1. The first Russian revolution took place in _______.
2. The execution in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905 of a peaceful procession to the Winter Palace with a petition to the tsar was called ...
A) Bloody Sunday
B) Lena execution
C) All-Russian political strike
D) palace coup
3. The "Manifesto" of Nicholas II, which granted political rights and freedoms, the creation of a parliament, was adopted ...
4. The beginning of the work of the State Duma - the lower house of parliament - refers to ____ year.
5. The dissolution of the Second State Duma and the adoption, bypassing its new electoral law, were called ...
A) a revolutionary situation
B) "Zubatovism"
C) June 3 coup d'état
D) "Bloody Sunday"
A) monopolies
B) the judicial system
B) a republican form of government
D) parliamentarism
7.
B) Liberal opposition
1) "Union of the Russian people"
3) RSDLP(b)
8. Indicate the correct correspondence between the direction of socio-political thought and the political party of the beginning of the 20th century.
A) revolutionary democratic
B) Liberal opposition
B) conservative
1) "Union of the Russian people"
9.
Indicate the correct correspondence between the convocation of the State Duma and its fate ...
A) first
B) third
B) fourth
1) worked full time
2) disbanded during the February Revolution of 1917
3) dissolved at the stage of recession of the revolution.
10. Indicate the correct correspondence of the political party of the early twentieth century. and date of creation
B) RSDLP(b)
1) 1901-1902
11. Indicate the correct correspondence of the political party of the early twentieth century. and its leader
A) RSDLP(b)
B) cadets
1) P.N. Milyukov
2) V.M. Chernov
3) V.I. Lenin
12. The growing national crisis in Russia during World War I was evidenced by...
A) increasing economic hardship
B) strengthening autocracy
C) prohibition of the activities of political parties
D) uprising on the battleship "Potemkin"
13. The growing national crisis in Russia during World War I was evidenced by (oh, a) ...
A) participation in anti-Hitler coalition
B) "ministerial leapfrog"
C) the June 3 coup d'état of 1907
D) Kronstadt rebellion
14. The growing national crisis in Russia during World War I was evidenced by (oh, a, and) ...
A) the inability of the government to cope with the situation in the country
B) the dissolution of the State Duma with the outbreak of war
B) dual power
D) the events of "Bloody Sunday"
15. In World War I, Russia took part in the…
A) tripartite alliance
B) Progressive block
B) Entente
D) Anti-Comintern Pact
16. With the slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil one, i. for the defeat of their government, advocated ...
A) Octobrists
B) cadets
B) monarchists
D) Bolsheviks
17. The chronological framework of World War I is ____ years.
18. The transformation of the IV State Duma into an opposition center was evidenced by the creation in 1915 ...
A) progressive block
B) Entente bloc
B) the Bolshevik Party
D) tripartite alliance
19. Russia's allies in World War I were...
A) Germany and Italy
B) England and France
B) England and Germany
D) France and Germany
20. The military bloc of the Entente during World War I was opposed by ...
A) progressive block
B) Anti-Comintern Pact
B) tripartite alliance
D) Comintern
21. One of the heroic pages of the history of World War I was ...
A) "Brusilovsky breakthrough"
B) "Kornilovism"
B) "Antonovshchina"
D) Kronstadt rebellion
22. Indicate the correct chronological sequence of events of the February Revolution of 1917...
A) the execution of demonstrators in Petrograd
B) a strike at the Putilov factory
IN ) mass transition of the Petrograd garrison to the side of the rebels
23. The only State Duma that has worked for a full term is ...
A) first
B) second
B) fourth
D) third
24. The reason for the change in the party composition and the nature of the activities of the III and IV State Dumas was (o) ...
A) Bloody Sunday
C) the defeat of the December armed uprising in Moscow
25. The inter-party coalition of deputies of the IV State Duma, which during the First World War stood in opposition to the government, was called ...
A) progressive block
B) Triple Alliance
B) Anti-Comintern Pact
D) "Bulyginskaya Duma"
26. IV State Duma was dissolved...
A) Nicholas II during the February (1917) revolution
B) the Provisional Government
B) Soviet power
D) interventions of the Entente countries
27. The split of the RSDLP into two wings - the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks - occurred at the II Party Congress in ___.
28. The Menshevik wing of the RSDLP was headed by...
A) G. Plekhanov and Y. Martov
B) V. Lenin and G. Plekhanov
C) V. Chernov and M. Spiridonova
D) P. Milyukov and A. Guchkov
A) socialist
B) monarchical
B) revolutionary
D) liberal
30. The Union of the Russian People was one of the major ___ parties.
A) liberal
B) socialist
B) opposition
D) monarchical
31. The "Party of Russian Constitutional Democrats" (cadets) was formed in:
32. Terror, as a tactic for the implementation of the party program, was chosen by the party of Socialist-Revolutionaries? A) Socialist-Revolutionaries B) Cadets C) Union of October 17 D) Social Democrat33. What was the main issue in the work of the First State Duma?
A) agricultural
B) national
B) worker
D) the question of state power
34. Why are the events connected with the dissolution of the Second State Duma and the publication of the new Electoral Law of June 3, 1907, called a coup d'état?
A) the Duma was dispersed by force of arms
B) the emperor did not have the right to dissolve the Duma
C) the emperor did not have the right to change the electoral law without the consent of the State Duma
D) the emperor transferred power to the military
35. Who was the Supreme Commander of the Russian Army in the initial period of the First World War?
A) Nicholas II
B) Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich
C) A.A. Brusilov
D) General M.V. Alekseev
36. One of the results of the revolution of 1905-1907. was
A) the emergence of a multi-party system
B) the overthrow of the autocracy
C) the introduction of universal suffrage
D) the establishment of the power of the Soviets
37. The main result of the February Revolution of 1917:
A) Bolsheviks came to power
B) the elimination of autocracy
C) the establishment of the power of the councils
D) the split of society into reds and whites.
38. The February Revolution of 1917 was by its nature:
A) socialist
B) bourgeois-democratic
B) anarchist
D) "velvet"
39. What strata of Russian society did the Socialist-Revolutionary party express? A) the middle urban bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia B) the peasantry C) the big industrialists, the financial bourgeoisie, the liberal landlords and the wealthy intelligentsia D) the workers40. What events marked the highest rise of the revolutionary movement of 1905-1907?
A) All-Russian October political strike and armed uprising in Moscow
B) uprising on the battleship "Potemkin"
C) the national liberation movement of January 1906 - June 1907 in Poland, Finland, the Baltic states and Ukraine
D) "Bloody Sunday" 41. The interests of which sections of Russian society were expressed by the RSDLP? 42. The interests of which sections of Russian society were expressed by the "Union of October 17"? 43. Which party won the majority in the First State Duma? A) Socialist-Revolutionaries B) Octobrists C) Cadets D) RSDLP 44. Which party won the majority in the III State Duma? A) Socialist-Revolutionaries B) Octobrists C) Cadets D) RSDLP 45. The final organizational design of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party took place A) at the end of 1905 - the beginning of 1906 B) in 1898 C) in 1902 D) in 1907 46. What functions were assigned to the State Council after the decree of Nicholas II of February 20, 1906? A) The functions of the Legislative upper house of parliament 47. Which Russian class received political advantages according to the Electoral Law of June 3, 1907? A) Landlords B) Representatives of the bourgeoisie C) Intelligentsia D) Workers and peasants 48. The organizational design of the Union of the Russian People party took place A) in 1905 B) in 1898 C) in 1902 D) in 1907
49. What operation was successful for the Russian troops during the First World War?
A) Galician operation (August - September 1914)
B ) Gorlitsky breakthrough (April - June 1915)
C) offensive in Belarus (July 1917)
D) East Prussian operation (1914)
50. Specify the time frame for the activities of the II State Duma?
A) April - July 1906
B) February - June 1907
C) November-June 1912
D) February-March 1906
51. When did the IV State Duma begin its work? A) 1910 B) 1911 C) 1912 D) 1915 52. One of the results of the first Russian revolution is A) the introduction of a number of civil liberties B) the introduction of universal suffrage C) the overthrow of the autocracy D) the transfer of power in the country to the Soviets 53. What is the main reason for the February Revolution. A) the inability of the tsarist government to solve the main socio-economic issues of the life of Russian society. B) the revolutionary agitation of the Bolsheviks C) the decline in the prestige of the imperial family D) the First World War 54. What was the main result of the February Revolution? A) autocracy was eliminated B) landownership C) a parliament appeared D) a multi-party system was formed 55. Who was elected Chairman of the Provisional Government in March 1917? Kornilov 56. What events gave rise to the beginning of the February Revolution? A) Women's demonstration on International Women's Day. B) The capture of the Peter and Paul Fortress by workers and soldiers. C) A strike of workers at the Putilov factory.D) "Bloody Sunday"
57. M.A. Bakunin is one of the founders of the theory:
A) anarchism
B) communal socialism
B) class struggle
D) scientific socialism
D) official nationality
58. Peasants were called "temporarily liable":
A) personally free and performing duties in favor of the landowner before the conclusion of the redemption transaction
B) state, supplying the state with recruits
C) "free cultivators", obliged to pay taxes to the state
D) otkhodniks who are obliged to return to the farm at the first request
59. The leaders of the Marxist circles in Russia were:
A) D. Blagoev, N. Fedoseev, M. Brusnev
B) G. Plekhanov, V. Zasulich, P. Axelrod
C) N. Muravyov, I. Pushchin, I. Yakushkin
D) M. Bakunin, P. Lavrov, P. Tkachev
60. Elections to zemstvo institutions were:
A) estates
B) classless
B) general
D) democratic
61. What was the main goal of Russia's foreign policy in the Middle East in the 70s years XIX century?
A) establishing control over the holy places in Palestine
B) the capture of Constantinople
C) strengthening influence in the Balkans and ensuring the security of trade routes through the straits
D) creation of a federation Slavic states
62. Judicial, zemstvo and school reforms began to be carried out in Russia in:
63. After the reform of 1861, the following forms of land tenure remained in Russia:
A) allotment, private, state
B) allotment, state, public
C) private, state, public
D) state, public, state
64. The statement that "it is better to start the destruction of serfdom from above than to wait until the time when it begins to destroy itself from below" was made in 1856:
A) A. I. Herzen
B) M.M. Speransky
B) Alexander II
D) Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs N.A. Milyutin
65. main element military reform 1874 was (was):
A) replacement of obsolete weapons
B) replacement of the sailing fleet by steam
C) the creation of large trained reserves with a limited army
D) the introduction of universal military training
66. Taking advantage of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and the defeat of France, Russia:
A) entered into a coalition with Prussia
B) made an alliance with Austria
C) became more active in the East and signed a number of agreements with China
D) restored its sovereign rights in the Black Sea
67. In 1856, the Minister of Foreign Affairs was appointed:
A) A. M. Gorchakov
B) K.P. Pobedonostsev
C) M. T. Loris-Melikov
D) D. A. Tolstoy
68. Years of reign of Alexander II:
A) 1801-1825
B) 1825-1855
C) 1855-1881
D) 1881-1894
69. When did the city government reform begin?
70. The organization "Land and Freedom" was created in:
71. The treaty signed in 1873 between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary is known as:
A) the tripartite alliance
B) "Union of three emperors"
B) "Triple agreement"
D) Entente
72. For "populism" was characteristic:
A) idealization of the Russian people as a whole and the tsar
B) idealization of the Russian people and the peasant community
C) idealization of the peasant community and the serfdom
D) idealization of the intelligentsia and peasants
73. The press organ of the liberal trend in Russia in 1860-70. was:
A) "Russian Bulletin"
B) "Bell"
B) spark
D) "Contemporary"
74. The terms of service in the army, according to the provisions of the military reform of 1874, began to depend on:
A) class affiliation
B) property qualification
C) education and types of troops
D) official position
75. Whose ideas led to "going to the people" in the 70s. 19th century?
A) P.N. Tkachev
B) P.L. Lavrov
C) M.A. Bakunin
D) N.G. Chernyshevsky
76. At the head of domestic policy in the period of the so-called. "dictatorship of the heart" was:
A) P.K. Pobedonostsev
B) M.T. Loris-Melikov
C) P.A. Stolypin
D) S.Yu. Witte
77. "Land and Freedom" split into:
A) "Black redistribution" and "People's massacre"
B) "People's Will" and "People's Reprisal"
C) "Black Repartition" and "People's Will"
D) "Narodnaya Volya" and "Emancipation of Labor"
78. After the defeat of France and the unification of Germany, Russian diplomacy entered into an agreement with:
B) USA and England
B) England and China
D) Germany and Austria-Hungary
79. How were zemstvos formed?
A) elected by representatives of all classes
B) by election from representatives of the nobility
C) by appointing representatives to the zemstvo by the governor various classes
D) on the basis of universal suffrage
80. When did zemstvos appear in Russia?
81. What was the result of the implementation of the new Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions of 1890?
A) the positions of the nobility strengthened in the zemstvos
B) the positions of the peasantry strengthened in the zemstvos
C) the positions of the merchants strengthened in the zemstvos
D) universal suffrage was introduced
D) zemstvo provincial and district institutions were liquidated
82. At what international forum were the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 reviewed?
A) at the London conference in 1879.
B) at the Berlin Congress of 1878
C) at the Paris Peace Congress of 1878.
D) at the Hague Conference in 1899
83. What caused the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans in the mid-70s of the XIX century?
A) Russian interference in Turkey's internal affairs
B) the attack of England and France on Turkey
C) the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples
D) German conquest plans
84. Serfdom in Russia was abolished in:
85. One of the results of the San Stefano Peace Treaty of 1878 was:
A) the division of Bulgaria into two parts
B) the creation of a new state-principality of Bulgaria
C) receiving by Russia about. Cyprus
D) the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were reduced
86. Years of reign of Alexander III:
A) 1825-1855
B) 1855-1881
C) 1881-1894
D) 1801-1825
87. The era of "counter-reforms" in Russia is associated with the name:
A) Alexander II
B) Alexander III
B) Nicholas II
D) Nicholas I
88. The era of "counter-reforms" is characterized by:
A) pursuing a liberal course
B) strengthening conservatism in government policy
C) continuation of the reforms of Alexander II
D) developing a new course of reforms
89. The industrial revolution in Russia ended in:
A) 40s of the nineteenth century
B) 80s of the nineteenth century
B) at the beginning of the 20th century
D) in the second half of the twentieth century
90. Specify the name of the leader of the populist movement in Russia:
A) Yu.O. Martov
B) A.I. Zhelyabov
C) V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin
D) P.N. Milyukov
91. Peasants freed from personal dependence, but not transferred to ransom, were called:
A) serfs
B) freedmen
B) temporary
D) independent
92. In the second half of the XIX century. demands for the liquidation of the autocracy were characteristic of the representatives of:
A) revolutionary direction
B) liberal direction
93. With the demand for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. representatives spoke:
A) revolutionary direction
B) liberal direction
B) conservative direction
94. Reforms 60-70 years. 19th century in Russia contributed to:
A) the preservation of a traditional agrarian society
B) the development of capitalist relations
B) strengthening autocracy
D) an increase in the number of popular performances
95. The participation of various estates in local self-government became possible as a result of:
A) the peasant reform of 1861
B) the military reform of 1874
C) zemstvo and city reforms of the 60-70s of the nineteenth century
D) the judicial reform of 1864
96. Zemstvos created after the reform of 1864 were engaged in:
A) all political and socio-economic issues
B) economic affairs of the county and province
C) court cases of the county and province
D) performed police functions
97. The main reason for the reforms 60-70 years. 19th century:
A) civil unrest
B) liberal views of Alexander II
B) retardation internal development Russia from leading European countries
D) Russia's military defeats in the Crimean War
98. The main developer of military reform 60-70 years. 19th century was:
A) S.I. Zarudny
B) Alexander II
C) D.A. Milyutin
D) Count N.I. Panin
99. The project of transformations of M.T. Loris-Melikov was named:
A) the constitution
B) "Russian Truth"
D) Charter
100. What duties were to be performed by temporarily liable peasants?
A) pay dues or serve corvee in favor of its former owner before being transferred for ransom
B) participate in all county public free works
C) work once a week for free for the state
D) all duties were removed from them in favor of the landowners
101. Representatives of what organization prepared and committed the assassination of Alexander II?
A) "Black Repartition"
B) "Narodnaya Volya"
C) "Northern Union of Russian Workers"
D) "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class"
102. Who was the leader and ideologist of the conspiratorial trend in populism?
A) M.A. Bakunin
B) P.L. Lavrov
C) P.N. Tkachev
D) N.G. Chernyshevsky
103. When did the populists undertake the first "going to the people" with the aim of preparing a peasant revolution?
104. Under the "propaganda facts" M.A. Bakunin understood:
A) the device of continuous riots
The formation of the Russian Empire happened on October 22, 1721, according to the old style, or on November 2. It was on this day that the last Russian tsar, Peter the Great, declared himself emperor of Russia. This happened as one of the consequences of the northern war, after which the Senate asked Peter 1 to accept the title of Emperor of the country. The state received the name "Russian Empire". Its capital was the city of St. Petersburg. For all the time, the capital was transferred to Moscow only for 2 years (from 1728 to 1730).
Territory of the Russian Empire
Considering the history of Russia of that era, it must be remembered that at the time of the formation of the empire, large territories were annexed to the country. This became possible thanks to the successful foreign policy of the country, which was led by Peter 1. He created new story, a story that returned Russia to the ranks of world leaders and powers whose opinion should be reckoned with.
The territory of the Russian Empire was 21.8 million km2. It was the second largest country in the world. In the first place was the British Empire with its numerous colonies. Most of them have retained their status to this day. The first laws of the country divided its territory into 8 provinces, each of which was controlled by a governor. He had full local authority, including the judiciary. Later, Catherine 2 increased the number of provinces to 50. Of course, this was done not by annexing new lands, but by crushing them. This greatly increased the state apparatus and rather significantly reduced the effectiveness of local government in the country. We will talk about this in more detail in the corresponding article. It should be noted that at the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, its territory consisted of 78 provinces. Largest cities countries were:
- Saint Petersburg.
- Moscow.
- Warsaw.
- Odessa.
- Lodz.
- Riga.
- Kyiv.
- Kharkiv.
- Tiflis.
- Tashkent.
The history of the Russian Empire is full of both bright and negative moments. In this time period, which lasted less than two centuries, a huge number of fateful moments were invested in the fate of our country. It was during the period of the Russian Empire that the Patriotic War, campaigns in the Caucasus, campaigns in India, European campaigns took place. The country developed dynamically. The reforms affected absolutely all aspects of life. It was the history of the Russian Empire that gave our country great commanders, whose names are on the lips to this day not only in Russia, but throughout Europe - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov and Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. These illustrious generals forever inscribed their names in the history of our country and covered Russian weapons with eternal glory.
Map
We present a map of the Russian Empire, a brief history of which we are considering, which shows the European part of the country with all the changes that have occurred in terms of territories over the years of the existence of the state.
Population
By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire was the largest country in the world in terms of area. Its scale was such that the messenger, who was sent to all corners of the country to report the death of Catherine 2, arrived in Kamchatka after 3 months! And this despite the fact that the messenger rode almost 200 km daily.
Russia was also the most populous country. In 1800, about 40 million people lived in the Russian Empire, most of them in the European part of the country. A little less than 3 million lived beyond the Urals. The national composition of the country was motley:
- East Slavs. Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians (Little Russians), Belarusians. For a long time, almost until the very end of the Empire, it was considered a single people.
- Estonians, Latvians, Latvians and Germans lived in the Baltics.
- Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Karelians, Udmurts, etc.), Altai (Kalmyks) and Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, etc.) peoples.
- The peoples of Siberia and Far East(Yakuts, Evens, Buryats, Chukchi, etc.).
In the course of the formation of the country, part of the Kazakhs and Jews who lived on the territory of Poland, who, after its collapse, went to Russia, turned out to be its citizenship.
The main class in the country were peasants (about 90%). Other classes: philistinism (4%), merchants (1%), and the remaining 5% of the population were distributed among the Cossacks, the clergy and the nobility. This is the classic structure of an agrarian society. Indeed, the main occupation of the Russian Empire was agriculture. It is no coincidence that all the indicators that lovers of the tsarist regime are so proud of today are related to agriculture (we are talking about the import of grain and butter).
By the end of the 19th century, 128.9 million people lived in Russia, of which 16 million lived in cities, and the rest in villages.
Political system
The Russian Empire was autocratic in the form of its government, where all power was concentrated in the hands of one person - the emperor, who was often called, in the old manner, the king. Peter 1 laid down in the laws of Russia precisely the unlimited power of the monarch, which ensured the autocracy. Simultaneously with the state, the autocrat actually controlled the church.
An important point - after the reign of Paul 1, autocracy in Russia could no longer be called absolute. This happened due to the fact that Paul 1 issued a decree that canceled the system for the transfer of the throne, established by Peter 1. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, let me remind you, decided that the ruler himself determines his successor. Some historians today speak of the negative of this document, but this is precisely the essence of autocracy - the ruler makes all decisions, including about his successor. After Paul 1, the system returned, in which the son inherits the throne after his father.
Rulers of the country
Below is a list of all the rulers of the Russian Empire during the period of its existence (1721-1917).
Emperor |
Years of government |
|---|---|
| Peter 1 | 1721-1725 |
| Catherine 1 | 1725-1727 |
| Peter 2 | 1727-1730 |
| Anna Ioannovna | 1730-1740 |
| Ivan 6 | 1740-1741 |
| Elizabeth 1 | 1741-1762 |
| Peter 3 | 1762 |
| Catherine 2 | 1762-1796 |
| Pavel 1 | 1796-1801 |
| Alexander 1 | 1801-1825 |
| Nicholas 1 | 1825-1855 |
| Alexander 2 | 1855-1881 |
| Alexander 3 | 1881-1894 |
| Nicholas 2 | 1894-1917 |
All the rulers were from the Romanov dynasty, and after the overthrow of Nicholas 2 and the murder of himself and his family by the Bolsheviks, the dynasty was interrupted, and the Russian Empire ceased to exist, changing the form of statehood to the USSR.
Main dates
During its existence, and this is almost 200 years, the Russian Empire has experienced many important points and events that have had an impact on the state and people.
- 1722 - Table of ranks
- 1799 - Suvorov's foreign campaigns in Italy and Switzerland
- 1809 - Accession of Finland
- 1812 - Patriotic War
- 1817-1864 - Caucasian War
- 1825 (December 14) - Decembrist uprising
- 1867 Sale of Alaska
- 1881 (March 1) the murder of Alexander 2
- 1905 (January 9) - Bloody Sunday
- 1914-1918 - World War I
- 1917 - February and October revolutions
End of the Empire
The history of the Russian Empire ended on September 1, 1917, according to the old style. It was on this day that the Republic was proclaimed. This was proclaimed by Kerensky, who by law did not have the right to do so, so declaring Russia a Republic can safely be called illegal. Only the Constituent Assembly had the authority to make such a declaration. The fall of the Russian Empire is closely connected with the history of its last emperor, Nicholas 2. This emperor had all the qualities of a worthy person, but had an indecisive character. It was because of this that the riots occurred in the country that cost Nicholas himself 2 lives, and the Russian Empire - existence. Nicholas 2 failed to severely suppress the revolutionary and terrorist activities of the Bolsheviks in the country. True, there were objective reasons for this. Chief among which, the First World War, in which the Russian Empire was involved and exhausted in it. The Russian Empire was replaced by a new type of state structure of the country - the USSR.
Under "enlightened absolutism, some authorsunderstand politics, which, using social
demagogy and slogans of the French enlighteners,
pursued the goal of preserving the old order.
Other historians have tried to show how "enlightened
absolutism", meeting the interests of the nobility,
at the same time contributed to bourgeois development.
Still others approach the question of "enlightened
absolutism" from an academic point of view, seeing in it
one of the stages in the evolution of absolute monarchy. In the 18th century the French
enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot,
Montesquieu, Rousseau)
formulated the main
concept of public
development. One of the ways
achieving freedom, equality,
brotherhood they saw in
enlightened
monarchs - "wise men on the throne",
who, using their
power, help the cause
public education and
establishing justice.
Montesquieu's ideal, whose work
"On the Spirit of the Laws" was a desktop
book of Catherine II, was
constitutional monarchy with clear
separation of the legislative
executive and judicial
authorities.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
The most important task of foreign policy facingRussia in the second half of the XVIII century was the struggle for
access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third
quarters of the 18th century in foreign policy
The Polish question occupied a significant place in Russia.
The French Revolution that began in 1789
largely determined the direction of foreign policy
shares of the Russian autocracy at the end of the XVIII century, including
fight against revolutionary France.
At the head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs was
choreographed by Nikita Ivanovich Panin
(1718 - 1783)
one of the leading diplomats
and statesmen,
Tsarevich Paul's tutor. Türkiye, instigated by England and
France, in the fall of 1768 announced
war in Russia. Hostilities
began in 1769 and were carried on
territories of Moldavia and Wallachia, and
also on the Azov coast, where
after the capture of Azov and Taganrog
Russia started construction
fleet.
In 1770 the Russian army under
won command of Rumyantsev
victories at the rivers Larga and Cahul and
went to the Danube.
At this time, the Russian squadron under
command of Spiridov and Alexei
Orlova for the first time in the history of Russia
made the transition from the Baltic
seas around Europe to the east
part of the Mediterranean at full
the absence of bases along the route and in
conditions of hostility
France. Caught in the rear of the Turkish
fleet, she June 5, 1770 in
Chesme Bay defeated
adversary who doubled
surpassed the Russian squadron in
numbers and weapons. In 1771 the Dardanelles were blocked. Turkish
trade in the Mediterranean was disrupted. In 1771
Russian army under the command of Dolgoruky captured
Crimea. (Peace negotiations broke down) In 1774
A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier on the Danube
near the village of Kozludzha. Opening the main forces under
command Rumyantsev way to Istanbul. In 1774
The Kuychuk-Kaynadarzhik peace treaty was signed
according to which Russia received access to the Black
sea, Novorossia, the right to have a fleet on the Black Sea,
right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to
Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from
Turkey. Türkiye paid an indemnity of 4
million rubles. The development of Novorossia (south of Ukraine) began,
the cities of Yekaterinoslav were founded - 1776,
Dnepropetrovsk and Kherson - 1778
In response to Turkey's attempt to return the Crimea, Russian troops
in 1783 they occupied the Crimean peninsula. The city was founded
Sevastopol. G.A. Potemkin for success in joining
Crimea received a prefix to his title "prince
Tauride".
In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (northern Caucasus), a
treaty - by the Georgian king Erekle II on a protectorate,
Georgia became part of Russia.
Russian-Turkish war 1768 - 1774
Russian-Turkish war (1787 - 1791)
In the summer of 1787, Türkiye demanded the return of the Crimea and beganhostilities. The first period of the war ended with the capture of
1787 Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an offensive on
Danube direction, which resulted in two victories,
won at Focsany and Rymnik (1789).
10.
The second stage was marked by the capture of December 11, 1790.impregnable fortress of Ishmael. Suvorov organized
careful preparation, the interaction of the army and navy.
The catastrophe on the Danube near Izmail was supplemented by collapse
Turkish fleet.
11.
In 1790, at the head of the Black Seafleet was delivered one of
outstanding Russian naval commanders
- Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov. He
developed and applied to
deeply thought-out practice
combat training system
personnel, and
used a number of new
tactical tricks. At
numerical superiority of forces in favor of
Turk, the Russian fleet won three
major victories: in Kerch
strait, near the island of Tendera
(September 1790) and cape
Kaliakria (August 1791) in
as a result of which the Turkish fleet
was forced to capitulate. IN
December 1791 in Iasi was
signed a peace treaty
confirmed accession
Crimea, as well as the territory between
Bug and Dniester. Bessarabia
returned to Turkey.
12. Partitions of Poland.
In October 1763, the PolishKing August III. Russia accepted
active participation in the election of a new
king to prevent entry
Poland into a coalition with France,
Turkey and Sweden. After a long
wrestling on August 26, 1764 on
the coronation Sejm,
Russian support, Polish
Stanislav was elected king
Poniatowski. Russia's activity
caused displeasure in Prussia and
Austria. This led to the first section
Poland, the beginning of which was
due to occupation by the Austrians
parts of Polish territory. In August
1772 in St. Petersburg was signed
treaty between Russia, Austria and
Prussia. Moved to Russia
eastern provinces of Poland,
Austria received Galicia and the city
Lviv, Prussia - Pomerania and part
Greater Poland.
13.
May 3, 1791 was adoptedthe Polish constitution
strengthened the Polish
statehood.
In January 1793 there was
second partition of Poland.
Russia received part of Belarus and
right-bank Ukraine, to Prussia
ceded Polish lands with cities
Gdansk, Torun and Poznan. Austria during
did not participate in the second section.
In 1794 Poland began
uprising led by T.
Kosciuszko that was suppressed 4
November 1794 Suvorov.
The third section took place in October
1795. Russia received Western
Belarus, Lithuania, Volyn and
Duchy of Courland. To Prussia
departed central part Poland
together with Warsaw, Austria received
southern part of Poland. Poland as
independent state
ceased to exist.
14. Domestic policy of Catherine II.
Reform of the central government.One of Catherine's first reforms was
division of the Senate into six departments
certain powers and competencies.
The Senate reform improved the government of the country
from the center, but the Senate lost the legislative
function, which has increasingly become
empress. Two departments have been transferred
to Moscow.
Created by her during the Russian-Turkish war in
1768 council at the highest court "for
considerations of all cases related to the conduct
war "later turned into
permanent advisory and
administrative body under the empress. In his
sphere included issues not only military, but also
domestic policy. The Council lasted until
1800, however, under Paul his functions
significantly narrowed
15.
Reform of local authorities.On November 7, 1755, "Institutions for the management of the provinces" were established.
All-Russian Empire". The main principles of local government reform
began the decentralization of management and increasing the role of the local nobility.
The number of provinces increased from 23 to 50. An average of 300,400 male souls lived in a province. Capital provinces and large regions headed
governors (governors general) with unlimited powers,
accountable only to the Empress.
The provincial prosecutor was subordinated to the governor, the Treasury was in charge of finances.
chamber headed by the lieutenant governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged
land management.
The provinces were divided into counties of 20 - 30 thousand male souls. Cities and big
villages, which began to be called cities, became county centers.
The main authority of the county was the Nizhny Zemsky Court, headed by a captain elected by the local nobility. were appointed to the counties
county treasurer and surveyor.
Judicial reform.
Catherine separated the judicial and executive authorities. All estates,
in addition to the serfs, they were supposed to take part in local government.
Each estate had its own court. The landowner was to be judged by the Upper
zemstvo court in the provinces and county court in the county. State peasants
judged the Upper massacre in the province and the Lower massacre in the county, the townspeople -
city magistrate (in the county) and provincial magistrate - in the province. All courts
were elected, with the exception of the lower court, which appointed
governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and in
provinces - chambers of criminal and civil courts, whose members
appointed by the sovereign. The governor could interfere in the affairs of the court.
16.
In a separate administrative unit wasremoved city. At the head of the city was the mayor,
endowed with all rights and powers. City
divided into areas that were under
supervision of a private bailiff, districts into quarters -
led by a district overseer.
After the provincial reform they stopped
all collegiums to function except
foreign, military and admiralty. Functions
collegiums were transferred to the provincial authorities. In 1775
The Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated. Even earlier
in 1764 the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished, his
replaced by the governor-general.
The established system of territory management
countries in the new conditions solved the problem of strengthening
local nobility. More than two
an increase in the number of local officials.
17.
18.
Orders of Catherine II.In 1767, Catherine in Moscow convened
special commission for
drawing up a new set of laws
Russian Empire.
Nobles played a leading role in it.
deputies 45%, it was attended
members of the clergy
state peasants, Cossacks.
The commission was given
orders from places (1600), empress
prepared her "Instruction". He consisted
of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles.
Supreme power, according to Catherine II
can only be autocratic.
The goal of autocracy Catherine
proclaimed the good of all subjects.
Catherine believed that the laws
created to educate citizens.
Only a court can recognize a person
guilty. Commission work
lasted over a year. Under
pretext of the outbreak of war with Turkey
it was dissolved in 1768 on
indefinite time, and
drafting new legislation.
But Catherine embodied the ideas of "Nakaz" in
"Institutions about the provinces" and in
"Letters of Complaint".
19.
"Charter to the nobility".April 21, 1785 - Catherine published
grant letters to the nobility and cities.
Issue of two charters by Catherine II
regulated the law in the rights and
estate duties.
In accordance with the "charter for the rights of liberty
and the advantages of the noble Russian
nobility" it was exempted from
compulsory service, personal taxes,
corporal punishment. The estates were announced
wholly owned by the landlords, who,
in addition, they had the right to start
own factories and plants. nobles
could sue only with equals and without
noble court could not be deprived
noble honor, life and estate. nobles
provinces and counties elected their own
leaders and officials
local government. Provincial and county
noble assemblies had the right to make
representation to the government about their
needs. Complaint to the nobility
secured and legalized
nobility in Russia. dominant
class was given a name
"noble".
20.
"Diploma on the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire"defined the rights and obligations of the urban population, the system
management in cities.
All townspeople were recorded in the city philistine book and
constituted a "city society". Citizens were divided into 6
ranks: 1 - nobles and clergy who lived in the city; 2-
merchants (divided into 3-4 guilds); 3 - guild artisans; 4 -
foreigners permanently living in the city; 5 - eminent
townspeople; 6 - townspeople who lived by crafts or
work.
Residents of the city every 3 years elected a self-government body -
General city duma, mayor and judges. General
The city council elected the executive body
"six-voice" Duma (from each estate 1 representative). IN
she was in charge of landscaping, education,
compliance with trade rules.
The letter of commendation put all six categories of urban
population under state control. The real power in
the city was in the hands of the mayor, the council of the deanery and
governor.
21. Economic policy of Catherine II. The condition of the peasants.
The population of Russia in mid-eighteenth V. Was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36million people. The majority of the population lived in rural areas. 54% peasants
were privately owned, 40% - state, 6% - owned
palace department.
In 1764, after the secularization of church and monastery lands, almost
2 million peasants moved into the category of "economic", and later
"state".
Agriculture remained the leading sector of the Russian economy.
was extensive. This resulted in a significant increase
bread production; the black earth zone (Ukraine) has become the breadbasket of the country.
Sowed mainly rye, barley, oats, wheat. Increased volume
exported grain in the 50s, it amounted to 2 thousand rubles. per year, in the 80s already 2.5 million.
rub. in year.
In the second half of the 18th century, two large regions with
using various forms of exploitation of peasants: on fertile lands
Chernozem - corvée, month (the peasant often did not have his allotment), and in
areas with infertile soil - dues (cash or in kind).
A serf was no different from a slave. The decree of 1765 allowed the landowners
to exile their peasants without trial or investigation to Siberia for hard labor with their offset as
recruits. Peasant trade flourished. Peasants, by decree of 1763, must
were themselves to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their speeches. In 1767
A decree was issued forbidding peasants to file complaints against their landowners.
22.
Industry.In 1785, a special "Craft regulation" was issued,
which was part of the "Charters of Letters to the Cities". At least 5
artisans of the same specialty were to be united in a workshop
and choose your foreman.
The government's goal was to turn the city's artisans into
one of the class groups of the then feudal society.
In the second half of the XVIII century there was a further growth of manufactories.
In the middle of the century there were about 600 of them, by the end of the century there were more than 3000.
Manufactories were mostly private. In the second quarter of the XVIII
century, the number of merchant enterprises increased, mainly in light
industry. With few exceptions, this industry has been
based on hired labor. The supplier of workers was
ruined peasantry.
The creators of peasant manufactories were the owners of small
workshops - "light". As a rule, they were
serfs. Sometimes they managed to buy off at will, they entered into
merchant guilds and even received noble titles.
In 1762 it was forbidden to buy serfs for factories. IN
In the same year, the government stopped the registration of peasants to
enterprises. Manufactories founded after 1762 by noblemen,
worked exclusively on freelance labor.
23.
Second half of the 18th century - time further development Andformation of the all-Russian market. The number has increased
fairs (until 1600). The biggest fairs were
Makaryevskaya on the Volga, Root - near Kursk, Irbitskaya - in
Siberia, Nezhinskaya - in Ukraine.
Russia exported metal, hemp, linen fabrics, sailing
linen, wood, leather, bread. Imported - sugar, silk, dyeing
substances, coffee, tea. Exports prevailed over imports.
Strengthening the apparatus of power, the cost of the war, the maintenance of the court and
other government needs required large amounts of money
resources. Treasury revenues increased in the second half of the 18th century
4 times, but the costs increased 5 times. Chronic
Catherine tried to compensate for the budget deficit
traditional measures. One of them was the issuance of paper
money. For the first time since 1769, paper money appeared (by the end
XVIII century, the paper ruble depreciated and = 68 kopecks. silver).
Also, for the first time under Catherine, Russia turned to external
loans, in 1769 in Holland and in 1770 in Italy.
24. Peasant war led by Pugachev. (1773 - 1775)
The Peasant War of 1773-75 in Russia swept the Urals,Trans-Urals, Wed. and N. Volga. Headed by E. I. Pugachev,
I. N. Beloborodov, I. N. Chika-Zarubin, M. Shigaev,
Khlopushey (A. Sokolov) and others. Yaik Cossacks participated,
serfs, working people of the Ural factories and
the peoples of the Volga region, especially the Bashkirs led by Salavat
Yulaev, Kinzei Arslanov. Pugachev declared himself tsar
Peter Fedorovich (see Peter III), announced to the people the eternal
will, granted the land, called for the extermination of the landowners. IN
September 1773 the rebels captured Iletsk and others
fortified towns. Nobles and clergy mercilessly
were destroyed. In October 1773 Pugachev with a detachment of 2500
man besieged the fortress of Orenburg. In February 1774 he was taken
Chelyabinsk. Under the onslaught of regular troops, Pugachev went to
Ural factories. After the defeat in the battle for Kazan (July
1774), the rebels crossed to the right bank of the Volga, where
a peasant movement unfolded. Pugachev called for
the transfer of land to the peasants, the abolition of serfdom,
destruction of nobles and royal officials. Peasants' War
was defeated. Pugachev was captured and executed in Moscow in
1775.
25.
26.
27. Socio-political thought in the second half of the XVIII century.
In the second half of the 18th century, therethe emergence and gradual formation of the main
currents of Russian social and political
thoughts.
Common to all thinkers of this period
was the idea of slow, gradual development.
The moderates are the first
education and upbringing in order to prepare for
freedom. Supporters of the democratic direction
- proposed to start with the abolition of serfdom, and
then enlighten.
Catherine believed that the Russian people had a special
historical mission.
Prince Shcherbatov (aristocratic-conservative
direction) suggested returning to the pre-Petrine
Rus'.
28.
Another direction of Russiansocial thought of this period
closely associated with Freemasonry. In the XVIII
century the ideas of Freemasonry strongly
changed and now it aspired
influence government policy.
Catherine went to war with
Freemasonry and in particular with Nicholas
Ivanovich Novikov. (1744 - 1818
gg.) Publisher, publicist - w-l
"Drone", "Painter". Catherine
also published a magazine - "Every
stuff." Ultimately, Novikov
was imprisoned for 15 years
Shlisselburg.
In the second half of the 18th century, within
enlightenment arises
revolutionary ideology. – Radishchev
(1749 - 1802), he criticized
serfdom and spoke out for them
destruction, by revolutionary
coup. He was exiled to Ilimsk in
1790.
29. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
Reform of the education system. Efforts were directed towardsthe creation in the country of a system for educating a “new breed of people”,
able to serve as a pillar of the throne and implement
the intentions of the monarch. The most energetic conductor of this
course became Betskoy, an outstanding teacher and organizer of educational
business in Russia. In 1764, Catherine approved the
"General institution for the education of both sexes
Youth”, which outlined the main pedagogical principles
author. Created closed educational institutions
boarding type. He called for linking the mental and
physical education.
In 1782 - 1786. school reform was carried out in Russia,
created a system of uniformly organized educational
institutions with unified curricula and a common methodology
learning. These were the so-called "folk schools", the main ones in the provincial cities and small ones in the county ones. Small
were a two-class school and provided elementary knowledge.
The main ones were 4 - cool. By the end of the 18th century in Russia
there were 188 schools, where 22 thousand people studied.
30.
At Moscow Universityteacher's room was opened
seminary - the first in Russia
pedagogical training
institution. In 1783 there was
Russian
academy. This institution
brought together outstanding
writers, scientists and
intended as a humanitarian
science Center.
Since 1783 director
Petersburg Academy
becomes Princess Catherine
Romanovna Dashkova, she
showed remarkable
administrative talent and
put things in order
academy.
As a result of mastering this chapter, the student should:
know
- the main directions and results of the foreign policy of Catherine's and Paul's times;
- political and social structure Russian society during the crisis of serfdom;
be able to
- reasonably identify the main trends in the decomposition of the serf economy;
- meaningfully compare such phenomena as "absolutism" and "enlightened absolutism";
own
- the concept of "continuity in foreign policy";
- basic principles of conflictology in relation to major protests, such as the peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev.
Socio-economic status
In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia was a typical agrarian country dominated by serf relations. During the period of palace coups, landownership significantly increased and the number of serfs increased, since this was the main reward for those who brought this or that monarch to power. At the same time, the process of strengthening the oppression of serfs was going on, the lordly plowing and the corvee itself were growing, reaching in the south of Russia up to five or six days a week. In the non-chernozem regions, the landowners, on the contrary, sought to transfer the peasants to a cash quitrent. The rights of serfs were consistently reduced, and the judicial and police power of the landowner over the serfs expanded. It became possible to sell peasants without land, which undermined the very basis of serf relations.
On the other hand, there was an increase in agricultural production, primarily due to the development of new annexed lands (Northern Black Sea, Azov, Kuban, Crimea), as well as in connection with the transition of the local population of the Urals and Siberia (Bashkirs, Buryats, etc.) from nomadic cattle breeding to agriculture. New agricultural crops were mastered: potatoes, sunflower, tobacco. The government sought to acquaint the landlords with new methods and forms of farming. To this end, in 1765, the Free Economic Society was created, which turned out to be one of the most successful projects of the policy of "enlightened absolutism." It lasted until 1917.
The reforms of Peter I gave a significant impetus to the development industrial production. The number of large manufactories increased, supplying the army and navy with their products. Free-lance workers and ascribed peasants worked at these manufactories. Ferrous metallurgy developed rapidly. By the middle of the XVIII century. Russia came out on top in Europe in the production of cast iron, which was exported to European countries. New branches of industry arose: cotton, porcelain, gold mining.
Government policy contributed to the development of noble manufactories, as well as the transfer of part of the state-owned factories into private hands. In the Urals, private manufactories actively developed in mining and metallurgy, and in the Central region - in linen and cloth production. The main labor force in these enterprises were the sessional peasants. Among the patrimonial manufactories, textile and distilleries prevailed, which were employed by serfs. Merchant manufactories, based on freelance labor, developed in cotton production. In 1762, it was forbidden to buy serfs to factories and the practice of assigning peasants to enterprises was discontinued. The labor market began to take shape. A further impetus to the development of industry was given by the 1775 manifesto on freedom of enterprise, which encouraged the creation of merchant and peasant manufactories.
Continued development and expansion commodity-money relations. In 1769, Catherine II carried out a financial reform, which resulted in the introduction of paper money - banknotes. In 1777, short-term loan and saving cash desks were opened, which expanded the opportunities for small entrepreneurs to develop and expand small-scale production. The fishing activity of the peasants, as well as otkhodnichestvo (otherwise, seasonal fishing, when the peasants left their homes to work in more developed areas) intensified, which destroyed the framework of the patriarchal economy. The process of economic specialization of the regions of the country was actively going on. The formation of the all-Russian market was completed. Bread from the black earth regions and Ukraine, Ural iron, leather, fish and wool from the Volga region, Siberian furs and handicrafts from the cities of central Russia, flax and hemp from the Novgorod and Smolensk lands, and many other goods were sold at auctions and fairs in Nizhny Novgorod, Orenburg, Irbit, Nezhin (Ukraine), Kursk, Arkhangelsk. Stationary trade also developed, which was carried out in the cities either daily or on certain days of the week.
Successes in the development of domestic industry affected foreign trade: Russia became the largest exporter of cast iron in Europe, the export of which increased from 800 thousand pounds in 1760 to 3840 thousand pounds in 1783. Russia also exported timber, hemp, linen fabrics, sailing canvas, various types of leather. From the end of the XVIII century. grain began to be sold through the Black Sea ports. England was the main consumer of Russian goods. Russia's major trading partners were Prussia and Sweden. Imports, as in the previous decade, were dominated by sugar, cloth, coffee, dyes, silk, tea, and wine. Russia exported manufactory products to the countries of the East, while Turkey and Iran remained the main trading partners. In addition, Russian merchants were engaged in intermediary trade, selling industrial products of European countries. Customs tariffs of 1776, 1782 and 1796 retained high duties on foreign goods, which indicated the continued protectionist nature of the Russian government's foreign trade policy.
In the second half of the XVIII century. capitalist relations were actively developing in European countries, and Russia entered a period of crisis of serf relations. The economic development of Russia in this period had a number of features that were preserved in the first half of the 19th century:
- the extensive nature of the development of all sectors of the economy, especially agriculture;
- the large role of the state in the development of the economy (government orders, protectionist policies, etc.);
- the use of forced labor of serfs, possessive and bonded peasants in manufactories and factories, the absence of a free labor market;
- slow growth in demand for manufactured goods, as the peasant economy retained a subsistence character.
Plan
Introduction
1. History
2 Territory
2.1 Territorial composition and provinces
3 Population
3.1 Composition of the population
4 Society
4.1 Estates
4.1.1 Nobles
4.1.2 Clergy
4.1.3 Merchants
4.1.4 Cossacks
4.1.5 Foreigners
4.1.6 Peasants
4.1.6.1 Serfdom
4.1.6.2 Post-reform Russian Empire (1861-1917)
4.2 Largest cities of the Russian Empire
5 Emperors and authorities
5.1 Emperors and Autocrats of All Russia
5.2 Governing Senate
5.3 Committee of Ministers and Council of Ministers
5.4 Council of State
5.5 State Duma
5.6 Governors
6 Local management
7 Officialdom
8 Legal system
9 Economy
9.1 Farming
9.2 Railways
9.3 Industrial development
9.4 Economy of the Russian Empire in the XVIII century.
9.5 Economy of the Russian Empire in the 20th century
10 Armed Forces
10.1 Army
10.2 Guard
10.3 Irregulars
10.4 Navy
10.5 Air force
10.6 State militia
11 Religion
11.1 Russian Orthodox Church
11.2 "Gentile and non-Orthodox" confessions
12 Finance
12.1 Reforms of Peter I
12.2 Second half of the 18th century - first half of the 19th
12.3 Reforms of Alexander II
12.4 Late XIX- early 20th century
12.5 Pre-war state of finances
12.6 Finance in the First world war
12.7 Gold reserve
13 Territorial expansion
13.1 Geopolitical competition with Sweden. Accession of Finland
13.2 Sections of the Commonwealth. Kingdom of Poland
13.3 Accession of Georgia
13.4 Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea, New Russia, Moldavia and Wallachia
14 Culture
14.2 Visual arts
14.3 Music
14.4 Cinematography
15 State symbols and awards
15.1 State symbols
15.2 State awards
16 Imperial court
16.1 General organization
16.2 Yard providers
16.3 Court ceremonies
16.4 Military retinue
16.5 Security
17 High nobility
17.1 Barons
17.2 Princes
17.3 Counts
17.4 Imperial family
Bibliography
Introduction
The Russian Empire (Russian doref. Russian Empire; also the All-Russian Empire, the Russian State or Russia) is a state that existed from 1721 until the February Revolution and the proclamation of the republic in 1917.
The empire was proclaimed following the results of the Great Northern war Russian Tsar Peter I the Great.
The capital of the Russian Empire was first St. Petersburg in 1721-1728, then Moscow in 1728-1730, then again St. Petersburg in 1730-1917 (in 1914 the city was renamed Petrograd).
The Russian Empire was the third largest state ever formed (after the Mongol and British empires) - it stretched to the Arctic Ocean in the north and the Black Sea in the south, to the Baltic Sea in the west and Pacific Ocean in the east. The head of the empire, the All-Russian Emperor, had unlimited, absolute power until 1905.
On September 1 (14), 1917, the Provisional Government of Russia proclaimed the country a republic (although in fact Russia was a republic after the February Revolution). However, the legislative body of the empire - the State Duma was dissolved only on October 6 (19) of the same year.
1. History
The foundations of the Russian Empire were laid by the Russian Tsar Peter I (Peter I the Great), who, in the course of his reforms (1695-1725), transformed the regime of the class-representative monarchy of Moscow Rus' into an absolute monarchy, modeled on a number of Western European countries (Prussia, Holland, Sweden). The regime of absolutism was first recorded in the Military Regulations ( “His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world in his affairs”).
During the reforms, the main centers of power that could resist the power of the tsar (the Boyar Duma and the Patriarchate) were destroyed, the nobles, organized in accordance with the Table of Ranks, became the main support of the monarchy, and the church was transformed from a patriarchal structure into a synodal one. Thanks to the activities of Peter I, a regular army and navy were founded, the borders of Russia were pushed to the west during the Great Northern War, access to the Baltic Sea was won, and St. Petersburg was founded. At the same time, an attempt to gain access to the Black Sea (the Prut campaign (1711), the Persian campaign (1722-1723)) was unsuccessful due to the opposition of the Ottoman Empire.
At the end of the Northern War, Peter I on October 22 (November 2), 1721, declares himself emperor, and Russia - an empire. In the European tradition, the empire was considered the only powerful power of a pan-European scale; thus, the new title of the Russian tsars denoted in the eyes of the West a sharply increased foreign policy weight of Russia. Some states, which also claimed dominance in Europe, recognized the new status of Russia far from immediately, later than all - Poland (1764), which claimed part of the former lands Kievan Rus.
In November 1724, Peter I personally took part in the rescue of a ship that had run aground, after which he became seriously ill. After his death in February 1725, the era of palace coups began in Russia, in the absence of any representative bodies, the elite noble regiments of the Russian Imperial Guard began to play their role more and more, overthrowing emperors who had become objectionable at their own discretion. In 1762, during the next coup, Catherine II (Catherine II the Great), born Sophia Frederick Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, comes to power. She overthrows her own husband, Peter III, and is crowned under the name Catherine.
During her reign, Russia makes another breakthrough in external expansion, having won in the course Russian-Turkish wars Crimea, and having participated in the partitions of Poland, active colonization of New Russia begins. During the partitions of Poland, Russia receives in the newly annexed territories, in addition to Belarusians, Ukrainians and Poles, also a significant number of Jews of German origin (Ashkenazi), whose movements are limited by the Pale of Settlement.
The foundations are being laid for Russian expansion in the Transcaucasus, where Russian interests clashed with those of Persia and Turkey. In 1783, the Georgievsky Treaty was signed, which began the process of annexing the fragmented Georgian principalities, which continued under subsequent emperors.
Catherine II was strongly influenced by European ideas of enlightened absolutism, she personally corresponded with French philosophers (Voltaire, Diderot). However, at the same time, she believed that the huge size of Russia required the maintenance of a powerful state apparatus based on an autocratic monarchy.
In domestic politics, serfdom reaches its apogee: the nobility is freed from compulsory service by a letter of grant to the nobility, while the peasantry remains attached to the land. This contradiction becomes one of the reasons for the Pugachev uprising.
After the death of Catherine II in 1796, her son, Paul I, became the new emperor, who hated his mother, and after his coronation immediately canceled a number of her innovations. Pavel sets the nobility against himself by trying to impose strict discipline in the guard, by strengthening regulation in public life, by the Manifesto on the three-day corvee. In addition to his other steps, Paul I becomes a master Order of Malta, and prepares a draft of the proposed campaign to India. On March 12, 1801, the disgruntled nobility kills the emperor in a new coup.
During the reign of Alexander I (Alexander I the Blessed), 1801-1825, Russia, during the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, finally destroys the Swedish great power by annexing Finland. During Patriotic War In 1812, a victory was won over the French aggressors, which made possible the collapse of Napoleon's powerful empire in Europe. The Vienna Congress of 1814-1815 established a new world order in Europe, casting doubt on the gains of the French Revolution, and significantly strengthening the role of Russia. However, during the trip abroad Russian army in 1813-1814 ( see War of the Sixth Coalition) many Russian officers got acquainted with the structure of life in Europe, among the part of the officers spread the ideas of reforms according to the European model: the transition to a constitutional monarchy, the abolition of serfdom.
Russian expansion in the Transcaucasus continues, but the annexed states are cut off from Russia by the hostile North Caucasus. Strategic interests also require further expansion in the North Caucasus, in 1817 the protracted Caucasian War begins.
In 1803-1811, the tsar considered projects for a significant liberalization of state administration (the reforms of M. M. Speransky), in 1801 he canceled the distribution of state peasants to those close to him. In 1803, the Decree on free cultivators was adopted, in 1818, projects for the abolition of serfdom were considered. In 1802, the system of colleges was replaced by a system of ministries ( see Manifesto Establishing Ministries).
In 1810-1817, the organization of military settlements began under the leadership of Arakcheev (destroyed only in 1857). In 1819-1820, mass riots began against military settlements; from 1820, fermentation began in the army. After the death of Alexander in 1825, the Decembrist Revolt breaks out. new emperor Nicholas I undertakes a policy of centralization, after the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1830, he takes steps to destroy Polish autonomy. Increasing Russian pressure on Ottoman Empire leads to the Crimean War, lost due to the accumulated technical backwardness. During the war, the Anglo-French fleet attacks Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (Peter and Paul Defense).
Alexander II (Alexander II the Liberator), who reigned 1855-1881, undertakes a broad program of reforms, the most prominent of which is the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Zemstvo and Judicial reforms are being carried out, in order to strengthen the combat readiness of the army, undermined by the beginning of the Crimean War, a Military reform.