rolled on the path of destruction and split.
The last test of the remains of the Russian army was the civil war in Russia, where the victory was on the side of that part of her part, which went to the Soviet authorities, which compared to the royal autocracy was a more advanced form of the socio-economic system of society and which, unfortunately, failed in The twentieth century prove their vitality.
Start " cold War»
§ 32. The consequences of the war. Post-war peaceful settlement
The consequences of war. The Second World War imposed a seal for the entire history of the world of the second half of the CHV.
Unlike the first World War II, most human losses had to be at the civilian population. Only in the USSR, the dead amounted to at least 27 million people. In Germany, the concentration camps were destroyed16 million people. The victims of war and repression in Western European countries have become 5 million people.For each killed in hostilities accounted for two wounded or captured. To these60 million emulsioned lives in Europe, many millions of people who died in the quiet ocean and other theaters of the Second World War should be added in Europe.
During the war years, tens of millions of people left the previous place of residence. In Germany, 8 million people were cozy from different countries in Europe. After the capture of Poland, Germany, more than 1.5 million Poles were evicted with the so-called German. territories. Tens of thousands of French were expelled from Alsace Lorraine. Millions of people fled from the zones of hostilities. After the end of the war, the movement of tremendous masses of the population began: the Germans were evicted from Poland and Czechoslovakia, from the former Prussia, etc. In the post-war years, millions of people became refugees. IN1945 at least12 million Europeans were recognized« displaced persons ",we lost relations with native places. An even greater number of people were embarrassed from the usual living conditions, the property lost their citizenship, a profession.
The material losses of the period of war are huge. Thousands of cities and villages were turned on the European continent in the ruins, plants, factories, bridges, roads were lost, a significant part of the vehicles was lost. Agriculture has especially suffered especially much. Huge areas of agricultural land were abandoned, more than half reduced livestock. In the first postwar years, hunger in a number of countries was added to the war. Many economists and scientists, political figures then believed that Europe could not restore for some time, for decades will need.
Simultaneously with economic, demographic and social issues and in liberated from Nazi domination countries, the political problems of the revival of Europe. It was necessary to overcome the political, social and moral effects of totalitarian regimes, to restore statehood, democratic institutions, political parties, to create new constitutional norms, etc. The priority was the eradication of Nazism, fascism, the punishment of the culprits of the very bloody in the history of the civilization of the war.
The situation in post-war Europe and in the world as a whole was complicated by replacing the joint collective action of countries antihytler coalition came the split of the world into two systems, began conference of the USSR and USA,two most strong powers. The conflict relations of two great powers-winners in the overall struggle against Hitler's Germany were determined by ideological disagreements, various approach to solving current problems, to the prospects of peaceful development. The question was tightly - communism or capitalism, totalitarianismor democracy.but in the first postwar years, the great powers acted under agreementsabout the post-war world, determined by the decisions taken by them at the final phase of the Second World War.
Post-war peaceful settlement. The most important agreements on post-war issues were achieved in Crimean (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945) conferences of the heads of the USSR, the USA and the UK. These conferences identified the main lines of the policies of the winner of Germany in relation to Germany, including territorial issues relating to Poland, as well as the preparation and conclusion of peace treaties with the Allies of Germany - Italy, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Finland. Forimplementation preparatory work According to the peaceful settlement, the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs (Smid), representing the main powers. Peace treaties, under Ready forParisian peace conference, came into force with 1947 r. (Agreement with Austria was concluded in 1955).
Settlement against Germany. Solutions of allies in relation to Germany provided its long-term occupation and allied control, the purpose of which was: "German militarism and Nazism will be eradicated, and the allies, in consent to each other, now in the future, will also take other measures necessary forin order for Germany to never threaten its neighbors or preserving peace around the world. "
The territory of Germany was divided into occupation zones: the eastern zone was monitored by the military administration of the USSR, and three Western zones, respectively, the occupying authorities of the United States, Great Britain and France. Berlin was divided into four zones.
The commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the four powers became members of the control board, which was to be guided by the main political and economic principles in the implementation of the occupation of Germany: full disarmament and demilitarization of Germany, the elimination of its military production, the destruction of the National Socialist Party and all Nazi institutions and any Nazi propaganda; Military criminals had to be arrested and committed to the court, Nazi leaders and the governing staff of Nazi institutions should be arrested internally, members of the Nazi party should be removed from public and unobeseous posts and with relevant posts in important private enterprises. The Allies also agreed on the decentralization of the German economy in order to destroy excessive concentration of economic force in the form of cartels, syndicates, trusts. Taking into account "The need to maintain military security. Freedom of speech, press and religion will be resolved, creating free trade unions.
Thus, the policy of powers in relation to Germany provided for denazification, democratizationand cARETELSATION.
It was assumed that the occupation authorities would create conditions for the democratic development of Germany as a whole. However, the split from Germany to the eastern and western zones, between which the boundary of two configuring systems ran out, stretched for many decades.
In 1949 Two states appeared on its territory: in Western zones, the Federal Republic of Germany and in the Eastern Zone German Democratic Republic. Thus, the peace treaty with Germany was not concluded and the conflicts of two systems were held on the border between the two German states. Only in 1990, in connection with the union of Germany, both the occupation and four-sided agreements regarding Germany ceased.
The question of a peaceful agreement with Austria. The question of peace agreement with Austria.The reason was the confusion of the two world powers. The USSR sought that Austria retains neutrality and commitment not to enter into military political blocks. Such an agreement, as well as an article on the inadmissibility of anchlus, that is, the absorption of Germany of Austria, just as it took place on the eve of World War II, were recorded in peace treaty and the Austrian constitution. In 1955, this made it possible to complete the conflict with the signing of a peace treaty.
The question of a peaceful agreement with Japan. An important part of the new post-war structure of international relations was peaceful settlement in the Far East.After the surrender of Japan, on September 2, 1945, the country was occupied by the American troops, and the Commander-in-Chief of these troops, General MacArthur carried out actually the sole administration of the occupying administration. Only at the end of the year were created the Far Eastern Commission from representatives of 11 states and the Union Council from the representatives of the USSR, the USA, the United Kingdom and China.
The contradictions between the USSR and the United States on the issue of the post-war device of Japan were very sharp. The United States began to prepare a separate peace treaty without the participation of the USSR and a number of other interested countries, including the People's Republic of China,which was formed in October 1949 as a result of the victory of the revolution.
In September 1951, a conference was held in San Francisco to conclude a peace treaty with Japan. The conference organizers did not listen to the amendments and additions made by the Delegation of the USSR and a number of other participants of the USSR sought clear formulations on the territorial settlement issues, the adoption of an article on the conclusion from Japan foreign troops, the prohibition of Japan to join "military unions, etc. However, the amendments and additions of the Delegation of the USSR And other conference participants were not taken into account. The USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia refused to join the contract.
The question of the peace treaty of the USSR with Japan remained unresolved.
Creation of the UN. An integral part of the peaceful post-war settlement was the creation of the United Nations. The UN was created at the final stage of World War II at the conference in San Francisco (April 25 "- June 26, 1945). In its creation, 51 states participated in its creation, all participants in the Anti-Hitler Coalition. The UN Charter entered into force on October 24, 1945 This date is marked as OOH Day.
The UN Charter recorded its goals: maintaining international peace and security, the suppression of acts of aggression, permission from the peaceful means of international disputes, the development of friendly relations between nations, the implementation of international cooperation in solving problems of an economic, social and humanitarian nature, promotion and development of respect for human rights and Basic freedoms forall, without ichia.races, gender, language and religion. The general authorities are the General Assembly and the Security Council, the International Court of Justice, a number of specialized councils and other intergovernmental organizations. The General Assembly is collected annually, and the Security Council is a permanent body that is entrusted to maintain peace. The Security Council includes 5 permanent members (USA, Russia, United Kingdom, France, China) and 6 non-permanent members, replaced every two years. An important principle in the activities of the Council, which allowed to maintain this organization in the conditions of the post-war confrontation of the great powers, was the principle of the unanimity of five permanent members when making decisions to curb aggression "and maintaining peace (the so-called veto right, that is, the right to reject any decision that disagrees One of the members pETterks). Under the auspices of the UN, important institutions of economic stabilization were also created: the International Monetary Fund and the International Development Reconstruction Bank. Thus, at the end of the war, and shortly after her ended foundation was laid forcontinuing cooperation between the anti-Hitler coalition countries in the postwar years. With all acute collisions of the interests of the USSR and the United States, in the first postwar years they had to fight in the framework of the established international organizations and agreed solutions. Nuremberg process. Among the post-war problems of the settlement, processes over the main military criminals occupied a special place. On the Nuremberg processthe main Nazi military criminals were charged with a conspiracy against the world through the preparation and conduct of aggressive wars, in war crimes and crimes against humanity. The Tribunal sentenced 12 defendants to the death penalty, and the rest to various prison sentences. This process was not only punishment. for The main military and Nazi criminals. He became the condemnation of fascism and Nazism, the world community. It was the beginning of the process of cleansing Europe from fascism. In Germany, over 2 million processes over the military and Nazi criminals were held in the first postwar years, the administrative apparatus, the judicial system and the education system were purified.
In Little Belgium, after liberation, over 600 thousand cases on cooperation with invaders was discovered and about 80 thousand sentences were discovered.
In France, more radical measures were taken: 120 thousand sentences were made to collaborators, of which about a thousand are mortals. The leader of the fascist regime Laval was executed, and Petya sentenced to life imprisonment.
In the Netherlands, over 150 thousand cases of arrested on charges of cooperation with the Germans were considered.
However, cleaning in different countries were not always consistent. Thousands of Nazis, collaborators not only avoided punishment, but also remained in their posts in the administration, courts, education system.
Many war criminals hid in Latin America. However, with all this in Europe, the process of repentance and purification from the fascism of fascism began.
The beginning of the "Cold War" After World War II, the two great powers, the USSR and the United States were the most powerful in military and economic terms and acquired the greatest influence in the world. The split of the world into two systems and the polarity of the political course of two great powers could not not affect the international relations of this period. The ideological confrontation of these two powers has generated the atmosphere of hostility on the world arena, and in the inner life of these countries - the search for the enemy. Dissent in both countries was considered as a manifestation of subversive activities. As a result, such an ugly phenomenon appeared in the United States as "McCarthyism. - Pursuit of citizens on suspicion of anti-American activities. In the USSR, such an atmosphere was one of the features of the totalitarian regime. Two great powers adopted the concept of two pole peace and tough confrontation.
An influential American journalist called these conflicts "Cold War. The press picked up this phrase, and it became the designation of the entire period of international politics until the end of the 80s gg Presentation of Churchill in the United States. Usually in historical works the initial date of rotation of the US foreign policy and countries of the West is considered to be the speech of the former Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill, which he said in the presence of American president of TrumanMarch 5, 1946 in. University TownFulton. The presence of Truman should have emphasized a particular importance event. Otherwise, why did you fly to the president in the most center of the United States, to a spending town to listen to speech, with the content of which he was familiar in advance? Not the gravity and the fact that at this time in Canada has already begun to give the US process against Soviet agents. Speech by W. Churchill in Fulton is considered the beginning of the "Cold War". Cherchell said that "iron curtain"separate Europe from European civilization and the Anglo-Saxon world should be united in front of a personifier-friendly threat.
The opposite of interests of the two great powers was revealed with the practical implementation of allies on post-war issues, especially on the issues of Polish borders, on the composition of the Polish government, in the German settlement, etc. Approval in the power of the Communist Parties in Eastern Europe in 1947-1948, partisan traffic In Greece and other foreign policy events were considered in the United States as a communist expansion. Hence the foreign policy doctrines of the United States "deterrence" and "discarding" of communism appeared. Soviet propaganda did not remain in debt and branded expansion of American imperialism.
The arms race was the most important sphere of confrontation and the potential conflict of the two great powers and their allies. It is believed that the atomic bomb, discharged at Hiroshima in August 1945, was not only the last act of the Second World War, but also the first act of the Cold War, after which the arms race began on the "Challenge" principle, "Shield and sword".
INThe USSR began to forced the creation of his atomic bombs. Its first test successfully passed in 1949. The United States experienced a hydrogen bomb in 1952, and the USSR - a year later. The United States has created strategic bombers, and the USSR - intercontinental rockets. Improved means of anti-aircraft defense and anti-missile complexes. The competition of two systems in various spheres of military production continued until the leaders of these countries themselves became clear that the number of wage was exceeded the level of defensive sufficiency. The accumulated amount of bombs could be destroyed the globe several times.
The creation of military political blocks also became the area of \u200b\u200b"competitions. two great powers. It began with US Military and Military Assistance in early 1947, which threatened the "communist pressure".
"Marshall Plan. On the provision of multi-billion assistance to the countries of Western Europe was to strengthen the UPC Capitalism in Europe. The USSR and socialist countries refused this help, fearing the threat of challenging by American imperialism.
In 1949, the Organization of the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) was established, which initially proclaimed the security of the Western powers from the possible revival of Germany. FRG joined NATO in 1955. In 1955, a military-political alliance was created under the leadership of the USSR - the organization of the Warsaw Treaty (ATS)
Thus, the opposition of the two great powers was the opposition of two military-political blocks. The logic of the confrontation took away the world further into the rolling threat of a nuclear war.
Another important sign of the Cold War is a split of peace and Europe. With the establishment by the beginning of 1948 in the countries of the Central and Southeastern Europe of the Communist regimes, with the victory of the Chinese revolution and the formation of the People's Republic of China in October 1949, the formation of the "world socialist camp" was mainly completed. The border between the two "camps", as then called the split of the world into two irreconcilable socio-economic systems, was held in Europe through the territory of Germany through the Western and Eastern occupation zones, in the Far East to the 38th parallels in Korea and in Southeast Asia Vietnam, where since 1946, the French troops from 1946 was war against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which was free from Japanese invaders.
Although two great powers managed to avoid direct military clashes (held the threat of mutual nuclear destruction), all the military conflicts took place, and the main among them and the most dangerous processing of the "Cold War" in the "hot" was the Korean War (1950-1953).
Questions and tasks:
1. Tell us about the consequences of the war, compare with the consequences of the First World War.
2. What are the main features of the Yalta-Potsdam system? What are the reasons for the decay of the antihytler coalition?
3. How was the post-war peaceful settlement organized?
4. What is the difference established after the Second World War of the United Nations from the prewaging League of Nations?
5. What is the meaning of the Nuremberg process over the main military criminals and processes over the Nazis and collaborators in other countries?
6. What are the causes and essence of the so-called "Cold War"?
7. What contradictions were two great powers - USSR and the USA?
8. What political blocks formed after World War II?
Speaking of the results of the First World War, it is necessary to especially allocate the unprecedented scope of the national and national liberation movement.
The last years of the war was marked by the crash of the four once powerful empires: the Russian, German, Austria-Hungarian and Ottoman. In Europe, without waiting for international legal design, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia proclaimed their independence. Such a radical breaking of the international structure required from the holding-winners of the introduction of substantial adjustments to their approach to the problems of a peaceful settlement, taking into account the new political realities, the national interests of the newly formed European states.
The national liberation struggle was covered by almost the entire colonial world. In 1918-1921. Large anti-colonial and anti-imperialist performances passed in India, China, Mongolia, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Afghanistan and other colonial and affiliate countries. As well as the revolutionary rise in Europe, the national liberation movement in the colonial world contributed to the democratization of international relations. It is at this time that for this reason many representatives political elite West spoke about the "right of nations to self-determination" and on solving a colonial issue "taking into account the interests of the local population." The history of the newest time of Europe and America. 1918-1945 / Ed. E. Yazkova. M., 1989 - p.137
The nature of the new system of international relations and its legal registration in a decisive degree depended on the arrangement and the ratio of the forces between the great powers - the main actors of world politics.
The United States of America has won the largest extent. The war turned this country into a first-class world power. It has created favorable conditions for the rapid economic growth and considerable strengthening of the financial statement of the United States.
The United States joined the war only in April 1917, and the active military actions began in June 1918, i.e. Shortly before it is completed. US losses were relatively small; 50 thousand people killed and 230 thousand wounded. The territory of the United States themselves was not affected by military actions and, therefore, in contrast to European countries, the United States managed to avoid any material damage and destruction.
The strengthening of the United States of the United States in combination with economic leadership created the material basis for the transformation of the country from the regional to the Great World Power. In a broader international aspect, this meant the movement of the industrial and financial center of the capitalist world from Europe to North America.
Such were the reasons that caused the activation of US foreign policy activities. Becoming the leading power of the world on economic and financial indicators The United States is beginning to claim a leadership role in world politics. Already in April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson publicly proclaimed: "We are faced with the task of financing the whole world, and the one who gives money must learn how to manage the world."
At the same time, the change in the ratio of the forces between the great powers in favor of the United States during this period did not lead to their transformation into a global leader of the global scale. This was primarily due to the fact that the American business was not yet quite "prepared" to the role of the mod lawmaker in the global economy. In the United States, the development of an extensive domestic market has not yet been completed. In the early 1920s, 85-90% produced in the country of industrial products was consumed within the country. As for excess capital, then, with the exception of an emergency situation during the war years, it was exported to a limited number of Western Hemispheres. In the rest of the sectors of the world market, where the dominant position.
Describing the international situation of Great Britain after the end of the war, a well-known weakening of its position in the world can be stated. The victory went to England an expensive price. Her human losses amounted to 744 thousand killed and about 1,700 thousand wounded. The war inflicted a tangible damage to the British economy. Significantly inferior to the United States, England finally lost its former industrial leadership in the world. Its share in global industrial production decreased, in 1920, 9% (compared with 13.6% in 1913). Huge military spending sharply worsened the financial situation of Great Britain. For the first time in the long years of financial prosperity, it turned from the most integral international lender and the debtor's country. Its post-war external debt was estimated at $ 5 billion, of which 3.7 billion accounted for long US. During the war, the foreign trade positions of England were undermined. The country lost 40% of his trading front. As a result, English foreign trade decreased almost 2 times. The powerful rise in the national liberation movement became another "blow of fate", from which England suffered to the greatest extent, which occupied the leading place in a number of colonial powers.
At the same time, negative for the UK the consequences of the First World War cannot be absolute. There were other factors that allowed this country not only to preserve their positions of the Great Morning Power, but on some sites even strengthen them.
World War introduced significant changes in the international status of the French Republic. Triumph Victory could only observe the extremely serious consequences of the war: huge material damage and numerous human sacrifices. On Military Losses, France was inferior only Germany and Russia: 1,327 thousand killed and 2,800 thousand wounded. Almost completely devastated Northeast Departments of France. For the war years incurred by the war years, material damage was estimated at $ 15 billion, which was 31% of pre-war national wealth. Even more serious losses were expected by France in the financial field. The war deprived her role of the World Roshchist, putting on a par with other debtor states. The French debt of the United States and England exceeded $ 7 billion. A powerful blow to France's financial positions was inflicted by the October Revolution: 71% of all debts of the royal and temporary governments, annulled by the Soviet government, accounted for the French Republic. The negative impact on the international situation of France also had such consequences of war as a sharp reduction in foreign trade turnover (almost 2 times) and foreign investment (by 30%), as well as the aggravation of the national liberation struggle in the French colonies.
However, as in the case of England, positive for France, the results of the war prevalted over negative, which allowed her not only to preserve, but also to strengthen their positions of the Great Morning Power.
Another country is the winner -talia - before the war rightly was considered one of the weak links among the great European powers.
World War did not make any major changes to this. Rather, on the contrary, she demonstrated the economic and military failure of Italy, becoming an unbearable burden for her. During the war, Italy lost 580 thousand soldiers and officers. A record number of deserters and voluntarily surrendered (more than 1 million people) allowed military experts to call the Italian army "the most captive army of the world." The economic downturn, socially told a deep political crisis that manifested in the extreme instability of power structures.
Japan, who joined the war on the side of the Entente in August 1914. Not actively participated in it. Her hostilities mostly drove to the hunt for the German cruisers in the quiet and Indian Oceans. Japan's contribution to the general victory over the enemy can be indirectly appreciated by its military losses that have been about 300 people.
But the results of the war were more favorable for Japan.
Lightningly capturing Already at the very beginning of war, German possessions in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean, Japan significantly strengthened its position in this region of the world. She took possession of strategically and economically important regions: Myarshlovy, Caroline and Mariani Islands, leased by Germany, Guangzhou territory in China, as well as the Chinese province of Shandong. Taking advantage of the absorption of European powers, Japan took the first attempt to establish control over all China. In January 1915, she presented to the temporary president of the Chinese Republic Yuan Shikay Ultimatum, who became a story called "21 Requirements". This document actually turned China to the Japanese half-colony. Another exceptionally beneficial to Japan the result of the war was the displacement from the Asian markets of the Western powers engaged in the war in Europe. This largely explained the extremely rapid growth rates of the Japanese economy. In 1920, industrial production exceeded a pre-war level by 70%, and exports of Japanese goods increased by 330%. The history of the newest time of Europe and America. 1918-1945 / Ed. E. Yazkova. M., 1989 - p.139
Germany was primarily a number of non-return military losses: 2 million 37 thousand German soldiers and officer died. The direct result of the war was the catastrophic state of the economy. The release of industrial products in 1920 compared with the pre-gene level amounted to 58%. The acute social and political crisis resulted in the revolution I9I8-I9I9, the overthrow of the monarchy of the Hohenzollerns and the proclamation of the Weimar Republic. Already at the computer truce, Germany lost the military-marine fleet, a significant part of the weapons and all colonial possessions. Thus, Germany lost its great-container status, she descended from the international Arena as a great world power for decades ahead.
An even more crushing blow to the world war inflicted on the international positions of Austria-Hungary.
Unlike Germany, Austro-Hungary did not simply and did not temporarily lost their great-container status, she lost it forever, in the recent past the powerful empire ceased to exist not only as a great power, but also as a state. The history of the First World War 1914-1918. / Edited by I. I. Rostunov. - in 2 volumes. - M.: Science, 1975.
Despite the essential territorial losses in the European part of the former Russian Empire (Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became sovereign states, the western parts of Ukraine and Belarus moved to Poland, and Bessarabia was annexed Romania) Russia continued to remain an important factor in international life. The main thing is, she kept the status of the Great Power.
The most pretentious was the plan of the United States. He was set forth by President Woodrow Wilson in the message of the US Congress on January 8, 1918 in the form of fourteen items or "basic principles". Wilson's program "The World program" coincided with the following provisions. Point 1 declared a refusal of secret diplomacy, publicity in the world negotiations. Paragraph 2 solemnly declared the freedom of navigation in peaceful and in wartime. In paragraph 3, it was referred to freedom of trade and eliminate all customs barriers. Item 4th required the establishment of solid guarantees to reduce national arms "to a maximum minimum." In paragraph 5, the "fully independent, impartial decision of the colonial question" was proclaimed. Point 6th, dedicated to Russia, argued its right to "free definition" of the path of political development. In paragraphs from the 7th to the 13th, there was an American version of the decision of a number of important territorial state problems, which lay down their discussion on a peaceful conference.
Item 14th, and the latter provided for the establishment of an international organization for the conservation and maintenance of the world. The US President called the Designed Organization of Liga Nations.
Thus, in the Wilson program, democratic and even radical slogans were nominated for that time.
The program nominated by Wilson was the first official Declaration of the US Government on the US claims for the role, the global political leader, the "Higher Arbitrator" in international affairs. It was an application for the leadership of the post-war world.
The United States Program of the United States not only proclaimed a fundamentally new goal of American foreign policy, she overtooks and qualitatively new methods to achieve this goal.
The plan to reorganize the world, nominated by the American president, was a dual character, combining the principles of globalism and liberalism. This conclusion was separated by Wilson himself, called "combining participation in the world struggle for power with the leadership of the world liberal movement."
During the war, England successfully managed to realize their foreign policy plans. Her main rival Germany was defeated as a naval and colonial power. A significant part of the German colonies and territories of the Ottoman Empire were under the control of Great Britain and its dominion. Therefore, the main task was to preserve and legally secure the already achieved and conquered.
The entry into the number of great global powers of the United Staff and Japan attached the concept of the balance of the forces global character. The interests of preserving a favorable global equilibrium were explained by the struggle of England with the hegemonic aspirations of the United States.
The auxiliary means of implementing strategic goals was the French balance policy of forces. She assumed education on the eastern borders of Germany a military-political unit of small European states under the auspices of France. This block was considered by the French government as counterweight in Germany, on the one hand, and Soviet Russia, on the other.
The attitude of France to the US and England attempts to introduce liberal beginnings to the system of international relations can be described as condescending and mostly negative. J. Clemanso, being a bright representative of the old diplomatic school, considered all the arguments about the "new, more equitable global order" "harmful utopia" and demagogy.
The central idea of \u200b\u200bLiberals about the creation of the League of Nations, in principle, was not rejected by Clemenceau, but with one substantial reservation. The projected peacekeeping organization, according to the French Prime Minister, should have force, otherwise its activities will be ineffective. This force in the first postwar years could only be provided by France, which had a million-mounted land army. In other words, only under the French leadership of the League of Nations could turn out of utopia into a real body. Another example of the negative attitude of France to liberal research of England and the United States has become its approach to the Soviet problem. Clemisso, unlike Lloyd George and Wilson, nominated not a liberal, but a conservative alternative to a socialist threat. He was a decisive opponent of any negotiations with Bolsheviks, one of the initiators of the crusade anti-Soviet campaign.
In the post-war plans of the two other powers of the winners - Italy and Japan, not global, and regional problems were affected.
On January 18, 1919, in the mirror hall of the Grand Versailles Palace in a solemn atmosphere, Paris Peaceful Conferterization was opened. It was the largest international forum since the time of the Vienna Congress 1814-1815. The conference was attended by representatives of 27 winning countries who fought or declared German war.
The most important task of the Paris Conference was the creation and legal registration of a new system of international relations. In fact, it was about the polls of the influence between the great powers, the decision of the fate of the people of Europe and the world, on the establishment of a new world order.
The historical significance of this task predetermined the allocation of the following main issues: 1) a peaceful settlement of the German problem; 2) the development and conclusion of peace treaties with the former allies of Germany - Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey; 3) territorial-state reorganization in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe; 4) determining the status of the former colonies of Germany and the ownership of the Ottoman Empire; 5) the creation of the first in the history of mankind of an international organization to ensure peace and security of peoples; 6) Special place was held by the "Russian issue", without the permission of which it was impossible to seriously talk about the All-Effective peaceful settlement.
The Parisian peace conference has become a fierce struggle that has developed between the winner countries, and above all between the USA, England and France. This struggle was due to deep contradictions reflected in the plans of the post-war organization of the world. Such was the root cause of an unusually acute discussion between the three largest politicians of that time: V. Wilson, D. Lloyd George and J. Clemenceau.
An important place in the work of the conference was taken by a controversy on peaceful settlement with Germany.
In the fight against the Anglo-American block, France was forced to go for serious concessions on a variety of directions.
The result of the work of the Parisian Peace Conference was the adoption of compromise solutions, which have formed the basis of the Versailles system of international relations.
On June 28, Ich10 g. In the mirror hall of the Versailles Palace, the German delegation headed by the newly appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of Müller and the Minister of Justice, I. Elell signed a peace treaty with representatives of the winning countries. The organizers of the conference timed to sign a contract with Germany to the fifth anniversary of the Sarajevsky murder, who served as a reason for the beginning of the First World War.
Versailles Mirny Agreement was a set of 440 articles divided into 15 parts. Part I (Charter-League of Nations) and part of the HSH ("Labor" - on the creation of the International Labor Organization in the League of Nations in order to achieve "social justice") entered into all other peace treaties.
After the conclusion of the Versailles of the Logo-thief in Germany, which turned out to be a "humiliated and offended" country, revised the revisions were widespread. The struggle with the abolition of the hated contract and the ignition of the winners of the winners became the main task of the German Foreign Policy for the next perspective. Understanding this, Marshal Fosh said prophetic words: "This is not a world, but a truce for a period of 20 years." In other words. Versailles peace treaty, perceived in Germany as a symbol of national humiliation and deep injustice, in a strategic plan created all prerequisites for the struggle for the new redistribution of peace.
Peaceful agreements with the former allies of Germany were recognized to approve the new geopolitical structure of Europe and other regions of the world after the crash of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires.
A peace treaty with Austria was signed on September 10, 1919. In the suburb of Paris Saint-Germain-en-le.
Austria was extremely modest in the European system of international relations; Having lost the position of the Great Power, it defeated the status of one of the small countries of Europe.
According to the Neckish Treaty, Bulgaria lost 11% of its pre-war territory. South Dobrudja and some other areas with the Bulgarian population were fixed behind Romania. To the kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians, 4 districts were opened on the western borders of Bulgaria, the benefits of populated by Bulgarians. The most important in economic and strategic terms loss was the establishment of the jurisdiction of the "main ally of the powers" over Western Frace, which was soon transferred to Greece. Thus, the Boltarians were deprived of exit to the Aegean Sea.
Neiskal contract sharply worsened the international situation of Bulgaria even compared to the one she held after defeat in the Second Balkan War.
On June 4, 1920, a ceremony of signing a peace treaty with Hungary took place in the Greater Trianon Palace of Versailles.
Since Hungary has long been an integral part of a two-room Austro-Hungarian monarchy, many articles of the Trianon world literally coincided with similar decrees of the Saint-Germamest Treaty.
Despite the fact that the decision on the establishment of the League of Nations chronologically became the first of those adopted at the Paris Conference, it was it that failed the final result of the multidropriate work on the formation of a system of international relations. This decision reflected the desire of peoples to a fair, civilized world order, so it should be attributed to the most significant success of the leaders of the winners.
In July 1921, US President Warren Garding made an initiative to spend international congor in Washington to restrict marine arms, Pacific and Far Eastern issues. At the Paris Peace Conference, these important issues of the post-war settlement were either solved not completely, or not affected at all. In this sense, the Washington Conference was a kind of continuation of the conference of Paris. It was designed to complete the process of formation of the system of international relations. The completion of the Washington Conference marked the beginning of the functioning of the Versailles-Washington system of international relations. The Versailles-Washington system was internationally legal design of the results of the First World War and the newest arrangement of the forces. Its creation completed the transition process from the war to the world and contributed to the temporary stabilization of international relations.
But the Versailles-Washing House was complex and controversial. It combined both democratic, fair and conservative, imperialist principles of a peaceful settlement.
In this way, new model International relations, distinguished from old famous liberalism, in its content and nature was predominantly conservative and in scrap the sense, although with another alignment of the forces, was the "successor" of the former international systems.