October 9, 1912 is the start date of the first Balkan War. On the morning of October 9, 1912, in the capital of Montenegro, Cetinje, a manifesto was read out declaring war on the Ottoman Empire. The rest of the members of the Balkan Union remained neutral, handing over the initiative to Montenegro and following the reaction of the European community.
The Montenegrin-Turkish war gave the impression of a local conflict that did not cause much excitement on the continent. European governments appreciated the feat of the Montenegrin people, thereby showing their approval to the rest of the Balkan Union. None of the European countries showed concern, except for Russia, associated with Montenegro by the military convention. In Europe, it was believed that the war would end quickly.
At the beginning of the war, it became clear that Montenegro could not be won in this battle. The country's armed forces were inferior in size and technical equipment to the Turkish army. There were no regular troops in Montenegro. The Turkish army was well armed, because the weapons were provided by a German company. During the military battles, the Montenegrin troops suffered huge losses.
On October 18, Serbia, Bulgaria entered the war with Turkey, and the next day Greece. The First Balkan War took on a national liberation character from the Balkan Union. Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro fought for liberation from the Ottoman yoke.
As for the true goals of the countries participating in the Balkan Union, they were different from each other. The Bulgarians and Serbs strove to capture as large a part of Macedonia as possible, which the Greeks never renounced. Serbs and Greeks wanted to divide Albania, while Serbia got access to the Adriatic Sea. Bulgaria, besides Macedonia, always dreamed of returning Eastern Rumeila, capturing Thessaloniki and reaching the Aegean Sea.
The unexpected and brilliant successes of the Allies overturned all the original calculations of the imperialist powers. Three weeks after the declaration of war, the troops of the Balkan Union inflicted a crushing defeat on Turkey, being almost completely expelled from Europe. Serbia was fighting in Macedonia. On October 24, the Serbs defeated the Turks at Kumanov, occupying Skopje, Veles and Prizren. Meanwhile, the Bulgarians fought at Kir-Kilisse. On October 26, the Serbian army captured Uskub, won victories at Bakarno, Gumno, Bitol. In the battles of October 29 - November 3, the Bulgarians defeated the Turks at Lyule-Burgas and forced them to withdraw to the line of the Chataldzhin fortifications protecting the approaches to Constantinople. By the end of November, the Serbian army took possession of northwestern, western and central Macedonia and entered Albania.
Another corps of Serbian troops occupied Novopazarskiy sandzak. Together, Serbs and Montenegrins occupied Tirana and Durres.
The Greek army operated in two directions - northwest and northeast. They captured the Ioannina fortress, landed on the islands of the Aegean Sea, defeated the Turkish army at Yenice, and approached Thessaloniki.
The rebels provided active assistance, because the victories over the Turks caused a national upsurge in all Slavic countries.
By the end of November, all of the European lands of Turkey were liberated from Turkish troops, with the exception of Scutari, Ioannina and Andrianople.
The military successes of the allies finally convinced the European powers of the impracticability of plans to maintain the territorial status quo in the Balkans. The war caused a great international outcry and thereby contributed to the rise of liberation movements in Austria-Hungary.
Berlin did not expect that the Turkish army, trained by German instructors, would not be able to defeat the armies of the small Balkan states. Germany was concerned about the position of the Ottoman Empire and invited France and England to discuss how to negotiate with the Balkan countries. Germany believed that it was necessary to come to an agreement with France and England, then with Austria, and then warn Russia. France expressed the opinion that Russia should be invited to discuss this issue.
At this time, the Bulgarian army was at the walls of Constantinople. European countries, not expecting the victory of the Balkan countries, began to express concern.
In Bulgaria, the ruling circles sought to create a great state - "Great Bulgaria" with borders from the Black to the Aegean Sea and the victory over the Turkish army gave reason to think about it. Having learned about this desire of Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary and Germany sharply changed their attitude towards the country and began to approve of its victories in every possible way. Making it clear that they would not hinder territorial expansion and promising to provide assistance with arms and money, Germany and Austria-Hungary began their flirting with Bulgaria. Such a strange change in views was explained by the fact that Germany and Austria-Hungary tried at the expense of Turkey to embroil Russia with Bulgaria. The countries sought to destroy the Balkan bloc.
Russia, on the other hand, tried with all its might to prevent the capture of Constantinople, preserve the straits and prevent the collapse of the Balkan alliance. For this, Russia needed support, and she tried to find it from her ally, France.
Turkey was afraid of losing its capital and did not know who to turn to for help. Tsarist Russia, seizing on Turkey's offer of assistance in deterring the Bulgarian army from entering Constantinople, turned to its allies - France and England - with a proposal to take the initiative in influencing Bulgaria. France and England had their own plans for Turkey, and they did not want to allow Russia to the Straits. The European powers were well aware that the Russian ruling circles dream of capturing Constantinople and the straits. It was also important for France and England that Russia did not abandon the Triple Accord. They tried to keep the country in the Triple Alliance with the help of the straits, thereby pushing it to war with Germany.
Meanwhile, while the imperialist countries were bargaining around the "skin of a bear that had not yet been killed" and were looking for various forms of "mediation," Turkey on November 12, 1912 turned directly to Bulgaria with a proposal to conclude an armistice. Bulgaria agreed with Turkey's proposal. However, Turkey did not agree with the proposed truce terms. Austria-Hungary and Germany encouraged Turkey's intransigence.
During this period, the contradictions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia intensified over the Adriatic. Serbia, surrounded on all sides by militarily and economically strong neighbors, strove to gain access to the sea. Austria-Hungary, trying to maintain its monopoly in sea trade with the Balkan countries, was categorically against Serbia getting access to the sea and notifying the Russian government about it. Despite attempts by Austria-Hungary to obstruct Serbia, it was not criminal. In response, Vienna threatened Serbia with war. A crisis arose in international relations, which threatened the outbreak of a pan-European war. Even Austria-Hungary's ally, Germany, tried to restrain Austria-Hungary from active actions against Serbia. But at the same time, Germany did not want its ally to make concessions to Serbia, let alone Russia.
One of the attempts on the part of Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany, to block the path of Russia's ally - Serbia - to the Adriatic was the creation of an "independent" Albanian state under its protectorate. Thus, the Austro-Hungarian imperialists tried to subjugate Albania and seize control over the Adriatic.
Serbian troops, determined in a determined manner, entered Albania, which disturbed Vienna. Vienna was also concerned that Serbia had set itself the goal of acquiring a port on the Adriatic.
There was another interested party in the question of the Adriatic - Italy. Countries such as England and France, pursuing their own goals, pursued an "evasive policy" in relation to Serbia's wishes, shifting the full responsibility to Russia. Only Russia provided support to Serbia, but urged it to a peaceful solution to the issue that arose. After Serbia's rash statements, the country was isolated.
Austria-Hungary, with the assistance of Germany, tried by all means and means to prevent the strengthening of Serbia in the Balkans. Germany considered Serbia an obstacle to the implementation of its plans and tried to crush the enemy with the help of Austria.
Despite warnings from Austria, Serb forces continued to advance westward. On November 19, 1912, the troops approached Alessio, and on November 28 they occupied Durazzo.
Austria-Hungary was waiting for any pretext to start hostilities against Russia and Serbia. In October - November 1912, the army was mobilized in Austria-Hungary.
In terms of its military power, Austria-Hungary was superior to Serbia. Having underestimated its strength and learned that Germany and Italy supported Austria-Hungary on the Adriatic Sea, Serbia was forced to yield to Austrian demands.
Each of the countries interested in the outcome of this conflict had their own goals. Without reaching agreement among themselves, the European powers decided to refer the issue to the meeting of ambassadors in London.
During the conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, the Balkan Union won a victory over Turkey, as a result of which on December 3, Turkey requested an armistice, which was signed in Chatalca.
In December 1912, two international forums opened in London - the London Conference of the Ambassadors of the Great Powers, and the conference on the conclusion of peace with Turkey. The meeting was attended by ambassadors - France, England, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy.
The Peace Conference opened on December 26, 1912 and was official; the Ambassadors' Conference, which opened the next day, was closed nature ... There were 63 meetings of ambassadors, the meeting ended on August 11, 1913.
The conference discussed territorial issues, where the struggle unfolded between the countries. Greece wanted to get Epirus, Thrace, southern Macedonia, the islands of the Aegean and Marmara seas, Cyprus, the western coast of the Anatolian peninsula. Montenegro laid claim to Scutari, Pljevlje, Djakovica and the port of San Giovani de Medua. Bulgaria insisted on securing her rights to the former European possessions of Turkey and some islands. Also Bulgaria dreamed of acquiring Thessaloniki, Kavalla. The claims of the countries on the territory, one way or another, overlapped with each other, which exacerbated relations between the countries of the Balkan Union. Turkey at the conference did not make concessions, not wanting to divide its empire. Russia supported the interests of Serbia and Montenegro in expanding borders, but spoke out against Montenegro's claims to Scutari.
On December 17, at the conference of ambassadors, a decision was made on the autonomy of Albania under the sovereignty of the Sultan and under the control of six European states. The interests of Austria-Hungary and Italy were taken into account. Albania was important to both Italy and Austria-Hungary. Italy saw Albania as a springboard for penetrating the Balkans, Austria-Hungary saw Albania as its territory.
On January 24, a coup d'etat took place in Turkey. The new government withdrew the delegation from London. There was a break in the work of the peace conference. Despite the fact that the Balkans resumed fighting, the meeting of ambassadors continued to work.
The hostilities were stable: Bulgaria fought in Thrace, Greece attacked Ioannina, Serbia, together with Bulgaria, attacked Adrianople.
Turkey was defeated and on February 15 requested an armistice. The signing of the peace treaty was delayed, since the countries could not come to a solution that would suit all countries. On behalf of the conference of ambassadors, it was announced the need to sign the treaty in the form in which it was proposed by the great powers.
At this time, relations between Montenegro and Austria-Hungary aggravated due to Montenegro's claims to Scutari. They peaked in April 1913. On April 15, by the decision of the meeting of Ambassadors Scutari, it was decided to transfer it under the control of an international commission.
On May 30, 1913, the draft peace treaty was presented to the Balkan states and Turkey. The peace treaty between Turkey, on the one hand, and Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro, on the other, included six articles. The articles said that peace and friendship were being established between the countries, new borders and territorial changes were negotiated, all issues related to Albania were settled, all financial issues were submitted to the international commission.
Thus, Turkey lost its European possessions, Serbia did not receive access to the Adriatic Sea, Greece did not annex the islands in the Aegean Sea to its possessions, Montenegro did not receive Scutari. The territory of Kosovo was divided between Montenegro and Serbia. Macedonia did not gain independence and was practically divided between Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia. Albania gained independence, but was oppressed by the six great powers.
The London Peace Treaty did not bring satisfaction to either the Balkan countries or Turkey. The agreement also did not contribute to the improvement of the international situation.
Thus, the Ottoman yoke ended for the Balkan countries. Thus ended the first Balkan war, which lasted 8 months.
List of references:
- Joll D. Origins of the First World War. - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 1998. - 416 p.
- D. V. Kuznetsov Reader on the history of modern times in Europe and America. International relationships in 1648-1918 - Blagoveshchensk: BSPU Publishing House, 2010. - 384 p.
- Pisarev Yu.A. Great powers and the Balkans on the eve of the First World War. - M.: Mysl, 1985 .-- 289 p.
A hundred years ago, the Second Balkan War broke out. It was one of the fastest wars in the Balkan Peninsula - June 29 - July 29, 1913. On June 29, 1913, at 3 o'clock in the morning, Bulgarian troops attacked the Serbs without declaring war, and in the evening - the Greeks. This is how the Second Balkan War began between Bulgaria on the one hand, and Serbia, Montenegro and Greece on the other. Turkey and Romania also opposed Bulgaria. This war was beneficial to the Western powers - the positions of the Russian Empire in the Balkans were undermined, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary increased their influence on the peninsula. The Balkan alliance collapsed, dispelling Petersburg's hopes for a pan-Slavic alliance that could withstand the expansion of Turkey and the Austro-German bloc. The Balkan states have moved from cooperation to the struggle for a place in the sun. Bulgaria began to lean towards an alliance with the Austro-Hungarian and German empires, hoping for revenge.
Preconditions for the war
Great-power ambitions of Balkan politicians. The degradation of the Ottoman Empire allowed the Balkan peoples, with the help of the Russian state, to restore their independence. But the politicians of these countries did not want to stop there. The Bulgarian government wanted to expand the borders of the Bulgarian state as much as possible, creating Great Bulgaria - a power that was supposed to occupy the entire eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, get Macedonia and Thrace. The Bulgarians considered themselves the main victors in the First Balkan War, their army inflicted the most serious blows on the Turks. The results of the war offended Bulgaria, she wanted more. The most resolute dreamed of a "Great Bulgaria", which, as in the times of the greatest power of the Bulgarian kingdom, would stretch from the Black and Aegean to the Adriatic and Ionian seas. Serbia wanted to annex Western Macedonia and Albania to its country, to get an entrance to the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. The Greeks planned to expand the borders of their country as much as possible, claiming Thrace and South Macedonia, like the Bulgarians. The idea of \u200b\u200brestoring the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople was born. Romania had territorial claims against Bulgaria, demanding Southern Dobrudja.
The London Peace Treaty of May 30, 1913, which drew a line under the First Balkan War, did not satisfy the Balkan states. The Ottoman Empire lost all European possessions, except for Constantinople and a small part of Eastern Thrace, and wanted to return at least part of the territory. With the support of the great powers, Albania was created, although Greece, Montenegro and Serbia claimed its territory. Thrace and Macedonia were not divided, new borders were not created. The London Treaty created a pretext for war.
- The First Balkan War weakened the positions of Austria-Hungary and Germany in the Balkans. The presence of the Balkan Union and the strengthening of Serbia and Montenegro forced Vienna to keep more troops in the southern direction, which weakened the army in Galicia - against Russia. Therefore, the efforts of Vienna and Berlin were focused on tearing Bulgaria away from Serbia and Russia, to quarrel among themselves Serbs and Bulgarians. Austro-German politicians were going to smash the Balkan Union and create a threat to Serbia from the rear from Bulgaria. The Bulgarian state was to become part of the grouping of the Central Powers. German and Austrian diplomats instilled in the Serbs that since they did not get the desired access to the Adriatic in the war, they should compensate themselves at the expense of Macedonia and Thessaloniki by gaining access to the Aegean Sea. This required unleashing a war with Bulgaria and Greece. On the other hand, the Bulgarians were convinced of the need to seize Macedonia. Vienna promised Sofia support in this matter.
Politics of England and various behind-the-scenes structures. The "world behind the scenes" has been preparing the ground for the outbreak of a major war in Europe for several years. The Balkans were supposed to give rise to a world war in which it was necessary to involve Russia, and this was inevitable due to the historical ties of the Russian state with the Balkan peoples. The clear position of England, and France also supported it, could stop the war in the Balkans. The ambiguity of England's position provoked offensive actions of the Austro-German bloc. England will take the same position before the outbreak of the First World War, giving hope to the German government for London's neutrality.
Pre-war political situation
In early 1913, the Serbian press, belonging to the Vienna-oriented Liberal Party and the Black Hand nationalist secret organization, which had ties to European Freemasonry, launched a campaign against the Serbo-Bulgarian union. The Pasic government was accused of Bulgaria's excessive compliance on the territorial issue. The same hysteria was raised in Bulgaria. Both sides insisted on the historical right to Macedonia. These sentiments were fueled in every possible way by Austria-Hungary and Germany.
On May 26, 1913, the Serbian government demanded that Sofia review the terms of the 1912 agreement. On May 28, the head of the Serbian government, Pašić, speaking in the assembly (parliament), said that Serbia and Greece should have a common border. Therefore, the agreement with the Bulgarians should be changed in favor of Serbia. The Greeks also supported Belgrade. Greece did not want the transfer of Macedonia to the rule of Bulgaria. In addition, the transformation of Thessaloniki into the main shopping center in the south of Serbia promised considerable benefits to Greece. On June 1, 1913, Serbia and Greece signed an alliance treaty and a military convention against Bulgaria. The agreement provided for the division of Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, the establishment of a common border between the states. A secret protocol on the division of Albania into the spheres of influence of Serbia and Greece was also signed. In Sofia, this agreement was perceived as an anti-Bulgarian provocation.
This agreement made war inevitable. The Serbian press, politicians, court circles and the military rejected any compromise with Bulgaria and demanded that the army achieve the solution of "national problems". Only the Serbian socialists were against the war, but their voice was virtually inaudible in the nationalist chorus. Even the king himself began to call for the maximum expansion of the borders of the Serbian state. At the end of May, the heir to the Serbian throne, Alexander Karageorgievich, visited the Serbian troops stationed in Macedonia. Speaking to the military with speeches, he spoke of the need for an immediate solution to the territorial dispute with Bulgaria. In the early summer of 1913, the "Serbization" of Western Macedonia began. The press accused the Pasic government, which was more moderate and oriented towards Russia, of national treason. The Serbian government was firmly connected in foreign policy with Russia and France, and was forced to reckon with their opinion.
Russia's position
Russia tried to preserve the Balkan Union. Its creation was a great diplomatic success for the Russian Empire: this alliance could be directed both against Turkey and against Austria-Hungary. Relying on it, Russia could resolve the issue of the Black Sea straits in its favor. Russian diplomacy advised Sofia to make concessions. Petersburg offered to immediately convene a conference of the heads of government of the Balkan Union, with the arbitration of Russia. The conference had to find a peaceful way out of this situation. However, there were too many who wanted to destroy the Balkan Union, the great-power ambitions of the Balkan states were fueled by both the Austro-Hungarian bloc and France and England.
The Russian Emperor Nicholas II addressed the heads of Serbia and Bulgaria with a personal message, where he warned that at the beginning of the fratricidal war, Petersburg would retain its freedom of action. Sofia and Belgrade complained about each other. The Serbian monarch Peter replied that Belgrade's demands could not be limited by the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian agreement. The Bulgarian king Ferdinand accused the Serbs of planning to deprive Sofia of the fruits of her victory.
The Russian Foreign Ministry demanded that Belgrade immediately agree to convene the conference. The same offer was made to Sofia. But Austria-Hungary assured the Bulgarian government that it would support Sofia's claims to Macedonia. The Bulgarians rejected the proposal of St. Petersburg to convene a conference and declared the need to comply with the terms of the Serbo-Bulgarian agreement of 1912. Sofia demanded that her troops be allowed into the regions of southwestern and southern Macedonia. They were occupied by Serbian and Greek forces. Belgrade refused. The Bulgarian government has urgently recalled its ambassador from Serbia.
The Bulgarian tsar Ferdinand of Saxe of Coburg-Gotha, who used to balance in the game with the pro-Russian and pro-German parties, made the final choice. Bulgaria decided to hit first. On June 25, the Bulgarian envoy in St. Petersburg informed the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, Sazonov, that Bulgaria could not wait any longer and was forced to interrupt further negotiations with Russia and Serbia. The Russian minister said that Bulgaria was thereby "taking a treacherous step towards the Slavic cause" and "making a decision tantamount to declaring a fratricidal war." Thus, the "Slavic brothers" set up Russia, and not for the last time.
War
On June 29, the commander of the Bulgarian army, General Mikhail Savov, ordered the troops to attack. By this time Bulgaria had 5 armies - only about 500 thousand people. The Bulgarian command planned to attack in the southern direction, cut off the communication between Serbia and Greece, and capture Skopje and all of Macedonia. Further, Sofia believed that negotiations would begin, and Serbia would be forced to agree to peace on the terms of Bulgaria. The Serbian army - three armies and two separate detachments (about 200 thousand people in total), was located along the entire border with Bulgaria. Serbia had no special plans on the eve of the war.
On the night of June 30, 1913, the Bulgarian units, without declaring war, attacked the Serbian troops, which were stationed in Macedonia. The 4th Bulgarian army led an offensive in the Macedonian direction, the 2nd army - in the direction of Thessaloniki. The Bulgarians defeated the border Serbian troops, but soon they were stopped by the 1st Serbian Army, led by Alexander Karageorgievich. The 2nd Bulgarian Army defeated the advanced units of the Greeks and reached the coast of the Aegean Sea. On June 30, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Bulgaria. King Constantine I of Greece led the army (about 150 thousand) and gave the order for a counterattack. At this time, the Serbian troops stopped the advance of the 1st and 5th Bulgarian armies on Pirot.
The Bulgarian offensive collapsed by July 2, Sofia clearly overestimated her strength and underestimated the fighting spirit and power of her opponents. Sofia even initially inclined to the idea of \u200b\u200ba withdrawal of troops and a declaration of a border conflict. However, there was no going back. Serbia, Greece and Montenegro got the long-awaited opportunity to defeat the competitor. The Bulgarian troops found themselves in a difficult situation and began to withdraw to the old border. Bulgaria had to pull the overwhelming part of its forces to the border with Greece and Serbia. By July 4, the Greek army defeated the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kilkis. The remnants of the Bulgarian troops retreated to the border. On July 7, Greek troops entered Strumica. On July 10, the Bulgarians withdrew to the eastern bank of the Struma. On July 11, the Greeks made contact with the Serb forces.
In Romania, they closely followed the unfolding events. Romanian politicians were also infected with the idea of \u200b\u200b"Greater Romania" (they are still sick, the healing experience of World War II, unfortunately, has already been forgotten). Bucharest had territorial claims to all of its neighbors - Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary and Russia. But due to its military weakness, Romania could count on an increase in its territory only in the event of a catastrophic weakening of its neighbors. Only Bulgaria was a more or less equal enemy. But even here it was necessary to act carefully so as not to cause serious complications with Russia, and not to run into defeat.
The Romanians prudently did not get involved in the First Balkan War. Like, let the Serbs fight the Bulgarians with the Turks, and we'll see who takes it. At the same time, Bucharest prepared troops, and in case of success of the Ottomans, was ready to strike at Bulgaria. The Romanians demanded the transfer of Southern Dobrudja to them. When Porto was defeated, at the London Conference the Romanian delegation tried to snatch their share, but failed. Convinced that Bulgaria was defeated by Greece and Serbia, on July 14, Romanian troops (Romania had about 450 thousand people) crossed the Romanian-Bulgarian border in the Dobrudzha region and moved to Varna. There was practically no resistance from the Bulgarians. Almost all of the Bulgarian troops were concentrated against the Serbian and Greek armies. The Romanian cavalry calmly approached Sofia.
Almost simultaneously with the Romanians, Turkey also attacked Bulgaria. Their advance units crossed the Maritsa River. The initiator of the outbreak of hostilities was Enver Pasha, the leader of the Young Turks. Izet Pasha was appointed commander of the operation. The Young Turks planned to take advantage of the Second Balkan War to improve their positions in the European part of Turkey. The Ottomans put up over 200 thousand people. Turkish troops cleared Eastern Thrace from the Bulgarians within a few days. July 23 they occupied Edirne (Adrianople). Russia offered Britain and France to hold a collective naval demonstration against Turkey, expressing fear that after the capture of Adrianople, the Turks would become insolent. But England and France agreed to carry out such an operation, only with the participation of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, that is, in fact they refused. A repeated proposal to hold a naval demonstration only by the Entente was categorically rejected.
The Bulgarian army fought back desperately. The Bulgarians were able to stop the Serb offensive against Sofia and stabilize the situation on the Greek front. But with the entry into the war of Romania and Turkey, the Bulgarians were doomed. On July 29, Sofia, realizing the hopelessness of the situation and facing the threat of a military catastrophe, went to peace negotiations.
Outcome
With the mediation of Russia, on July 31, 1913, Bucharest signed an armistice. On August 10, 1913, the Bucharest Peace Treaty was signed. Bulgaria lost most of the territories occupied during the First Balkan War, and also transferred Southern Dobruja to Romania - about 7 thousand square kilometers. Macedonia was divided between Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria was able to maintain access to the Aegean Sea. On September 29, 1913, a peace treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Turkey in Constantinople. Bulgaria transferred to Turkey a part of Eastern Thrace with the city of Edirne.
Serbia celebrated - the territory of the state increased from 48.3 to 87.7 thousand square kilometers, and the population - from 2.9 to 4.4 million people. Serbia's main rival in the Balkan Peninsula among slavic states - Bulgaria was defeated and pushed into the background. However, the joy was short-lived. The destruction of the Balkan Union, strategically, will turn Serbia sideways, sharply deteriorating the capabilities of the Slavs in the fight against the Austro-German forces in the First world war.
Russia suffered a serious diplomatic defeat.
The Slav brothers, instead of strengthening the alliance and cooperation, staged a fratricidal slaughter to the delight of Russia's geopolitical opponents. A new provocation will soon follow from the Balkans, which will force the Russian Empire to enter the First World War, which will end in a geopolitical catastrophe for it.
The war of the coalition (Balkan Union) of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece against Turkey with the aim of conquering Turkish possessions in the Balkan Peninsula (First Balkan War) and the war of the same coalition and Turkey and Romania that joined it against Bulgaria with the aim of redistributing the territories captured in the previous war (Second Balkan War).
In Macedonia, Bulgarians predominated among the population. Their share exceeded 50 percent. Turks were about three times less than Bulgarians, Greeks - one third less than Turks, and Albanians were two and a half times less than Greeks. Serbia laid claim to a significant part of Macedonia. The Serbian royal dynasty sought to unite all the southern Slavs around itself. Also in Thrace, Bulgarians made up more than half of the population, surpassing both the Turks and Greeks. Contradictions between Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece over the territory of Macedonia led to the Second Balkan War.
The First Balkan War began on October 9, 1912, with an attack by the Montenegrin army on the Turkish fortress of Shkoder in Albania. On October 17, when Bulgarian, Greek and Serbian troops concentrated for the attack, Turkey declared war on Athens, Sofia, Belgrade and Cetinje. The next day Bulgaria and Greece, in turn, declared war on Turkey (Serbia joined them on October 7). In this war they acted as aggressors, counting on the support of the great European powers and on the internal weakness of the Ottoman Empire.
The Turkish army was significantly outnumbered by its opponents. After mobilization, she had an army with a total strength of 914 thousand people, of which it used about 700 thousand people with 1582 guns. The Bulgarian army numbered 738 thousand people, of which almost 600 thousand were transferred to the theater of operations. Montenegro mobilized an army of 40,000, which took part entirely in the war. Serbia mobilized 291 thousand people, of which 175 thousand people were sent to the front. Greece fielded 175 thousand people, of which 150 thousand people participated in the battles. Thus, the overall superiority of the states of the Balkan Union over Turkey in the number of armies was approximately 1.4 times.
By October 25, Bulgarian forces defeated the main forces of the Turkish Eastern Army at Lozengrad. Meanwhile, the Greek Thessalian army shot down the weak Turkish barriers at the Sarandaporo mountain pass, and the 1st Serbian army defeated the Turkish Vardar army in the Kumanovo region. By November 3, the Thessalian army defeated the Turkish forces at Enij Vardar and opened the way to Thessaloniki, and the 1st and 2nd Bulgarian armies inflicted a heavy defeat on the Turkish Eastern army on the Karagachdera River. During this battle on October 29, for the first time in history, Bulgarian pilot Radul Milkov and observer Prodan Tarakchiev conduct reconnaissance and aerial bombardment of enemy positions.
On November 3, the Turkish government asked the great powers to mediate a truce with the states of the Balkan Union. But the war continued. On November 6, the main Turkish forces were pushed back to the Chatalja defensive positions in front of Istanbul. The Bulgarian troops could not overcome them on the move. Stubborn battles ensued. On November 8, Turkey again asked the great powers for mediation, but was refused.
On the night of November 8-9, the Turkish garrison surrendered in Thessaloniki. Greek and Bulgarian troops entered the city. Three days later, Turkey turned to Bulgaria, and through it to the rest of the allies, with a request to conclude an armistice and a preliminary peace treaty. Bulgaria did not accept this request. The government in Sofia hoped that the Bulgarian army would break through the Chatalja positions and take possession of Constantinople (Istanbul). However, the attack of these fortifications, undertaken on November 17-18, ended in failure. The fighting developed more successfully for the Bulgarians in Aegean Thrace, where their 2nd Macedonian-Odrin brigade captured the city of Dedeagach on November 19.
The largest battles at sea took place on 20 and 21 November. Four Bulgarian minesweepers in the Black Sea attacked the Turkish cruiser Hamidiye and hit it with several torpedoes, causing serious damage. The cruiser, however, stayed afloat and managed to reach Istanbul.
On November 27, the Bulgarian troops managed to capture the Turkish corps of Yaver Pasha in the Dedeagach region. More than 9 thousand prisoners were taken, 8 guns and 2 machine guns. After this defeat, on November 25, negotiations began on a preliminary (preliminary) peace treaty, and on December 3, a protocol on a temporary truce was signed. On December 16, negotiations between Turkey and the states of the Balkan Union began in London and a conference of ambassadors of the great powers opened. But already three days after the start of the peace conference, the Bulgarian command decided to prepare the assault on Edirne (Odrina or Adrianople).
Meanwhile, a coup d'etat took place in Turkey on January 23, 1913. Turkish nationalists came to power - the Young Turks, led by Jemal Pasha, Enver Pasha and Talaat Pasha. On January 29, they broke off the peace talks. The hostilities resumed.
Initially, Turkish troops were able to push back the 1st and 3rd Bulgarian armies from the Chatalja positions by 13 February. Serbian and Montenegrin troops launched an unsuccessful assault on Shkoder. On February 26, hoping to use its military successes during the peace conference, Turkey accepted the mediation of the great powers to negotiate with the state of the Balkan Union. However, the allies were not going to end the war yet.
On March 5, the Greeks in Epirus took possession of the Turkish fortress of Ioannina. On March 24, Bulgarian troops launched an offensive and five days later pushed the Turks back to the Chatalja fortifications. On March 26, the 2nd Bulgarian Army captured Edirne and captured a 60,000-strong garrison led by Shukri Pasha and 524 guns. At the same time, the Bulgarian losses were small: 1,316 killed, 451 missing and 6329 wounded.
On April 14, 1913, peace negotiations began in London and an agreement to end hostilities was signed. On May 9, the European great powers imposed a protocol on Bulgaria, according to which she was forced to cede the city of Silistra in Dobrudja to Romania as compensation for benevolent neutrality in the war with Turkey. On May 30, the states of the Balkan Union signed the London Peace Treaty with Turkey, according to which the Ottoman Empire lost Macedonia, most of Thrace and Albania, which gained independence (a small part of its territory went to Montenegro, and the vast Kosovo region to Serbia). But the winners could not share the booty, and this led to the Second Balkan War.
Even before the signing of the London Peace Treaty, at the end of February 1913, clashes broke out between Bulgarian and Greek troops in Western Macedonia. The Bulgarian command began to concentrate troops in Macedonia in case they had to fight with their former allies. Simultaneously, Serbia and Greece entered into negotiations with Romania on a possible alliance against Bulgaria. On May 5, Athens and Belgrade made an alliance against Sofia. On May 8, Romania proposed to conclude a similar alliance with Turkey. Former allies, as well as the enemy - Turkey, feared that Bulgaria, which possessed itself strong army, will establish its hegemony in the Balkans, capturing almost all of Macedonia and Thrace. Serbia hoped to gain access to the sea by annexing a significant part of the Albanian territory. However, Austria-Hungary opposed this, fearing the strengthening of the Serbian state and its influence on the Yugoslavian population of the Danube monarchy. Then Belgrade demanded compensation at the expense of the Bulgarian part of Macedonia. In Sofia, realizing the inevitability of a new military clash, on May 25, an additional mobilization was announced. Five days later, additional mobilization began in Greece and Serbia. On June 4, Serbia and Greece entered into a military-political alliance against Bulgaria, and on June 6 they invited Turkey to join them. Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek troops pulled up to the borders.
On June 8, Russian Emperor Nicholas II warned Belgrade and Sofia that whoever starts hostilities first would be subject to political sanctions. Meanwhile, Montenegro on 11 June re-mobilized the army demobilized after the First Balkan War. Bulgaria insisted that Russia and other great powers hold an early arbitration on the Macedonian issue to resolve the Serbian-Bulgarian territorial disputes. Russian diplomacy in every possible way delayed the solution of this issue, as it did not want to quarrel with Serbia, which at that moment of all the Balkan states was most closely connected with Russia.
On June 22, Bulgaria presented an ultimatum to Russia: hold arbitration within seven days, otherwise threatening to start a war against Serbia and Greece. On June 27, Romania warned Bulgaria that the outbreak of hostilities against Serbia would mean a Romanian-Bulgarian war. But on June 29, the Bulgarian army invaded the lines of control of the Serbian and Greek troops in Macedonia. The main blow was delivered by the 2nd Bulgarian Army, which was to capture Thessaloniki. At this time, the more powerful 4th Army was advancing in the direction of the Zletovska River and the city of Krivolak. The plan of the Bulgarian command was to withdraw Greece from the war as soon as possible, and then unleash all forces on Serbia in order to deal with it before the Romanian army had time to complete mobilization and go on the offensive. At this time, the Serbian troops stationed in Macedonia could be cut off from Serbia. However, the offensive in this direction was launched by the Bulgarians with insufficient forces and very quickly turned it down, when on July 2 the Greek troops launched a counteroffensive and began to press the 2nd and 4th Bulgarian armies.
By July 10, the Bulgarian units operating against Serbia withdrew to the old Serbian-Bulgarian border. On July 12, Turkey began the war against Bulgaria. By July 23, Turkish troops drove out the Bulgarians from Eastern Thrace and again captured Edirne. The position of the Bulgarians became hopeless after the Romanian army launched an invasion of northern Bulgaria on 14 July and, almost without encountering any resistance, moved to Sofia and Varna. True, on the same day, the Bulgarian troops launched a successful counteroffensive against the Greek army, and by July 30, the 40,000-strong group of Greeks in the Kresna Gorge in the Rhodope Mountains, bypassed from the flanks, found themselves in a semi-encirclement. However, there was no time or energy to liquidate it.
Bulgaria's opponents had a 4-fold superiority in the infantry and had 1.6 times more artillery and 2.5 times more cavalry. It was pointless to continue the fight. On July 30, 1913, the Bulgarian government accepted the proposal of the Greek King Constantine to conclude an armistice, which was signed on the same day in Bucharest. On July 31, hostilities ceased. On August 10, 1913, the Bucharest Peace Treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Romania, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. Most of Macedonia went to Serbia and Greece. Greece also received part of Western Thrace. Bulgaria retained only a small southeastern region of Pirin Macedonia in the Petrich region and part of Western Thrace with the port of Dedeagach on the Aegean Sea. The Bulgarian southern Dobrudja with the cities of Turtukay and Balchik went to Romania. On September 29, 1913, Bulgaria and Turkey signed the Constantinople Peace Treaty, according to which the Bulgarians returned to the Turks the main part of Eastern Thrace from Edirne and retained only a small area with the city of Malko Tarnovo.
During the two Balkan wars, Bulgaria's losses amounted to 186 thousand killed, wounded and died from wounds and diseases. Of this number, only in the Second War, 33 thousand were killed and died, and 60 thousand were wounded. Serbia in the First Balkan War lost 25 thousand people killed and died from wounds and diseases, as well as wounded. In the Second Balkan War, the total losses of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Romania and Turkey amounted to 80 thousand killed, dead and wounded. The total losses of Bulgaria can be estimated at 66 thousand dead, Turkey - 45 thousand, Greece - 14 thousand, Montenegro - 2.5 thousand and Serbia - 17 thousand dead, including those killed and died from wounds. In addition, 16 thousand Serbs, more than 35 thousand Turks, at least 10 thousand Greeks and the same number of Turks died from diseases. Turkey suffered the greatest losses by prisoners. In the First Balkan War, more than 100 thousand Turkish soldiers and officers were taken prisoner.
As a result of the Balkan Wars, Serbia became the most powerful state in the Balkans, oriented towards Russia and France. There was also a gravitation towards the Entente of Greece, Montenegro and Romania. On the other hand, the losers Bulgaria and Turkey soon joined the German bloc.
The Balkan states were at enmity with each other over territories. This threatened a large-scale conflict, which Russia tried to prevent different ways - alliances, diplomatic efforts, threats
The day before Balkan Peninsula hit the epicenter of world politics. During the first decade of the twentieth century. a series of local conflicts occurred in this region, which identified the main players in the coming war... Russia played an important role in the Balkan Wars, which lasted from 1912 to 1913. In particular, the Russian emperor tried to keep Serbia and Bulgaria from mutual hostilities, helped to strengthen the statehood and independence of Serbia, which began to orient itself in foreign policy towards Russia.
They were not going to lose the Balkans in the twentieth century. neither Turkey, nor Germany, nor Russia, nor Austria-Hungary. France and England had their own plans for the peninsula, which sought to use the internal contradictions in the region to their advantage. Nevertheless, most of the Balkan states continued to focus on the Russian Empire:
- Bulgaria understood that it was in danger of being absorbed by Austria and sought support from Nicholas II.
- Serbia and Montenegro sought to secure Russian support in order to maximize their national plans and free themselves from Turkish pressure.
- Macedonia hoped that Russia's influence would be enough to carry out reforms and actually "pull" the country out of the zone of British control.
Thus, the belief of the Balkans in the strength and might of the Russian Empire was very great. This gave states hope for independent existence and restoration of national rights and borders.
Background of the Balkan Wars
The "heat of passions" between the countries of the regions fell on 1906. At that time, the Serbian-Austro-Hungarian relations worsened. Countries started a customs war with different goals:
- The Austro-Hungarian Empire wanted to include Serbia in its state.
- Serbia tried to strengthen its independence.
Britain and Russia opposed this policy of Austria-Hungary and Turkey, which supported the Habsburgs. Nicholas II's positions in foreign policy were shaken after the Japanese-Russian war. England took this nuance into account, trying to give Russia time to rebuild the army. Two monarchs - Edurad the Seventh and Nicholas II agreed to carry out reforms in Macedonia and a joint confrontation against Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
The struggle at customs in 1908 moved into the diplomatic sphere. Turkey was left out of the game because of the revolution. The Habsburgs decided to seize Bosnia and Herzegovina, but for this they had to obtain permission from Russia. This decision of Austria-Hungary pursued two goals - to annex the Bosnian-Herzegovinian territory and compromise Russia on the international arena.
Austria-Hungary promised Russia free access for ships to the Black Sea through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. England opposed this decision, so the agreement was concluded orally. Austria-Hungary in 1908 seized Bosnia and Herzegovina, which caused a negative reaction in Serbia and Russia.
- Montenegro.
- Greece.
- Bulgaria.
- Serbia.
Already being a part of the union, the countries began to negotiate with each other without coordinating their decision with Russia. In particular, Serbia and Bulgaria wanted to divide Macedonia into spheres of influence. Russia approved this alliance, but warned that both states did not enter the war against Turkey. Under pressure from the Russian Empire, Serbia and Bulgaria signed an agreement (March 1912), which clearly stated respect for each other's territorial independence, integrity and sovereignty. Also, the countries were supposed to provide mutual military assistance if Austria-Hungary attacks Serbia.
Thus, Russia's diplomatic games before local conflicts in the Balkans pursued two goals. Nicholas II did not want to lose his influence on the peninsula and was looking for allies in the fight against the Hapsburgs and Turkey.
Conflicts in the Balkans in 1912-1913
It was important for the Russian emperor not to rush into wars in the Balkan region, because he had not yet fully re-equipped and reorganized the army. But the Balkan states had other plans. The first Balkan War began on October 9, 1912, when Montenegro decided to oppose Turkey. According to the agreements between the members of the Balkan bloc, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria declared war on the Porte. The Turks very quickly began to retreat under the onslaught of the Balkans and ceded the European part of the country to them. The Sultan appealed to the Habsburgs and Nicholas II for mediation in the peace process. Everyone needed peace, including the Russian Empire, which did not want to lose control over the straits. Supporting the claims of Serbia, Russia was in no hurry to enter the conflict. The Russian army and the monarch was supported by France, which allocated a large loan for the rearmament of troops and an increase in their numbers.
But Russia avoided war by proposing an international conference. In December 1912, members of the Balkan Union, Turkey, Austria-Hungary, Russia, England, France and Italy, gathered in the British capital. The negotiations ended with the following results:
- Creation of Albania - a new autonomous state in the Balkans, which was under the protectorate of Austria-Hungary and Italy. The goal is to prevent Serbia from accessing the sea.
- Turkey had to make a number of territorial concessions, including giving the city of Adrianapolis to Bulgaria.
- Serbia was forced to withdraw its troops from Albania.
- Nicholas II refused to support Turkey, saying that his country would take a neutral position in the event of a new conflict.
The first Balkan War broke out again on February 3, 1913. Turkey was defeated at the front, having lost a number of cities, and in March again began to ask for peace negotiations. Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia began to quarrel among themselves, which decided the issue of spheres of influence. the Russian Empire gave the order to the fleet to prepare to sail to the Bosphorus. Interference was avoided, because Serbia, and then Bulgaria, signed an armistice with Turkey. Only Montenegro continued the war against the Ottoman Port.
At the peace talks, Russia was afraid of only one thing - not to lose Constantinople and access to the straits. The treaty to end the war was signed at the end of May 1913. Among its conditions it is worth noting:
- The European territories of Turkey were divided by the Balkan states.
- The Albanian question and the fate of the islands in the Aegean Sea were not resolved. Their seizure worried Russia very much, which was afraid that they would block access to the Black Sea straits for Russian ships.
Nicholas II could not resist interfering in the war that Montenegro continued to wage. The battles were fought around the town of Skutari, from which the Montenegrins withdrew, having received large compensation.
Second Balkan War
This conflict was not as long as the first. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria fought for Macedonian territory. The hostilities lasted from June 29 to July 29, 1913. In early July, Romania joined the war, deciding to oppose Bulgaria.
The European states launched their diplomatic conflicts without paying attention to the situation in the Balkans. So Austria-Hungary and Germany were waiting for the moment when Russia would intervene in the war on the side of Serbia. Nicholas II at this time flirted with Romania in order to join it to the Entente. Turkey, seeing that the situation in Bulgaria had deteriorated, attacked it in mid-1916.
- Once again, they divided the territories in the Balkans.
- Russia received two blocs under its patronage: Serbia, Greece and Romania were part of the same grouping; Bulgaria and Turkey are in the other.
- Romania joined the Entente.
- Serbia again remained landlocked. She tried to solve this problem immediately after the signing of the peace treaty.
Effects
- In the Balkans, Serbia and Bulgaria during 1913 continued to quarrel over territories, which the Habsburgs constantly used.
- The contradictions between Greece and Bulgaria intensified.
- Russia tried to preserve the Balkan Union, pressing in turn on Bulgaria, then on Serbia, then on Greece. The attempts were in vain.
- The Bulgarian leadership began to reorient foreign policy to Austria-Hungary. They tried to draw Nicholas II into the union, but he did not go for it.
- Albania became independent.
- Russia has moved closer to France to support Serbia and Greece.
- The balance of power in the region has changed.
- There were constant local clashes between Albania and Serbia.
On the advice of England, Russia was forced in the fall of 1913 to fulfill the Habsburg ultimatum, which was followed by the withdrawal of troops from Serbia. Each of the warring parties again began to prepare for military action.
Conclusion
The Russian Empire could not stand aside from the Balkan Wars. The region was vital to control the Black Sea straits, support states and strengthen positions on the peninsula. Despite the disagreements, Nicholas II was able to get closer to England and France. Russia demonstrated its influence by creating various alliances, dictating conditions to the Balkan states.
Two Balkan wars took place shortly before the 1st World War. The first battles were of an exclusively liberation, anti-Turkish character. Subsequent actions were caused by contradictions between the winners in the first battle.
The Balkan Wars (at the first stage) made it possible to oust the Turks from the territory of Europe. The union of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria planned to deprive the Ottoman Empire of all possessions on European territory. Subsequently, due to the developing contradictions within the Union, some territories returned to the Turks. In general, the Balkan wars provoked a further exacerbation of foreign policy contradictions. These hostilities to a certain extent accelerated the outbreak of the 1st World War. At the same time, the Balkan Wars contributed to the development of military technology. During the battles, new aircraft, submarines, and armored vehicles were used. In addition, the significance of massed rifle, machine-gun, and artillery fire was confirmed.
The First Balkan War lasted from October 9, 1912 to May 30, 1913. During this period, Montenegro, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria, united in a Union, fought against the Ottoman Empire. The peoples had to fulfill an important historical task of liberation from the national and feudal oppression of the Turks. However, a certain backwardness of the peasantry and the weakness of the proletariat, the interference of the imperialist powers in the affairs of the peninsula led to the fact that this was accomplished not by revolutionary but by military means.
The Balkan Union was led by the Serbian and Bulgarian bourgeoisie, which sought to dominate more of Macedonia. The Bulgarian representatives of the government assumed by the annexation of Western Thrace and Thessaloniki to gain access to the Aegean Sea. At the same time, the Serbian ruling circles hoped to gain access to the division of Albania.
The acceleration of the First Balkan War was provoked by uprisings in Albania and Macedonia, russian-Turkish war... The reason for the announcement of the beginning of offensive movements was the refusal of the Turks to grant autonomy to Thrace and Macedonia and to stop the mobilization of Turkish troops.
Montenegro was the first to start hostilities on October 9, 1912. On October 18, the rest of the Union countries (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece) entered the battle. According to the plan of the allies, the Turkish troops were supposed to be defeated before the arrival of reinforcements from Asia Minor. It should be noted that the combined troops outnumbered the Turks not only in numbers, but also in armament and in the level of training of soldiers. At the same time, the army was reorganized.
The main blow to the East was dealt in Thrace. Crossing the border, the first and third Bulgarian armies defeated the third corps of the Turks. After the defeat of the fourth corps, the eastern Ottoman army fled. The troops of the Bulgarians were stopped at the Chataldzhi positions, fortified sufficiently.
In South Macedonia, Greek troops won the battle at Yenija and launched an offensive in Thessaloniki, which was supported by Bulgarian attacks. The Greeks also supported the Serbian army advancing through Macedonia.
The Greek fleet dominated.
The successes of the Union in the battles posed quite difficult tasks for other great states. For example, Russia feared that the conquest of the Turkish capital by the Bulgarians might raise the question of the straits in unfavorable conditions for tsarism. Therefore, the Russian emperor proposed to suspend hostilities and proceed to peace negotiations.
As a result of the difficult international environment, unsuccessful attempt the seizure of Istanbul by the Bulgarians, an armistice was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria on the one hand and Turkey on the other. However, military operations were soon resumed. Only after new defeats of the Turkish army was an armistice signed between all the countries of the Union and Turkey.
The Second Balkan War was caused by contradictions within the Union. Countries expressed their dissatisfaction with the results of the 1st battle. Military operations were conducted between Turkey, Montenegro, Romania, Greece and Serbia on the one hand and Bulgaria on the other.
As a result of the fighting, the Bulgarians lost a significant part of the territory, Romania withdrew from and became closer to the Entente. Bulgaria itself has moved closer to the Austro-German bloc.