Territory and population of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century
At the beginning of the 19th century the territory of Russia was more than 18 million km2, and the population - 40 million people. The Russian Empireᅟ was a single territory.The bulk of the population lives in the central and western provinces; on the territory of Siberia - a little more than 3 million people. And on Far East, the development of which was just beginning, stretched uninhabited lands.
The population differed in national, class and religious affiliation.
peoples Russian Empire : Slavic (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians); Turkic (Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts); Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Komi, Udmurts); Tungus (Evens and Evenks) ...
More than 85% of the country's population professed Orthodoxy, a significant part of the peoples - Tatars, Bashkirs, etc. - were followers of Islam; Kalmyks (lower reaches of the Volga) and Buryats (Transbaikalia) adhered to Buddhism. Many peoples of the Volga region, the North and Siberia retained pagan beliefs.
At the beginning of the 19th century the Russian Empire included the countries of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia), Moldova, Finland.
The territory of the empire was divided into provinces, counties and volosts.
(In the 1920s, provinces in Russia were transformed into territories and regions, counties - into districts; volosts - rural territories, the smallest administrative-territorial units, were abolished in the same years). In addition to the provinces, there were several governor-generals, which included one or more provinces or regions.
Political system
The Russian Empire throughout the 19th century remained an autocratic monarchy. The following conditions had to be observed: the Russian emperor was obliged to profess Orthodoxy and receive the throne as a legitimate heir.All power in the country was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. At his disposal was a huge number of officials, who together represented a huge force - the bureaucracy.
The population of the Russian Empire was divided into estates: tax-exempt (nobility, clergy, merchants) and taxable (philistinism, peasantry, Cossacks). Belonging to the class was inherited.
The most privileged position in the state was occupied by the nobility. His most important privilege was the right to own serfs.
Small-scale (less than 100 souls of peasants), the vast majority;
Large estates (over 1 thousand souls of peasants) numbered approximately 3,700 families, but they owned half of all serfs. Among them stood out the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs, Vorontsovs, Gagarins, Golitsyns.
In the early 1830s, there were 127,000 noble families in Russia (about 500,000 people); of these, 00 thousand families were the owners of serfs.
The composition of the nobility was replenished at the expense of representatives of other estate groups who managed to advance in the service. Many nobles led a traditional way of life, described by Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin". At the same time, quite a lot of young nobles fell under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the mood of the Great French Revolution.
At the beginning of the 19th century The Free Economic Society founded in 1765 continued to operate. It united large practical landowners, natural scientists, involved them in solving economic problems, announcing competitive tasks (preparation of beets, development of tobacco growing in Ukraine, improvement of peat processing, etc.).
However, the aristocratic psychology and the ability to use cheap serf labor limited the manifestations of entrepreneurship among the nobility.
Clergy.
The clergy were also privileged.
At the beginning of the 18th century nobility was forbidden to join the clergy. Therefore, the Russian Orthodox clergy in social terms - in the overwhelming majority - stood closer to the lower strata of the population. And in the 19th century the clergy remained a closed layer: the children of priests studied in Orthodox diocesan schools, seminaries, married the daughters of clergy, continued the work of their fathers - service in the church. Only in 1867 were young men from all classes allowed to enter the seminary.
Some of the clergy received state salaries, but most of the priests subsisted on donations from the faithful. The lifestyle of a rural priest was not much different from the life of a peasant.
The community of believers in small territories was called a parish. Several parishes made up a diocese. The territory of the diocese, as a rule, coincided with the province. The Synod was the highest body of church administration. Its members were appointed by the emperor himself from among the bishops (heads of the diocese), and at the head was a secular official - the chief prosecutor.
Monasteries were the centers of religious life. Trinity-Sergius, Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Optina Pustyn (in the Kaluga province) and others were especially revered.
Merchants.
Merchants, depending on the amount of capital, were divided into closed groups - guilds:
Merchants of the 1st guild had the preferential right to conduct foreign trade;
Merchants of the 2nd guild conducted large-scale internal trade;
Merchants of the 3rd guild were engaged in small-scale urban and district trade.
The merchant class was freed from taxes and corporal punishment; the merchants of the first two guilds were not subject to recruitment duty.
Merchants either invested their capital in trade and production, or used it for "charitable deeds."
Merchants prevailed among the Russian bourgeoisie: the merchants were wealthy peasants who received special "tickets" for the right to trade. In the future, a merchant or a wealthy peasant could become a manufacturer or manufacturer, investing his capital in industrial production.
Craftsmen, small merchants, owners of shops and taverns, hired workers belonged to the unprivileged class - the bourgeoisie. In the 17th century they were called townspeople. The townspeople paid taxes, recruited into the army and could be subjected to corporal punishment. Many philistines (artists, singers, tailors, shoemakers) united in artels.
Peasants.
The most numerous estate was the peasantry, which included more than 85% of the country's population.
Peasants:
State (10 - 15 million) - state-owned, that is, belonging to the treasury, considered "free rural inhabitants", but performing natural duties in favor of the state;
Landlords (20 million) - possessory, serfs;
Specific (0.5 million) - owned royal family(paying dues and state duties).
But no matter what category the peasants belonged to, their work was hard, especially in summer, during field work.
Half of all peasants were landowners (serfs). The landowner could sell them, donate them, pass them on by inheritance, impose duties on them at his own discretion, dispose of the property of peasants, regulate marriages, punish, exile to Siberia or hand over out of turn to recruits.
Most of the serfs were in the central provinces of the country. There were no serfs at all in the Arkhangelsk province; in Siberia, the number barely exceeded 4 thousand people.
Most of the landlord peasants in the central industrial provinces paid dues. And in the agricultural regions - the black earth and Volga provinces, in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine - almost all landlord peasants worked out the corvée.
In search of work, many peasants left the village: some were engaged in crafts, others went to manufactories.
There was a process of stratification of the peasantry. Gradually, independent peasants emerged: usurers, buyers, merchants, entrepreneurs. The number of this village elite was still insignificant, but its role was great; the rich village usurer often kept an entire district in bondage. In the state-owned village, stratification manifested itself more strongly than in the landowner's, and in the landlord's it was stronger among the quitrent peasantry and weaker among the corvée.
Late 18th - early 19th century. among the serfs-handicraftsmen, entrepreneurs stood out, who later became the founders of the dynasties of famous manufacturers: the Morozovs, the Guchkovs, the Garelins, the Ryabushinskys.
Peasant community.
In the 19th century, primarily in the European part of Russia, a peasant community remained.
The community (world), as it were, rented land from the owner (landowner, treasury, appanage department), and the communal peasants used it. Peasants received equal field plots (according to the number of eaters in each household), while women were not given a land share. In order to maintain equality, periodic redistributions of land were carried out (For example, in the Moscow province, redistributions were made 1-2 times in 20 years).
The main document emanating from the community was the "verdict" - the decision of the peasant gathering. The meeting, at which the male community members gathered, resolved issues of land use, the choice of a headman, the appointment of a guardian for orphans, etc. Neighbors helped each other with both labor and money. The serfs depended on both the master and the corvée. They were "tied hand and foot".
Cossacks.
A special class group was the Cossacks, which not only carried military service but also engaged in agriculture.
Already in the 18th century. the government completely subjugated the Cossack freemen. The Cossacks were enrolled in a separate military class, to which persons from other classes were assigned, most often state peasants. The authorities formed new Cossack troops to guard the borders. By the end of the 19th century in Russia there were 11 Cossack troops: Donskoy, Terskoye, Ural, Orenburg, Kuban, Siberian, Astrakhan, Transbaikal, Amur, Semirechenskoye and Ussuriisk.
At the expense of income from his farm, the Cossack had to fully "gather" for military service. He came to the service with his horse, uniforms and edged weapons. At the head of the army was the appointed (appointed) ataman. Each stanitsa (village) elected a stanitsa ataman at a gathering. The heir to the throne was considered the ataman of all Cossack troops.
Socio-economic development of the country.
By the end of the 18th century an internal market is taking shape in Russia; foreign trade is becoming more and more active. The serf economy, being drawn into market relations, is changing. As long as it was of a natural nature, the needs of the landlords were limited to what was produced in their fields, vegetable gardens, barnyards, etc. The exploitation of the peasants had clearly defined limits. When a real opportunity arose to turn the manufactured products into a commodity and receive money, the needs of the local nobility began to grow uncontrollably. The landowners are reorganizing their economy in such a way as to maximize its productivity by traditional, feudal methods.In the chernozem regions, which gave excellent harvests, the intensification of exploitation was expressed in the expansion of the lordly plowing at the expense of peasant allotments and an increase in corvee. But this fundamentally undermined the peasant economy. After all, the peasant cultivated the landlord's land, using his inventory and his cattle, and he himself was valuable as a worker insofar as he was well-fed, strong, and healthy. The decline of his economy hit the landowner's economy as well. As a result, after a noticeable rise at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. landlord economy gradually falls into a period of hopeless stagnation. In the non-chernozem region, the production of estates brought less and less profit. Therefore, the landowners were inclined to curtail their farms. The intensification of the exploitation of the peasants was expressed here in a constant increase in the monetary dues. Moreover, this quitrent was often set higher than the real profitability of the land allotted to the peasant for use: the landowner counted on the earnings of his serfs at the expense of crafts, otkhodnichestvo - work in factories, manufactories, in various areas of the urban economy. These calculations were fully justified: in this region in the first half of the 19th century. cities are growing, a new type of factory production is taking shape, which makes extensive use of civilian labor. But the attempts of the feudal lords to use these conditions in order to increase the profitability of the economy led to its self-destruction: by increasing the monetary dues, the landowners inevitably separated the peasants from the land, turning them partly into artisans, partly free-lance workers.
Russia's industrial production found itself in an even more difficult situation. At this time, the inherited from the 18th century played a decisive role. industry of the old, serf type. At the same time, it had no incentives for technical progress: the quantity and quality of products were regulated from above; the number of assigned peasants strictly corresponded to the established volume of production. The serf industry was doomed to stagnation.
At the same time, enterprises of a different type appear in Russia: they are not connected with the state, they work for the market, they use freelance labor. Such enterprises arise, first of all, in the light industry, the products of which already have a mass buyer. Their owners are wealthy peasants-traders; and otkhodnik peasants work here. This production was the future, but the dominance of the serf system constrained it. The owners of industrial enterprises were usually themselves serfs and were forced to give a significant part of their income in the form of dues to the landlords; legally and in essence, the workers remained peasants, striving to return to the countryside after earning a quitrent. The growth of production was also hampered by a relatively narrow sales market, the expansion of which, in turn, was limited by the serf system. Thus, in the first half of the 19th century. The traditional system of the economy clearly hindered the development of production and prevented the formation of new relations in it. Serfdom turned into an obstacle in the way normal development countries.
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1. Russian Empire by the beginning of the 19th century, territory, population, socio-economic development of the country.
2. Decomposition and crisis of the feudal-serf system in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
3. Industrial Revolution in Russia
4. Paul I: the main directions and results of domestic and foreign policy.
5. Palace coup on March 11, 1801 and its features.
6. Liberal period of the reign of Alexander I
7. The project of state reforms M.M. Speransky.
8. Domestic policy of Russia in 1801-1825.
9. Decembrist movement
10. Socio-political thought in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century: conservative and liberal trends.
11. Revolutionary social thought of "Nikolaev" Russia. Slavophiles and Westernizers
12. Socio-political life of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century in the assessments of domestic and foreign historiography.
13. The main directions and results of Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century.
14. Patriotic War of 1812: cause, course, results, historiography.
15. Caucasian problem in Russian politics of the 19th century.
16. Crimean War 1853-1856
17. "Nikolaev Russia": features of internal political development.
18. Foreign policy of Nicholas I: Eastern and European direction.
19. Peasant question in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
20. The abolition of serfdom in Russia
20.1 Results and consequences of the abolition of serfdom
21. Zemstvo and city self-government reforms in Russia and their results
22. Judicial reform: preparation, ideas, results.
23. Military reforms of the 70s of the 19th century in Russia.
24. Peasant reform of 1861 in domestic and foreign historiography.
25. Socio-economic development of the Russian empire in the post-reform period.
26. Socio-political movement in the post-reform period.
27. Domestic policy of the Russian Empire in 1881-1894. Alexander III and his assessments in historiography.
28. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
29. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Central Asian and Far Eastern regions.
Major territorial acquisitions of the second half of XIX V. Russia has done in the North Caucasus, in Central Asia and in the Far East. The pacification of the North Caucasus was the main result of the Caucasian War (1817-1864), which lasted almost half a century. The capture of Imam Shamil in 1859 and the refusal of the Adyghe tribes to resist were her last acts.
The advance into Central Asia became possible after the annexation of the whole of Kazakhstan to Russia (50s of the 19th century). From here, military pressure was deployed on the Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva khanates. By the mid 70s. the territories of the Kokand Khanate entered the newly created Turkestan Governor-General with the center in Tashkent. The Khan of Khiva ceded to Russia the lands on the right bank of the Amu Darya and, like Emir of Bukhara, recognized the protectorate of Russia. In the early 80s. completed the subjugation of the Turkmen tribes that became part of the Transcaspian region. By the 90s. managed to agree with England, concerned about the success of Russia, on a clear delineation of spheres of influence and territories in Central Asia. In particular, the Pamirs remained with Russia, while Khiva and Bukhara were dependent on it.
In the Far East, Russia received from China the Amur Region (a treaty of 1858) and the Ussuri Territory (a treaty of 1860). Two treaties were concluded with Japan - in 1855 and 1875. According to the 1875 treaty, Russia received the island of Sakhalin, and Japan - the islands of the Kuril chain. The development of the Far East by Russia was rather slow. Economic and strategic benefits from the possession of a huge region, which had direct access to Pacific Ocean, the authorities began to realize only by the end of the 80s - 90s. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway testified to Russia's intentions to gain a foothold in the Far East seriously and forever.
Russian Empire in the 19th century was a multinational and multi-religious power. Its historical and ethnic basis was the Russian people. Russia was an Orthodox monarchy, in which the Russian Orthodox Church occupied a leading position. It is significant that the identity document of a person did not indicate his nationality, but his religion. The largest along with the Russian ethnic groups were in the second half of the XIX century. Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Tatars, Germans, Bashkirs, Finns, Jews, etc.; Russians professed Orthodoxy, Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Judaism.
A successful national policy was an indispensable condition for the stability and integrity of the country. It is extremely difficult to characterize it, we have to say that it was not holistic and had significant features in the regions. In addition, the relatively liberal national policy of Alexander II differed significantly from the national policy of Alexander III who took a course towards Russification.
Maximum autonomy in development national culture, language, customs used by Finland; in Central Asia, only official office work was conducted in Russian, in all other respects the local population adhered to national traditions, rituals, beliefs, and language. In general, the national policy in the Baltics was liberal.
A flexible policy was pursued in relation to the peoples of the Volga region, Transcaucasia, Altai, Yakutia, and others: introducing them to Russian culture, the central government at the same time made a significant contribution to the formation of a national intelligentsia, the development of writing and language, and the creation of an education system.
In Ukraine and Belarus, the national policy was more rigid. Orders were adopted prohibiting printing in Ukrainian and Belarusian languages educational literature, representatives of the national intelligentsia were persecuted, often accused of separatism and national egoism. The situation was similar in Poland, where Russification was recognized as one of the goals of national policy.
As for the position of the Jews, after some concessions in the 60-70s. (permission for certain categories to live outside the so-called Pale of Settlement, etc.) measures against them were in the 80-90s. again tightened (in particular, there were bans on holding public office, freedom of movement was limited: it was allowed to live only in those areas that were part of the Pale of Settlement).
Russia in the second half of the 19th century. had to solve complex national problems, overcome sharp contradictions between the center and the outskirts, the peoples who inhabited it. But in general, the country lived in conditions of international peace.
In the 1720s the delimitation of Russian and Chinese possessions continued under the Burinsky and Kyakhta treaties of 1727. In the areas adjacent to, as a result of the Persian campaign of Peter I (1722-1723), the border of Russian possessions temporarily covered even all the western and Caspian territories of Persia. In 1732 and 1735 in connection with the aggravation of Russian-Turkish relations, the Russian government, interested in an alliance with Persia, gradually returned the Caspian lands to it.
In 1731, the nomadic Kirghiz-Kaisaks () of the Younger Zhuz voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship, and in the same 1731 and 1740. - Middle Zhuz. As a result, the empire included the territories of the entire eastern Caspian, the Aral Sea, the Ishim and the Irtysh. In 1734, the Zaporizhian Sich was again accepted into Russian citizenship.
In 1783, the Georgievsky Treaty was concluded with the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Eastern) on the voluntary recognition of the Russian protectorate over it.
In the west of the country, the main territorial acquisitions were associated with three sections (1772, 1793, 1795). The intervention of Prussia and Austria in the internal affairs of Poland led in 1772 to its division, in which Russia was forced to take part, acting to protect the interests of the Orthodox population of Western Ukraine and. Part of Eastern Belarus (along the Dnieper -) and part of Livonia went to Russia. In 1792, Russian troops again entered the territory of the Commonwealth at the call of the Targowice Confederation. As a result of the second partition of Poland in 1793, the Right-bank Ukraine and part of Belarus (with Minsk) were ceded to Russia. The third division of the Commonwealth (1795) led to the liquidation of the independence of the Polish state. Courland, Lithuania, part of Western Belarus and Volhynia went to Russia.
In the south-east of Western Siberia in the XVIII century. there was a gradual advance to the south: to the upper reaches of the Irtysh and Ob with tributaries (Altai and the Kuznetsk basin). The Russian possessions also covered the upper reaches of the Yenisei, excluding the sources themselves. Further to the east, the borders of Russia in the XVIII century. determined by the border with the Chinese Empire.
In the middle and second half of the century, the possessions of Russia, by right of discovery, covered southern Alaska, discovered in 1741 by the expedition of V. I. Bering and A. I. Chirikov, and the Aleutian Islands, annexed in 1786.
Thus, during the XVIII century, the territory of Russia increased to 17 million km2, and the population from 15.5 million people. in 1719 to 37 million people in 1795
All these changes in the territory, as well as the development state structure The Russian Empire was accompanied (and in some cases preceded) by intensive research, primarily and most of all topographical and general geographic.
In the 19th century, as well as in the previous century, the state territory of our fatherland continued to change, mainly in the direction of expansion. The territory of the country increased especially strongly in the first fifteen years XIX V. as a result of wars with Turkey (1806-1812), (1804-1813), Sweden (1808-1809), France (1805-1815).
The beginning of the century is significant for the expansion of the possessions of the Russian Empire. In 1801, the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Eastern Georgia), which had been under the protectorate of Russia since 1783, voluntarily joined Russia.
The unification of Eastern Georgia with Russia contributed to the subsequent voluntary entry into Russia of the Western Georgian principalities: Megrelia (1803), Imeretia and Guria (1804). In 1810, Abkhazia and Ingushetia voluntarily joined Russia. However, the coastal fortresses of Abkhazia and Georgia (Sukhum, Anaklia, Redut-Kale, Poti) were held by Turkey.
The Bucharest peace treaty with Turkey in 1812 ended the Russo-Turkish war. Russia kept in its hands all the regions up to the river. Arpachay, Adzharian mountains and. Only Anapa was returned to Turkey. On the other side of the Black River, Bessarabia received the cities of Khotyn, Bendery, Akkerman, Kiliya and Izmail. The border of the Russian Empire was established along the Prut to, and then along the Kiliya channel of the Danube to the Black Sea.
As a result of the war with Iran, the North Azerbaijani khanates joined Russia: Ganja (1804), Karabakh, Shirvan, Sheki (1805), Cuban, Baku, Derbent (1806), Talysh (1813), and in 1813 the Gulistan peace treaty was signed, according to which Iran recognized the accession to Russia of Northern Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Eastern Georgia, Imeretia, Guria, Megrelia and Abkhazia.
Russo-Swedish War 1808-1809 ended with the accession of Finland to Russia, which was announced by the manifesto of Alexander I in 1808 and approved by the Friedrichsham Peace Treaty of 1809. The territory of Finland up to the river was ceded to Russia. Kemi, including the Aland Islands, Finnish and part of the province of Västerbotten up to the river. Torneo. Further, the border was established along the Torneo and Munio rivers, then north along the Munioniski-Enonteki-Kilpisjarvi line to the border with. Within these boundaries, the territory of Finland, which received the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, remained until 1917.
According to the Tilsit peace treaty with France in 1807, Russia received the Bialystok district. The Schönbrunn Peace Treaty of 1809 between Austria and France led to the transfer of the Tarnopol region by Austria to Russia. And, finally, the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815, which ended the wars of the coalition of European powers with Napoleonic France, consolidated the division between Russia, Prussia and Austria of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, most of which, having received the status of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of Russia. At the same time, the Tarnopol region was returned to Austria.
Topic #12
Russia in the era of reforms of Alexander II
Part 1(a)
During what period did Emperor Alexander II rule?
1) 1845-1885 3) 1855-1885
2) 1855-1881 4) 1857-1881
When did the abolition of serfdom take place?
In what year was the city reform carried out?
1) in 1860 2) in 1865 3) in 1870 4) in 1875
What year did the uprising start in Poland?
1) in 1860 2) in 1861 3) in 1862 4) in 1863
Indicate the dates related to the wars of Russia with Ottoman Empire?
1) 1812, 1853, 1878 3) 1813-1814, 1848-1849, 1826-1828
2) 1721, 1809, 1873 4) 1803, 1837-1841, 1861
6. Specify the dates associated with the social movement:
1) 1825, 1874, 1881 3) 1861, 1864, 1870
2) 1801, 1812, 1835 4) 1814, 1828, 1859
What event happened in 1879?
1) the State Bank was established
2) "going to the people" began
3) the organization "Land and Freedom" ceased its activities
4) the "South Russian Union of Workers" was formed
8. What are the dates of the final annexation of the territories of Central Asia to Russia:
1) 1865-1885 3) 1875-1890
2) 1861-1871 4) 1845-1865
9. Read an excerpt from the international treaty signed by the representative of Alexander II and name the year of its signing:
“Art.1. His Majesty the Emperor of All Russia undertakes to cede to the United States ... the entire territory with the supreme right to it, as well as the islands adjacent to it<...>
Art.6. On the basis of the above concession, the United States undertakes to pay ... to a diplomatic representative or another of His Majesty the Emperor of All Russia duly authorized person seven million two hundred thousand dollars in gold coin ... "
1) 1878 2) 1867 3) 1855 4) 1849
Who led the military reform?
1) Ya.I. Rostovtsev 2) D.A. Milyutin 3) V.A. Cherkassky 4) F.N. Plevako
Who was the commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army at the last stage of the Caucasian war?
1) P.S. Nakhimov 2) P.I. Bagration 3) P.A. Rumyantsev 4) A.I. Baryatinsky
Who did not belong to the theorists of populism?
1) M.N. Katkov 2) P.N. Tkachev 3) P.L. Lavrov 4) M.A. Bakunin
Who is the text talking about?
“He believed that a revolutionary has the right to give a damn about all moral principles for his goals, has the right to deceive everyone, kill and rob everyone, that no paths are ordered to him, as long as they lead to his goal; At the same time, he considered it beneficial and desirable, in the interests of the strength of his organization, to provide himself with the opportunity at any time to compromise those close to him, those around him.
1) about N.G. Chernyshevsky 3) about S.G. Nechaev
2) about A.I. Herzen 4) about A.I. Zhelyabov
What were the names of the institutions that peasant reform?
1) laid down commissions 3) secret committees
2) editorial commissions 4) serfdom commissions
What were the members of the zemstvo assemblies called?
1) vowels 2) deputies 3) elders 4) assessors
Which term is not related to judicial reform?
1) world courts 3) juror
2) lawyers 4) zemstvo courts
What type educational institution became the main one at the secondary level?
1) lyceum 2) gymnasium 3) college 4) folk school
What was the name of the organization whose members killed Emperor Alexander II?
1) "Narodnaya Volya" 3) "Land and Will"
2) "Black redistribution" 4) "Union of populists"
What reform is being referred to in the text?
“The chairmanship in the county assembly was transferred to the county marshal of the nobility, in the provincial assembly - to the provincial one, “if the sovereign does not want to appoint a special person to preside over it.” But the chairmen of the county and provincial councils were left to choose the meetings themselves.
1) about the peasant 3) about the military
2) about Zemstvo 4) about the reform of education
What was uncharacteristic for the development of industry in the post-reform period?
1) intensive railway construction
2) urban population growth
3) the export of Russian capital to Western Europe
4) completion of the industrial revolution
What characterizes Russia's policy in Central Asia?
1) Russian-English armed conflict in Turkmenistan
2) the withdrawal of Russian troops from the territory of the Bukhara Emirate
3) subjugation of the Khiva Khanate to Russia
4) building railway Moscow-Tashkent
What does not apply to the results of the military reform?
1) the introduction of a universal conscription 3) rearmament of the army
2) reduction in service life 4) introduction of the position of commissars in the army
M.D. Skobelev, I.V. Gurko were famous military leaders during
1) Patriotic War 1812 3) Crimean War of 1853-1856.
2) Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829 4) Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
In the second half of the XIX century. The territory of the Russian Empire included
1) Kingdoms of Poland and Finland 3) Georgia and Abkhazia
2) Bessarabia and Eastern Armenia 4) Khiva and Kokand khanates
In the 60-70s of the 19th century, structural transformations of class, administrative and legal institutions were carried out in Russia, which led to the modernization of the political system and were therefore called by contemporaries the "great reforms" of Alexander II. The country embarked on this path, firstly, as a result of the challenge "thrown" to it by rapidly developing Europe, and, secondly, under the influence of the crisis of the Nikolaev system.
By the middle of the century, a lot of objective prerequisites had accumulated for a radical agrarian reform. Firstly, the landlord economy, based on non-economic coercion of the peasants to work, was going through a crisis state more and more noticeably, the efficiency of the farms was declining, and the question of the transition from subsistence to a market economy was more acute. Secondly, the rapid development of industry was in conflict with feudal relations in agriculture. Thirdly, the country was painfully experiencing the defeat in the Crimean War, which was the result of a military and technical lag behind the advanced countries of the world. Fourthly, an increasing number of peasant anti-feudal uprisings were recorded in the country, which could not but worry the country's leadership. In 1856, Alexander II uttered the famous words: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it is itself abolished from below,” because he was afraid that he might be removed as an incapable tsar. This made Alexander II think about the next steps, but the most difficult thing was to convince the landowners to go for significant changes,
The statement of Alexander II about the alleged abolition of serfdom literally stirred up public opinion in the country. Beginning in January 1857, various commissions and committees began to be created in the government to develop measures "to organize the life of the landowning peasants." The attitude of the landowners themselves to the impending changes was ambiguous. Most of them had a negative attitude towards the upcoming reform, believing that the peasants were not ready to live independently, without the guardianship and control of the landowners. The documents that were prepared for 1860 were the result of a compromise between various groups of nobles and the government, taking into account the objective requirements of the country's economic and political development.
February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto for the liberation of the peasants. On the same day the king signed and "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom", which included 17 legislative acts and received the force of law. In accordance with the Manifesto, all serfs from now on received personal freedom and civil rights. They could conclude various property and civil transactions, open their own enterprises in trade and industry, move to other classes, leave for other settlements of the country, marry without the consent of the landowner, etc.
The country established an elective peasant self-government- village and volost gatherings (meetings), where village elders and volost foremen were elected. A volost peasant court was introduced for property claims and minor crimes. By decision of the court, the peasants themselves could distribute communal lands among themselves, establish the sequence and volume of duties, etc. In most regions of Russia, which were affected by the agrarian reform (and this happened only in those provinces where there was landownership), the land was transferred from the landowners not to a separate peasant economy, but to the rural community as a whole, where allotments were distributed between peasant households according to the number male shower. Within the community, the peasants were not the owners of the land, but only its temporary users. The community maintained the rules of mutual responsibility.
In accordance with the law, the peasants became largely dependent on the rural community, without the consent of which they could not freely dispose of their allotments, leave the village. The communal form of land use served as a clear brake on the path of progress, holding back the process of differentiation of peasant farms and the penetration of market relations into the countryside.
In fact, the peasants bought not only land plots, but also their personal freedom. The calculated amounts of redemption payments for the vast majority of the peasants turned out to be simply colossal, and they could not immediately pay them off. 80% of the redemption amount of the landowners was reimbursed by the state in the form of securities at 5% of annual income. The peasants had to pay this 80% sum to the state within 49 years.
It should be emphasized that even 20% of the redemption payments for the peasants were a huge amount. Their payment was delayed for many years. The response of the peasants to the emancipation law was sharply negative. In 1861, a wave of peasant protest swept through the country against the conditions under which they were released into the wild.
The reform of 1861 meant that the era of feudalism in Russia was ending, but its remnants are still long years remained as a reality of the economic life of the country. This was manifested in the fact that the landowners not only retained huge landholdings, but also took away part of the best land from the community, while the bulk of the peasants experienced land hunger. However, the abolition of serfdom was a progressive step. It contributed to the development of new economic relations not only in the countryside, but in the entire national economy of the country.
Following the agrarian reform in Russia, other transformations were carried out, primarily in the field of local self-government, the need for which was obvious to everyone. The fact is that before Alexander II, all self-government bodies in Russia had a class character. The development of market relations prompted the government to carry out reforms to create all-estate administrative structures in order to turn the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one, in order to adapt the political system of Russia to the new economic conditions.
One of the most important was the reform of local government, known as zemstvo reform. January 1, 1864 was published "Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions", in accordance with which classless elected bodies of local government were formed - zemstvos, elected by all classes for three years. The zemstvos consisted of administrative bodies (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (county and provincial zemstvo councils).
Zemstvos had the right to hire zemstvo doctors, teachers, land surveyors and other employees. For the maintenance of zemstvo employees, there were certain taxes from the population. Zemstvos were in charge of a wide variety of local services: the construction and operation of roads, the post office, public education, health care, social protection of the population, mutual insurance, etc. All zemstvo institutions were under the control of local and central authorities - the governor and the minister of internal affairs. The narrowness of the social base of urban self-government and the strict control over it by the provincial presence made the reform limited. But in general, for Russia, the creation of a system of local self-government in the form of zemstvos played a positive role in solving various problems at the local level.
Following the zemstvo reform in the country, urban reform. In accordance with the "City Regulations" (1870), a system of city elective self-government was established in 509 cities. Instead of the previously existing class city administrations in cities, the city duma, headed by the city government, began to be elected for four years. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of the city duma and the city council. Not all citizens had the right to vote, but only those who corresponded to a sufficiently high property qualification: wealthy homeowners, merchants, industrialists, bankers, officials. The competence of the city duma and council included economic issues: landscaping, law enforcement, local trade, health care, education, sanitary and fire protection of the population.
Since 1864, the country has been judicial reform, according to which a classless, public court with the participation of jurors, advocacy and competitiveness of the parties were approved. A unified system of judicial institutions was created, proceeding from the formal equality before the law of all social groups of the population. And within the province, which constituted the judicial district, a district court was created. The Judicial Chamber united several judicial districts. As a rule, decisions of the district court and judicial chambers with the participation of jurors were considered final and could be appealed only if the order of legal proceedings was violated. The highest court of cassation was the Senate, which accepted appeals against court decisions. For the analysis of minor offenses and civil claims up to 500 rubles. in counties and cities there was a world court. Justices of the peace were elected at county zemstvo assemblies.
The chairmen and members of the district courts and judicial chambers were approved by the emperor, and the justices of the peace - by the Senate, and after that they could not be dismissed and even temporarily removed from office, that is, the principle of irremovability of judges was introduced. The new judicial system corresponded to the level of advanced European countries. Its introduction led, in essence, to the allocation of judicial power in Russia, when the emperor had only the right to pardon. But the judicial reform did not affect many national outskirts.
In the 1860s, there were education reform. Primary public schools were created in the cities, along with classical gymnasiums, real schools began to function, in which more attention was paid to the study of mathematics, the natural sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills in technology. In 1863, the university charter of 1803 was recreated, which had been curtailed during the reign of Nicholas I, according to which the partial autonomy of universities, the election of rectors and deans, etc., were again secured. In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created in Russia - the Higher Women's Courses with university programs. In this respect, Russia was ahead of many European countries.
In the 1860s and 1870s, a military reform, the need for which was primarily due to the defeat in the Crimean War. First, the term of military service was reduced to 12 years. In 1874, recruitment was abolished and universal military service was established, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20, without class distinctions. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, as well as the youngest son, if the eldest is in military service or has already served his term, were not subject to active service. Recruits from the peasants were taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which made up for the lack school education in the village.
Analyzing the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that not everything that was conceived in the early 1860s was implemented. Many reforms have been limited, inconsistent, or left unfinished. And yet they should be called truly "Great Reforms", which were of great importance for the subsequent development of all aspects of Russian life. In the history of Russia, it turned out that none of the reforms that were conceived and carried out in the country was brought comprehensively and consistently to its logical conclusion. Moreover, incomplete transformations were complicated by various counter-reforms, and subsequent generations sometimes had to start all over again.
In the morning, a few hours before his death, Alexander II appointed a meeting of the State Council to discuss the draft, called the "constitution" of M.T. Loris-Melikova. But the death of the emperor prevented the implementation of these plans, the transition to a policy of counter-reforms was historically a foregone conclusion. Russia faced a choice - either to continue the bourgeois-liberal reforms up to the restructuring of the entire system of social relations, or to compensate for the costs of the policy of strengthening the estate and imperial foundations of statehood, to take a course towards deep economic transformations.
The period of the reign of Alexander II was the last in the history of imperial Russia, during which significant territories were forcibly annexed. For several decades, Russia carried out an offensive against Central Asia, which began under Nicholas I with an unsuccessful campaign against Khiva in 1839. Only after the complete annexation of Kazakhstan in the 1850s, Russia was able to launch a systematic offensive against the Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva khanates. This was done under the pressure of complex geopolitical contradictions between Russia and England, which claimed its presence in Central Asia. Russia also needed a vast market for manufactured goods and a source of raw cotton for the textile industry, since the bulk of raw cotton (up to 90%) came from the United States. But in the middle of the 19th century, due to the Civil War in this country, the flow of American cotton almost stopped, and the Russian cotton industry was in a difficult situation. After the annexation of Central Asia, Russia began to meet the main needs for raw cotton through domestic production.
Military operations in Central Asia have been going on for many years, as the Russian troops met fierce resistance there. In 1867, the Turkestan General Government was formed with the center in Tashkent, which included Bukhara and Kokand, and in 1873 Khiva. In the same period, Russia was more than once "on the verge of war" with England, with which an agreement was eventually concluded on the delimitation of spheres of influence (1885). Afghanistan and Tibet remained under the control of England, and Central Asia remained under the control of Russia.
During the reign of Alexander II, the so-called "Caucasian issue". And although most of the Transcaucasus joined Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, the North Caucasus (except for Kabarda and Ossetia) still remained independent. For almost 50 years - from 1817 to 1864 - the Caucasian War lasted, costing the peoples of Dagestan, Circassia, Chechnya, Adygea, and even Russia itself many forces and victims. More than 100 peoples of the North Caucasus were included in the empire through the brutal suppression of their resistance.
In the 1850s and 1860s, Russia acquired significant territories in the Far East. Since China had great complications in relations with England and France in 1857, Russia took advantage of this and sent troops into the Amur Region along the left bank of the river. Amur. The troops were led by the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov-Amursky. China signed the Treaty of Aigun with Russia in 1858, according to which it ceded the Amur Region to Russia. Under the agreement of 1860, concluded in Beijing, the Ussuri Territory (Primorskaya Oblast) was annexed to Russia, where settlements and cities very quickly arose: Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk - on the Amur, Vladivostok. A stream of Russian settlers poured into Primorye to colonize new territories.
In the 1850s-1870s, there was a delimitation of the possessions of Japan and Russia in the Far East. As a result of the naval blockade of 1854-1855 in the city of Shimoda, an agreement was concluded between Russia and Japan "On Peace and Friendship", according to which the Kuril Islands, except for the southern group, were declared Russian. Sakhalin Island was proclaimed joint possession of the two countries. Despite the fact that Russian pioneers have mastered these territories. But in 1875, this treaty was revised, as a result of which all of Sakhalin became only Russian possession, but all the Kuril Islands went to Japan, which was confirmed by the Russian-Japanese navigation treaty in 1895. And yet, relations between the two countries remained quite tense, which later resulted in the Russo-Japanese War at the beginning of the 20th century.
In the 1860s, diplomatic relations were established with the United States, and mutual friendly relations were maintained between the countries. For several years, the question of the sale of Russian possessions to the United States in North America, since it was increasingly difficult for Russia to protect these remote territories, and the costs of maintaining them exceeded the income they brought. After the end of the American Civil War, these negotiations intensified, and Russia, which was experiencing financial difficulties, agreed in 1867 to the sale of Alaska and its other American territories with an area of more than 1.5 million square meters. km for only 7.2 million dollars, or 14 million rubles.
Alexander III, fearing the escalation of the revolutionary movement, held a series of events (the so-called "reforms inside out"). So, the government began to actively support the landowners in order to prevent their ruin. A special Noble Bank was organized, whose capital was several times larger than the funds of the Peasant Bank.
In order to limit the effect of many liberal laws, the Provisional Rules on the Press (1882) were introduced, which established strict administrative control over newspapers and magazines. Many liberal and radical publications were closed. In 1887, a circular on "cook's children" was published, according to which it was forbidden to accept the children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like in the gymnasium, in 1884 the autonomy of universities was actually eliminated.
In 1889, the "Regulations on zemstvo chiefs" were issued, according to which zemstvo chiefs were charged with supervising and controlling the activities of peasant rural and volost institutions, dismissing village elders and volost foremen, subjecting any peasants to corporal punishment and arrest, etc.
In accordance with various documents of the 1880-1890s, the elective representation of peasants in provincial and district zemstvo institutions was sharply reduced, and the voting rights of the urban population were curtailed by raising the property qualification. In the same years, attempts were made to limit the judicial reform of 1864-1870. Many measures could not be implemented, but a noticeable slowdown in the course of Alexander II occurred.
The main feature of the economic life of post-reform Russia was the rapid development of the market economy. Although this process originated in the depths of serfdom, it was the reforms of the 1860-1870s that opened a wide avenue for new socio-economic relations, allowed them to establish themselves in the economy as the dominant system, the "Great Reforms" of Alexander II made it possible to break feudal relations not only on village, but also in the entire national economy as a whole, to complete the industrial revolution, to form new social groups characteristic of a market economy. This transitional process was complicated by the presence of a rather backward political system - absolutist autocracy and the class structure of society, which led to contradictory and painful events at the turn of the century.
The remnants of serfdom, preserved in the post-reform period, after 1861, hindered the development of market relations in agriculture. Huge redemption payments were a heavy burden on millions of peasants. As a result of all this, the rise of agriculture proceeded slowly and with great difficulty.
And yet, in the 1880s and 1890s, market relations also penetrated into the agricultural sector. This was noticeable in several ways: there was a social differentiation of the peasant population, the essence of the landlord economy was changing, and the orientation of specialized farms and regions to the market increased. Zemstvo statistics already in the 1880s showed a significant property stratification of the peasants. First of all, a layer of wealthy peasants was formed, whose farms consisted of their own allotments and allotments of impoverished community members. From this layer, kulaks stood out, who ran an entrepreneurial economy.
During the reign of Alexander III, Russia came out on top in the world in terms of growth in industrial production. This was largely facilitated by the expansion of state and foreign investment in the mining and metallurgical industries, and the construction of railways. In 1882, legislation on the labor issue began to take shape, for the first time the foundations of non-state pension provision and social insurance began to form. At the same time, the leading world powers have already completed industrialization, while Russia continued to follow the path of the country of “catching up capitalism”.
Nevertheless, certain sections of society were dissatisfied with the existing state of affairs - the political regime, inconsistency in resolving the peasant issue, which gave rise to various ideological and political currents.
Populists- democratic movement of the 70-80s. XIX century, the purpose of which was to protect the interests of the peasants, the transition of Russia, bypassing capitalism to socialism. Leading the populist movement M. Bakunin, P. Lavrov, P. Tkachev. These three leaders each offered their own theory of change in Russian society. Tasks of his activity M. Bakunin ( rebellious current) saw in the propaganda of revolutionary ideas among the peasants with the aim of organizing a general revolution and a world revolution. P. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) believed that the peasantry was not capable of rising to the revolution, advocated the enlightenment of the people, the explanation of revolutionary ideas to the peasantry. P. Tkachev and his supporters ( conspiratorial direction) proposed organizing a conspiracy to seize government in the country. The leading role was assigned to the revolutionary intelligentsia.
Despite the differences in approaches, the theories of the populists converged on the need for propaganda among the peasantry, the inevitability of the replacement of the existing government with the power of the people, in connection with which the populists in 1874 organized a “walk to the people”. However, this action was not successful.
In 1876, the Narodniks created a secret organization called "Land and Freedom". Some of the Narodniks went over to terror. Differences in issues and tactics of further struggle led in 1879 to a split in the organization into the Black Redistribution, which advocated propaganda, and the People's Will, for terror.
G.V. Plekhanov, one of the leaders of the "Land and Freedom" in 1883 in Geneva, created a group "Emancipation of Labor", whose task was to promote the ideas of Marxism and use them in the conditions of Russia. In 1883-84. the first Marxist groups and circles begin to emerge in Russia.