Objective and subjective observation method. Objective methods of research of patients, plan of examination of a sick patient

The main research methods in psychology - as in natural science in general - are observation and experiment . In psychology, each of these general methods appears in different forms; there are different types of observation and experiment. The specific scientific research methods of psychology include methods testing, survey, analysis of products of activity. They also found wide application in psychology methods of mathematical modeling, statistical analysis andothers (fig. 3).

The observation method is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of a person's external behavior for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation.. Objective observation in psychology is directed not at external actions in themselves, but at their psychological content; here the external side of activity is only the initial material of observation, which must receive its psychological interpretation and be comprehended within the framework of a certain theory.

The success of observation and explanation of its results ultimately depends on the state of knowledge in the area under study. On the basis of a certain understanding of the nature of the phenomenon under study, a hypothesis is put forward about its dependence on specific factors, on their manifestation in external behavior. The hypothesis is verified during observation and can be confirmed, refined, refuted. "Objective observation becomes scientifically fruitful insofar as it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses."

Observation as a scientific method must meet a number of requirements. It should be selective, those. proceed from a clearly defined goal, highlight a certain fragment of the studied reality. Observation should be planned andsystematic , those. be built on the basis of the plan and carried out on the reading of a certain period of time. It is important to record the studied behavior in as much detail as possible, i.e. necessary fullness observation.

The objectivity of the observation method increases if the researcher uses technical means, such as a video recorder. In such an observation, the researcher completely takes a position from the outside, or even is completely removed from the situation. It is no coincidence that the ideal version of the method of observation in psychology was considered to be observation with the use of a "Gesell's mirror", transmitting light in one direction: the researcher could see everything that was happening, while remaining invisible. A similar effect can be achieved using a VCR. In other words, a special task is posed to achieve the effect absence of a researcher, make the subjects not know that they are being watched and behave naturally, as in normal conditions

The fundamental difficulty of objective observation in psychology is associated with unambiguity understanding, interpretation, explanation of external factors of behavior in psychological terms. Observation results are significantly influenced by the level of experience and qualifications of the observer. In other words, external observation can be objective in relation to the systematic and complete registration of behavioral facts, but subjective in their psychological interpretation. This difficulty can be overcome by using other objective methods of psychology.

In pedagogical practice, the teacher rarely uses the method of external observation in its pure form. Pedagogical activity excludes a position from the outside, the position of an impartial, objective and disinterested observer. At the same time, in the process of activity, the teacher notices certain features of the behavior of schoolchildren, judges by external manifestations about psychological reasons, about the emotional state, the peculiarities of perception and understanding of the material, difficulties, etc. The desire to fix the psychological characteristics of students in the course of activity, try to comprehend them, use them in their work leads to the formation of an important professional quality in the teacher - observation .

Experimental method is the main method of explanatory psychology. Let us recall that psychology acquired the status of an independent science simultaneously with the experimental method.The main task of a psychological experiment, like observation, is to make the essential features of the internal mental process accessible to objective external perception. But experiment differs from observation in a number of peculiarities.

S.L. Rubinshtein identifies four main features of the experiment. First of all, in experiment the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying in contrast to observation, in which the observer cannot actively intervene in the situation. Secondly, the experimenter can vary, change the flow conditions and manifestations of the studied process. Thirdly, in experiment it is possible alternate exclusion of individual conditions (variables) in order to establish regular relationships that determine the process under study. Fourth, the experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions, allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study .

There are three types of psychological experiment: laboratory, natural and formative (psychological and pedagogical).

Laboratory psychological experiment proceeds in specially created and controlled conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment and instruments. The initial object of the laboratory experiment in psychology was the elementary mental processes: sensations, perceptions, reaction speed. A distinctive feature of the experiment in the laboratory is strict adherence to the research conditions and the accuracy of the data obtained. Cognitive psychology, which studies human cognitive processes, has reached great perfection in the use of laboratory experiments. Cognitive processes constituted the main area of \u200b\u200blaboratory research in human psychology.

The scientific objectivity and practical significance of the data obtained in a laboratory experiment reduces artificiality conditions created. This is connected both with the remoteness of the problems solved in the experiment from the real life conditions of the subject, and with the impossibility of fixing the nature of the influence of the experimenter on the subject during the study. Therefore, the problem arises of transferring the data obtained in the laboratory to the real conditions of human life. In other words, does the experimental situation simulate the essential conditions of human life? This question always remains open in laboratory psychological research. The use of a laboratory experiment in real pedagogical activity, due to its artificiality, abstractness, and labor intensity, is practically not practiced.

Natural psychological experiment removes the noted limitations of the laboratory experiment. The idea of \u200b\u200bconducting a psychological experiment in the natural conditions of human life belongs to the Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky. Natural experiment grew out of teaching practice; here he received recognition and widespread use.

A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) - Russian doctor and psychologist; developed "characterology" - the psychological concept of individual differences and built a system for the classification of individuals ("General and Experimental Psychology", 1912).

Its main difference lies in the combination of the experimental nature of the study with the naturalness of the conditions. The influence of the researcher on the subjects, based on a preliminary assumption (hypothesis) about his character, is carried out in the usual conditions of activity or behavior. Subjects participating in a natural experiment are unaware that they are acting as test subjects.

Pedagogical practice provides great opportunities for the use of natural experiment. Real pedagogical activity is carried out, as a rule, in several parallels and is cyclical. The teacher can vary in different classes the content, methods, forms, methods of teaching and study the nature of the influence of these changes on the characteristics of the assimilation of the material by schoolchildren, on the pace of advancement in the study of the subject, on the peculiarities of understanding, memorization, emotional attitude of schoolchildren to what is being studied, etc.

An experiment in natural conditions of the pedagogical process is combined with observation of the course and results of its course. The combination of experiment with observation in the learning environment gives good results for the psychological study of schoolchildren.

The famous psychologist SL Rubinstein wrote: “We study the child by teaching him. For this we do not abandon experimentation in favor of observing the pedagogical process, but we introduce elements of pedagogical influence into the experiment itself, building the study as an experimental lesson. When teaching a child, we strive not to fix the stage or level at which the child is, but to help him move from this stage to the next higher stage. In this advancement, we study the patterns of development of the child's psyche. "

It can be assumed that the use of natural experiment opportunities by teachers contributes to the rapid growth of their professional skills, the formation of pedagogical thinking, fosters a creative attitude to their activities. Well-known educators-innovators in our country - Sh.A. Amonashvili, I.P. Volkov, I.P. Ivanov, E.N. Ilyin, S.N. Lysenkova, V.F. Shatalov and others - have achieved significant success in teaching and educating schoolchildren through creative experimentation in the conditions of daily work.

Formative experiment - it is a method for studying the mental development of children in a specially organized experimental pedagogical process. The essence of this experiment is manifested in its names: transforming, creative, upbringing, teaching, psychological and pedagogical, a method of active formation of the psyche, genetic modeling.

The researcher does not limit himself to studying the prevailing forms of the psyche, registering and explaining the mental development achieved by students, which is characteristic of an ascertaining (laboratory) experiment. On the basis of a preliminary theoretical analysis of the patterns of mental development of children of a certain age or the conditions and nature of the formation of the most important human abilities, a hypothetical model of the formation of the studied abilities in specially designed conditions, as a rule, in experimental classes or schools is constructed.

The implementation of the developed model is carefully monitored and evaluated by specialists of various profiles - teachers, psychologists, methodologists, doctors, etc. In the course of the experiment, patterns, mechanisms, dynamics, trends in the mental development of schoolchildren are revealed. The results of the experiment make it possible to confirm, clarify or refute the previously developed model of the formation of the learned ability.

In a formative experiment, myself the pedagogical process becomes experimental. In the psychological experimental research, the search and design of new forms of the educational process is carried out, a kind of "cultivation" of productive forms of cooperation between teachers and schoolchildren is carried out and, at the same time, the study of promising paths of mental development at a certain age stage.

P.Ya. Galperin (1902-1988) - Russian psychologist, disciple of L.S.Vygotsky; the creator of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.

In the formative experiment, the regularities of the formation of cognitive abilities in preschoolers were established (studies by P.Ya. Galperin, L.F. Obukhova, G.I.Minskaya, N.N. Poddyakov, L.A. Venger, A.V. Zaporozhets and others ), the features and conditions of the transition from preschool to school childhood (studies by E.E. Shuleshko and others), the possibility and expediency of the formation of junior schoolchildren the foundations of scientific and theoretical thinking and the decisive importance for this content and teaching methods (research by V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin and others). The formative experiment has become the main method of Russian educational psychology. Its advantages are the orientation towards the development of the student in the educational process, the theoretical validity of the experimental model of the organization of this process, the duration of the study, which guarantees the validity and reliability of the data obtained.

D.B. Elkonin (1904-1984) - Russian psychologist, student of L.S.Vygotsky; the creator of the psychological theory of children's play and the periodization of mental development in childhood.

An important advantage of the formative experiment is a new type of scientific character in pedagogical practice - design and software , which focuses on not so much the study of what is, what has developed and exists, as the construction, creation, "growing" of the possible, future, promising. An indispensable condition for the deployment of a formative psychological and pedagogical experiment is anticipation of possible consequences, responsibility of researchers for the course and results of the experiment , for the subjects participating in it.

Objective methods of psychology also include testing, used for purposes psychological diagnostics , to recognize or evaluate the states, characteristics, characteristics of a particular person, group of people, a particular mental function, etc. In this respect a test is like an experiment. They are also united by the fact that both methods represent a system of tasks offered by the researcher to the subject. The true relationship between experiment and test is that test grows out of experiment , created on its basis.

Testing is a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values.

1. Inspection using whispering and speaking. This is the easiest method. During the examination, it is necessary to present words known to the child. If the child knows only babbling words ("meow" - a cat, "tutu" - a car, etc.), then they must be used. If the child does not understand words, then the ability to perceive vowels and consonants, such as low-frequency l, m, n, r, b, t, k, v, p or high-frequency - u, a, e, c, g, x, hissing. At the same time, most vowels and high-frequency consonants are heard better and are perceived at its distant distances than low-frequency consonants. The survey must be carried out emotionally, showing satisfaction or surprise at the correct perception of the word. Activates classes showing pictures corresponding to words, using game moments.

The words are pronounced after a calm breath, in the reserve air of the lungs, in this case it is easy to equalize the volume and speed of their pronunciation. different people... Speech material must be presented directly at the ear and then the distance must be increased.

Whisper speech with normal hearing is perceived from 5-10 m for low-frequency sounds and from 15-20 m for high-frequency sounds.

For children over 5 years old, it is advisable to use special tables corresponding to age, as well as to study "phonemic hearing", that is, the ability to distinguish words that differ only in one letter (phoneme) (Misha - Masha, barrel - kidney, daughter - dot).

The study of hearing with the help of whispering and speaking gives an estimated idea of \u200b\u200bhearing, in more detail the auditory function is analyzed by subsequent methods.

2. Threshold tone audiometry... Currently, this is one of the main methods of hearing research, in which special electro-acoustic equipment is used - audiometers. Threshold audiometry consists in determining, at different frequencies, the lowest intensity of the sound signal at which the sensation of sound occurs.

The survey must be carried out in a soundproof room, the intensity of the ambient noise should not exceed 20 dB. The atmosphere should be friendly and calm. Contact with the subject should not cause difficulties; in the absence of interaction through oral speech, it is necessary to use tablets with instructions. The examinee should not see the scale of the device. At each frequency, a loud signal is first given so that the subject has an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat sound he should hear. Then the strength of the sound decreases to inaudible "and then gradually increases until the sensation of sound appears. Further, the sound intensity decreases by 10 dB and again discretely increases with a stop for 10 s every 5 dB until a sound is felt. The values \u200b\u200bof the threshold tone intensity for each of the studied frequencies are plotted on the audiogram. The time of the audiometric examination should not exceed 60 minutes in order to avoid fatigue and weakening of attention.

3. Threshold tone audiometry over the air channel... Sound is delivered to the ear through headphones. The study begins with a tone of 1000 Hz, which is the resonant tone of the ear's conduction system and therefore is comfortable for hearing. After this frequency, they move on to determining the thresholds for low frequencies - 500, 250, 125 Hz, as the best preserved, and then for high - 2000, 40О0, 8000 Hz. The study ends again at 1000 Hz to confirm the initial result.

The results are marked on the audiogram: on the right ear with a circle (o) or in red, on the left - with a cross: (X), in blue or green. Air conduction audiograms are indicated by a solid line, bone conduction audiograms - by a dotted line.

4. Threshold tone audiometry by bone conduction... A bone vibrator is applied to the mastoid process behind the ear - at the level of the auditory opening (antrum). Hair must be removed, the vibrator must not touch the auricle. Otherwise, the examination technique is the same as for air-borne audiometry.

Analysis of threshold tone audiometry data. In the human auditory system, 2 main parts can be conditionally distinguished: sound-conducting (conductive) part - from the outer ear to the hairs of Corti's organ and sound-perceiving (sensorineural) - from the inner ear to the cerebral cortex. The sound-conducting auditory system is characterized by a mechanical, sound transmission mechanism. In the sound-perceiving system, sound energy is converted into nerve impulse energy, which is transmitted along the auditory nerve to the cerebral cortex, where it is converted into an auditory sensation.

An understanding of the mechanisms of hearing impairment can be obtained by analyzing the location of bone and air audiograms. In the sound-conducting system, the bone signal is much weaker than the air signal. We can say that the bone signal mainly bypasses the sound-conducting system and causes the vibrational movement of the bone labyrinth itself. Further, through the liquid (peralmph) of the labyrinth, vibrations are transmitted to the organ of Corti. Thus, according to the bone audiogram, one can get an idea, first of all, about the state of the sound-receiving system; if the bone audiogram deviates from the norm by more than 15-20 dB, one can talk about the pathology of sound perception.

The air audiogram can be used to judge the total disturbance of the sound-conducting and sound-receiving systems. Therefore, the presence of a significant difference between bone and air audiograms (more than 15-20 dB) is an argument indicating the pathology of the sound-conducting system.

The slope of the air audiogram can also be used to judge a particular mechanism of hearing impairment, even in the absence of a bone audiogram. With pathology of the sound-conducting system, the lesion at low frequencies is greater than at high frequencies (ascending audiograms). With pathology of sound perception, high frequencies are affected more than low ones (audiograms from steeply falling to gently falling). Mixed hearing loss, when there is pathology in both sound conduction and sound perception, are characterized by intermediate types of audiograms (from horizontal to weakly falling).

5. Suprathreshold tone audiometry... The purpose of suprathreshold tone audiometry is to identify people with FUNG (the phenomenon of accelerated increase in loudness). FUNG is detected by a small difference (less than 30 dB) between the threshold of air perception and the threshold of discomfort, this difference is called the hearing range. The range of speech - from loud (80 dB) to quiet (50 dB) in the frequency range 250-4000 Hz is 30 dB. If the hearing range is less than the speech range, the intensity of loud speech may exceed the discomfort threshold. Thus, FUNG occurs if the hearing range is less than 30 dB, in which case loud speech can cause unpleasant sensations.

To identify FUNG, both a “merciless” technique (with symmetrical hearing, when the difference between two airborne audiograms is less than 30 dB) and a “sparing” technique (with asymmetric hearing, when the air audiograms of the right and left ear differ by more than 30 dB) ).

One of the “sparing” techniques is the binaural loudness balance technique. A tone 10 dB above the hearing threshold is delivered to each ear through the air channel. The sensations of the same volume in both ears indicate the absence of FUNG. If the signal is heard louder in one ear, the sound intensity in the other ear increases to equalize the volume. After that, the sound intensity in each ear rises again by 10 dB. And if the signal is heard louder on the same ear as before, then a FUNG takes place on this ear. The described technique allows you to identify FUNG without causing unpleasant sensations, therefore it is called “sparing”. However, this technique is ineffective with symmetrical hearing.

The “unrepentant” method for detecting FUNG is the determination of the discomfort threshold. At one of the speech frequencies, the sound intensity increases smoothly until unpleasant sensations arise. If the resulting range of hearing turns out to be: less than 30 dB, then this indicates the presence of a FUNG.

With pathology of sound conduction, the feeling of discomfort may not be achieved. In case of impaired sound perception: discomfort thresholds may correspond to normal levels or be slightly higher. Thus, FUNG is observed primarily with impaired sound perception, especially with large hearing loss.

6. Speech audiometry. It is used when examining people with developed speech. The purpose of speech audiometry is to determine the amount of hearing loss for speech.

A set of words recorded on a tape recorder is given to the subject through an audiometer. Each word is followed by a pause, during which he must answer what he heard. The experimenter counts the number of correctly reproduced words. If their number turns out to be insufficient, the volume is increased by 5 dB and the study is repeated.

Before starting the examination, it is advisable to calibrate the speech audiometry. For this purpose, speech intelligibility is examined in 10-15 normally hearing people and their level of 50% - and 100% word perception is determined.

Harshak number test... The set of test words consists of 10 numerals, selected by Kharshak. The study ends when the number of words correctly reproduced is 50% or more. The resulting intensity value is defined as the level of 50% speech perception. Normal hearing people perceive 50% of words at loudness close to 20 dB (this figure must be confirmed experimentally on this equipment). The difference between the level of 50% speech perception of the examined person and the norm (about 20 dB) is the amount of hearing loss for speech.

Greenberg-Zinder real Russian speech intelligibility test... The set of test words consists of 30 words of everyday topics, selected by G.I. Greenberg and L.R. Zinder. Testing ends when 100% of the words are correctly perceived. As a result, the level of 100% speech perception is determined. Normal hearing people perceive 100% of words, starting from an intensity of 45 dB (this figure should be confirmed empirically on this equipment). The difference between the level of 100% speech perception of the subject and the norm (about 45 dB) is the amount of hearing loss per speech.

When conduction is affected, 100% intelligibility is almost always achieved. In case of pathology of sound perception of the system, 100% intelligibility may not be achieved even at maximum volume.

Paradoxical decrease in speech intelligibility. The phenomenon is that a number of people suffering from FUNG or having a hearing range of up to 40 dB, with an increase in volume, starting from a certain level, deteriorates speech intelligibility. To distinguish such people, it is necessary to the volume level at which the intelligibility is maximum (100% or less), add up to 30 dB and repeat the Greenberg-Zinder test. If legibility is reduced, then the phenomenon is taking place.

Targeted training in the development of speech perception leads to a weakening of this phenomenon, an increase in the intelligibility of loud speech, and an expansion of the range of comfortable listening.

7. Occlusive testing... Occlusion is an increase in the perception of sounds when the external auditory canal is closed. In this case, the sound will be reflected from the walls of the closed ear cavity and amplify the signal passing through the sound-conducting system. The presence of occlusion indicates intact sound conduction.

OPA (occlusive autophony phenomenon) is the simplest occlusive test. With autophony, a person listens to his own voice. To carry out this test, you need to say any words out loud, alternately closing and opening the external auditory canal with your palms. If the sound is heard louder when the ear is closed, then the occlusion is taking place, which indicates a healthy sound-conducting system. In the opposite case, we can talk about a violation of sound conduction.

By comparing the results of the occlusive test with the data of the audiometric examination, it is possible to assess the reliability of the results obtained and, if necessary, recheck them.

Questions and tasks for independent work

1. What biological and social factors determine the mental development of children with hearing impairment?

2. Describe the general and specific patterns of mental development of children with hearing impairments.

3. What factors influence the formation of motor skills in children with hearing impairments?

4. What determines the originality in the development of attention and its properties in deaf children? What are the main conditions for the development of voluntary attention in this category of children?

5. What is the origin of the peculiarity in the development of figurative memory in children with hearing impairments?

6. What are the reasons for the lag in the development of verbal memory in these children?

7. What features common with normal hearing children in the development of thinking can be distinguished?

8. Determine the conditions for the development of conceptual thinking and imagination in deaf children.

9. What is meant by deafness and hearing loss?

10. What are the main theoretical provisions of the pedagogical classification of P.M. Boskis.

11. What are the main criteria for determining the degree of hearing loss and the group of deafness according to the classification of L.V. Neumann.

12. What are the criteria for assessing the state of hearing according to the International classification.

13. How do additional deviations affect the development of children with hearing impairments?

14. Analyze the organizational forms of differentiated education of children with hearing impairments, depending on the state of hearing, the time of the onset of the defect, the presence of additional impairments, pedagogical learning conditions.

15. Compare the applicability of objective and subjective methods of studying auditory function.

16. What parts of the auditory system are diagnosed using tympanometry, otoacoustic emission studies, computer audiometry?

17. How is the violation of the sound-conducting and sound-perceiving parts of the auditory system revealed by the audiogram?

18. How does FUNG manifest itself (on the audiogram and in everyday behavior), in whom can it be observed in the first place?

19. What methods can be used to assess the perception of quiet, calm and loud speech?

Literature

1. Bazarov V.G., Lisovskiy V.G. and other Fundamentals of audiology and hearing aid. M., 1984.

2. Bogdanova T.G. Deaf psychology. M., 2002.

3. Bogomilskiy M.R. Anatomy, physiology and pathology of the organs of hearing and speech. M., 2001.

4. Boskis R.M. Deaf and hard of hearing children. M., 1963.

5. Boskis R.M. To the teacher about children with hearing impairments. M., 1988.

6. Venger AA., Vygodskaya GL., Leonhard EI. Selection of children for special preschool institutions... M., 1972.

7. Kozlov M.L., Levin A.L. Pediatric audiology. L., 1989.

8. Neiman L.V. Hearing function in deaf and deaf children. M., 1961.

9. Psychology of Deaf Children / Ed. THEM. Solovyova and others M.,

11. Development of logical thinking and the peculiarities of mastering the foundations of science by hearing-impaired schoolchildren / Ed. THEM. Gilevich, K.G. Korovin. M., 1986.

12. Rechitskaya E.G., Soshina EL. Development of the creative imagination of primary schoolchildren (in conditions of normal and impaired hearing). M., 2000.

13. Rozanova T.V. Development of memory and thinking in deaf children. M., 1978.

14. Sinyak VL., Nudelman M.M. Features of the mental development of a deaf child. M., 1975.

15. Smirnova O.I., Rulenkova L.I. Audiology and hearing aid. M., 2003.

16. Tavartkiladze GL., Shmatko N.D. Diagnosis and correction of impaired hearing function in young children. M., 2001.

17. Tigranova L.I. Mental development hearing impaired children. M., 1978.

18.P. Yashkova N.V. Visual thinking of deaf children. M., 1988.

The methodological basis of objective methods of psychology is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. This group includes the following methods:

Observation (continuous, selective);

Experiment (laboratory, natural, formative);

Testing (achievements, abilities, aptitude, etc.);

Analysis of products of activity (graphological, content analysis, analysis of drawings, etc.);

Poll (questionnaire, conversation, interview);

Mathematical modeling and statistical analysis.

1st stage (V century BC) - the subject of study was the soul. The concept of the soul was both idealistic and materialistic. The idealist Plato, for example, considered the soul to be immaterial, invisible, incorruptible, and the materialists Heraclitus and Democritus - a particle of nature, an atom of fire, that is, material. Further, as a result of the struggle between these two directions, idealism became the basis of religion, and materialism was prohibited (until the 17th century). During this period, the soul began to be considered as something independent of the body, as a special entity. The duality of the soul - dualism (Latin dialia - dual) in the most developed form was presented in the teachings of Rene Descartes (1596-1650).
The second stage (XVII century) was marked by the rapid development of natural sciences and consciousness became the subject of psychology. It was understood as the ability to feel, desire, think. The material world has not been studied. Introspection, that is, self-observation, self-understanding, became the method of studying consciousness, and the scientific direction began to be called introspective psychology. The English scientist John Locke (1632-1704) became the representative of this trend. In the framework of introspective psychology in 1879 in Leipzig, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) created the first experimental psychological laboratory. This event marked the emergence of the experimental method in psychology, and 1879 was the year of the birth of scientific psychology. The incipient criticism of introspection (the inability to simultaneously perform an action and analyze it; ignoring the unconscious, etc.) prepared the way for the next stage.
3rd stage (19th century) - due to advances in medicine, experiments on animals, etc., behavior becomes the subject of psychology (American scientist John Watson (1878-1958) and others). A powerful scientific direction appeared in American psychology, which was called behaviorism. The behavior was explained by the nature of the stimulus that triggers the reaction (behavior): (S - R) stimulus - reaction. At this time, there are a number of attempts to explain behavior not by stimuli, but by other factors. This is how basic psychological concepts emerge:
- Gestalt psychology - Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967), Max Werth-gamer (1880-1943) (the subject of study is the peculiarities of perception);
- psychoanalysis and neo-Freudianism - Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), Alfred Adler (1870-1937) (the subject of study is the unconscious);
- cognitive psychology - Ulrich Neiser, Jerome Seimon Bruner (subject of study - cognitive processes);
- genetic psychology - Jean Piaget (1896-1980) (subject - the development of thinking).
The foundations of Russian scientific psychology were also laid in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The formation of "reflexology" takes place - Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927), Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev (1829-1905).
The 4th stage (XX century) is marked by the appearance in Russian psychology of the dialectical-materialist concept, which was based on the philosophical theory of reflection (the subject of study is the psyche) - Pavel Petrovich Blonsky (1884-1941), Konstantin Nikolaevich Kornilov (1879-1957). One of the most important trends that took shape in the 1920s and 1930s was the "cultural-historical theory" developed by Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), then the psychological theory of activity associated with the name of Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979 ) (subject - mental activity).
In the West, humanistic psychology appears - Karl Rogers (1902-1987), Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) (subject - personality traits). In the 60s of the XX century. A new direction, transpersonal psychology (Stanislav Grof), which studies the limiting possibilities of the human psyche, attracts attention.
The integration of different directions is currently taking place. Psychologists use concepts and methods of one direction or another, depending on the characteristics of the problems and tasks being solved. There is no single understanding of the subject of psychology.

Modern psychological science consists of a number of relatively independent scientific disciplines, or branches, which form its structure (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3.Content of individual psychological disciplines

Discipline name	What is studying
General psychology	Theoretical foundations of psychology, defines the basic concepts of this science (psychology of cognitive processes and psychology of personality)
Psychophysiology	A science that arose at the junction of two sciences - psychology and physiology. She explores the relationship between mental phenomena and their bodily manifestations
Age-related psychology	Features of changes in the psyche as a person develops and grows
Pedagogical psychology	Patterns of training and education
Medical psychology	The psyche of a sick person, as well as features of the borderline states between health and illness
Social Psychology	studies the psychological mechanisms of the influence of society (communities) on human behavior and consciousness, explores the interaction of people in groups, collectives, the position of the individual in them, the problems of leadership and subordination
Psychodiagnostics	Develops methods to study the human psyche, and to do this as reasonably and reliably as possible
Psychotherapy	Is engaged in the search and improvement of methods of treating people with psychological methods, without the use of pharmacological drugs

There are also branches of psychology associated with certain areas of human activity: military psychology, sports psychology, engineering psychology, legal psychology, space psychology, etc.

Comparative psychologystudies the patterns of development of the psyche in phylogenesis.

Age-related psychologystudies the laws of human mental development in ontogenesis, the main stages of its development, critical and sensitive periods. IN developmental psychology stand out: psychology of childhood, psychology of adolescence, psychology of adolescence, psychology of adulthood (acmeology), psychology of aging and old age (gerontopsychology).

Differential psychologyexplores individual psychological differences between people. These may be differences in temperament, character, abilities, cognitive styles, behavior motivation, etc. The main tasks are to develop norms and standards in accordance with the age and gender of a person.

Pedagogical psychologystudies the psychological foundations of training and education. It is closely related to developmental and differential psychology, since one of its important tasks is the individualization of training in accordance with the age and individual characteristics of the students. The most important task of educational psychology is the formation of a harmonious personality based on a combination of mental, moral, aesthetic, physical education, and the formation of outlook.

Engineering psychologydevelops the principles of coordination of technical devices (machines, devices, etc.) with the characteristics of mental processes, functions and properties of a person, striving to ensure the maximum reliability and efficiency of control and management systems and reduce the cost of human labor. The question is especially acute when a person has to work under conditions of emotional stress, increased responsibility, lack of time or information.

Labor psychologystudies the psychological foundations and structure of labor activity, its dynamics and regulation mechanisms. This discipline explores the psychological factors of the efficiency and quality of work. Labor psychology reveals professionally important personality traits in relation to different professions, solves the problems of professional selection and vocational training.

Social Psychologystudies the psychological mechanisms of the impact of society (communities) on human behavior and consciousness, explores the interaction of people in groups, collectives, the position of the individual in them, the problems of leadership and subordination. Important issues social psychology is the study psychological mechanisms formation public opinion, problems of mass communications. IN last years in the mainstream of social and psychological research, the problems of ethical communities, national traditions and stereotypes of behavior began to be actively developed.

Legal psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between man and law. Its main problems are the study of the personality of the criminal, the formation of the motivation for the crime, the psychological foundations of the reeducation of offenders. In legal psychology, they also study the psychology of the victim, the psychology of testimony, and the psychological aspects of the investigation.

Clinical psychology- a specialty of a wide profile, which has an intersectoral nature and participates in solving a set of problems in the health care system, public education and social assistance to the population. The work of a clinical psychologist is aimed at increasing the psychological resources and adaptive capabilities of a person, harmonizing mental development, protecting health, preventing and overcoming ailments, and psychological rehabilitation. (For details, see the section "Clinical Psychology").

Principle determinism, causation of mental activity.
There are no causeless phenomena in the world. This also applies to the psyche. Any mental act of an animal and a person has its own cause. The mental activity of people is determined by the social conditions of their life, the peculiarities of their upbringing and activities. Scientific psychology is not limited to a simple description of mental phenomena, it necessarily looks for the reasons for their occurrence. The method of self-observation, which empirical psychology of the XIX century. considered the main one, helped science very little, since he did not allow to reveal the objective reasons for the mental activity of people.

The principle of the development of the psyche.
The mental activity of a person cannot be fully understood if it is studied statically, outside of movement and development. Thus, it is impossible to understand the behavior of an adult without taking into account the history of his life. It is impossible to explain the features of the psyche of people, ignoring the background human consciousness - the psyche of animals. Scientific psychology understands development not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively. Thus, the mental activity of a student is qualitatively different from the mental activity of a preschool child. A student not only knows more and has more skills and abilities than a child. His knowledge, skills, experiences, actions, relationships with people are different from those of a preschooler. General psychology, studying the psyche of mainly adults, uses data obtained by child psychology to prove a number of propositions, for example, data on the development of individual mental processes in a child - sensations, perceptions, etc. One of the methods general psychology - biographical - allows you to study a person's personality in its development.

The principle of the leading role of activity in the development of the psyche.
The human psyche, being a subjective reflection of the objective world, develops in the process of active interaction of a person with other people, in various types of his activities, starting with the simplest games of a child and ending with the creative work of an adult. Outside of human activity, there can be no development of his psyche - the most important component of activity. Therefore, among the methods of psychology, there should be such methods that allow a comprehensive psychological analysis of a person's performance of various mental and practical tasks characteristic of a particular activity (play, educational, work, organizational, etc.).

The principle of the unity of human mental activity.
The human psyche, his subjective world is a single, inseparable whole, a product of the systemic activity of the brain, in which the psychologist, only for the purpose of research, to a certain extent artificially isolates various mental processes, states and properties. Studying individual manifestations of the psyche, consciousness, the researcher must remember about the whole, about the personality, see the mutual connections and dependencies between perception, thinking, memory, feelings, interests, attitudes of a person and specially study them. The principle of the unity of consciousness is especially important to observe in a laboratory experiment, when, due to the peculiarities of this method, the psychologist is distracted from many aspects of the personality of the person he is studying, except for one that he studies.

The principle of objectivity in the study of the psyche.
The most important requirement of any science is the objectivity of research, its accuracy. This means that a scientist should not contribute anything from himself to the phenomena under study, but should investigate them as they really are. But is it possible to objectively study the subjective world of a person? Is it possible to find out about the thoughts, feelings, desires of other people? Many psychologists consider the subjective world of a person to be unknowable or knowable only to the extent that the subject himself can judge it. Scientific psychology believes that the mental life of people (and animals) is as knowable as all the phenomena of reality. A person's feelings, his thoughts and desires can be judged by his actions, the content and nature of his speech, the results (products) of his activities, i.e. objectively. Russian psychology uses several methods of objective research of the human psyche; the main ones are observation and experiment.

The principle of concreteness in the study of the psyche
A person lives and develops in the specific conditions of a family, school, production, etc. He establishes quite definite relationships with people, which significantly affects the behavior and mental development of this person. The principle of concreteness requires a psychologist to choose research methods that would allow him to study a person's personality in specific, definite conditions of his life. Compliance with this principle is mandatory when studying the holistic behavior of a person, for example, when composing

The psyche and the organism of man (and animals) are inextricably linked, and this is confirmed by the fact that without a brain, it cannot exist, because it is the ability of the brain to receive different information about the environment, it forms a reaction to this data - our behavior. The work of the psyche occurs only during the active activity of a person, in the process of which it can be corrected: improve, become more complex. It directly depends on the brain: the more complex it is, the higher the psychic abilities. That is why there is such a big difference between the psyche of an animal and a person: many sensations, feelings, emotions available to people remain unattainable for animals.

The direct connection between the psyche and the brain allows us to determine that the psyche and the body are interdependent: for example, when a person receives a signal about a threat (and the level of danger and what needs to be done at this moment is determined with the help of the psyche and depends on its structure), then the level adrenaline in the blood rises, the heart rate increases and the person is ready for quick mobilization. Those. here the direct influence of the psyche on the processes in the human body is manifested. But the body and its state also affects the psyche with the help of the brain: for example, a lack of B vitamins can lead a person into a state of depression when he gives negative assessments of the phenomena around him, which are in fact neutral.

f-tion of reflection, contributing to the knowledge of the surrounding world;

f-tion regulatory, which makes it possible to regulate their actions and behavior.

f-tion preservation of the integrity of the organism (Maklakov).

The functions are interconnected and are elements of the integrative function of the psyche, which consists in ensuring the adaptation of a living organism to environmental conditions.

Stages of development of the psyche: Leontiev A.N. - 3 stages

The stage of the elementary sensitive (sensory) psyche - reflects one property of an object or phenomenon that directly affects the senses (a bee flies to smell).

The stage of the perceptual psyche reflects an object or phenomenon in a set of properties in the form of an image.

The stage of intellectual behavior (elementary thinking) - the animal mentally establishes connections between objects in a given situation, but cannot reflect the situation in concepts.

Fabri, omitted the 3rd stage and proposed to introduce levels (lowest, highest, highest) at the 1.2th stage:

Stages and levels of mental reflection, its characteristics	Features of behavior associated with this stage and level	Types of living beings who have reached this level of development
I. Stage of elementary sensory psyche
A. Lower level. Primitive sensitivities. Developed irritability	A. Clear reactions to biologically significant properties of the environment through changes in speed and direction of movement. Elementary forms of movement. Weak plasticity of behavior. Unformed ability to respond to biologically neutral properties of the environment devoid of vital significance. Weak, unfocused physical activity	A. Protozoa. Many lower multicellular organisms living in the aquatic environment
B. Highest level. The presence of sensations. The emergence of the most important organ of manipulation - the jaws. Ability to form elementary conditioned reflexes	B. Clear reactions to biological neutral stimuli. Developed physical activity (crawling, digging in the ground, swimming from the water to land). Ability to avoid environmental conditions, to get away from them, to actively search for positive stimuli. Individual experience and learning play little role. Rigid innate programs are of prime importance in behavior	B. Higher (annelids) worms, gastropods (snails), some other invertebrates
II. Perceptual psyche stage
A. Low level. Reflection of external reality in the form of images of objects. Integration, unification of influencing properties into a holistic image of a thing. The main organ of manipulation is the jaw	A. Formation of motor skills. Rigid, genetically programmed components predominate. Motor abilities are very complex and varied (diving, crawling, walking, running, jumping, climbing, flying, etc.). Active search for positive stimuli, avoidance of negative (harmful) stimuli, developed protective behavior	A. Fish and other lower vertebrates, as well as (in part) some higher invertebrates (arthropods and cephalopods). Insects
B. Highest level. Elementary forms of thinking (problem solving). Folding a certain "picture of the world"	B. Highly developed instinctive forms of behavior. Learning ability	B. Higher vertebrates (birds and some mammals)
IN. Highest level... Allocation in practical activities of a special, tentative-research, preparatory phase. Ability to solve the same problem using different methods. Transfer of the once found principle of solving the problem to new conditions. Creation and use of activities of primitive tools. The ability to cognize the surrounding reality, regardless of the existing biological needs. Immediate discernment and consideration of causal relationships between phenomena in practical actions (insight)	B. Isolation of specialized organs of manipulation: paws and hands. Development of research forms of behavior with extensive use of previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities	B. Monkeys, some other higher vertebrates (dogs, dolphins)

Mental processes is a form of existence of the psyche. After all, the psyche is not static, like a frozen photograph. It is formed in the course of the individual's interaction with the environment and, therefore, must be considered in dynamics, in action, in development. Mental processes are included in more complex types of mental activity.

There are three classes mental processes:
- cognitive, or cognitive, providing a reflection of the surrounding world (sensations, perceptions, presentation, attention, memory, thinking, imagination);
- Emotional-volitional, or mental regulation processes that provide the characteristics of behavior and activity (sensory experiences, volitional efforts, motivation, goal-setting, control processes, decision-making);
- communicative, ensuring the interaction of people both when performing joint actions and in situations of interpersonal communication (non-verbal and verbal communication).

Mental states characterize the functioning of the psyche at the current time according to the criteria of working capacity, intensity, speed, quality, etc. In the structure of the personality, this is a more static and stable characteristic of the psyche in comparison with mental processes.

Mental states differ in a number of characteristics. In particular, by:
- the level and form of emotionality (emotional: shame, sadness, aggressiveness, joy, etc.);
- intensity level (activation);
- the level of psychophysiological resource (tonic);
- the level of mental stress (tension);
- duration of the state (temporary);
- the sign of the state (favorable, unfavorable).

The mental properties of a person are stable and constantly manifested characteristics of a person that determine the characteristics of his behavior and activities. Properties are inherent in a person over a large period of his life or even his entire life.

Between mental processes, states and properties there is a close relationship. For example, the properties of temperament or character largely determine a particular mental state in a particular situation. In general, this relationship is much more complex than we imagine it at this stage of human development. Very important, one might say, fantastic phenomena and patterns are still waiting for their discovery here. In the meantime, we can only say that the psyche is the result of "indefatigable work" still mysterious for mankind space. It is included in a single chain of macrocosmic processes, Solar system and planet Earth. The psyche is influenced, for example, by the solar system with the insidiousness of its “outbursts”, accompanied by increased excitability of people.

All this suggests that the study of the psyche cannot be separated from the knowledge of processes in the near (immediate) and distant (world) space. The relevance of this provision is increasing due to the fact that a person is increasingly fencing himself off from this space by creating a "second" nature, leaving the "first", natural, only for the purpose of rest.

Concepts of consciousness and activity - nodal categories of psychological science. The systematic development of this principle in Soviet psychology began in the 30s (S.L. Rubinshtein, A.NLeontiev, B.Gananiev, B.M. Teplov, etc.).

SL Rubinshtein was the first to put forward the position of the unity of consciousness and activity, behavior. He wrote that “activity and consciousness are not two aspects facing opposite directions. They form an organic whole - not an identity, but a unity. "

Although at that time this principle was not yet correlated with the principle of development, nevertheless, it immediately acquired important methodological significance. It argued that there can be no activity without consciousness and consciousness without activity - Thus, the position was defended about the possibility of studying consciousness through activity and the way was opened for an objective study of the psyche and consciousness: from activity, its products - to those revealed in it. mental processes... Thus, the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity becomes the basis of all objective methods of psychology.

The development of the psyche in phylogenesis - qualitative changes in the psyche occurring within evolutionary development living beings due to the complication of their interaction with the environment.
The views of philosophers on who the psyche is inherent in:
- Pan-psychism (the psyche is inherent in everything)
- Anthropopsychism (psyche only in humans) - Descartes
- Biopsychism (the psyche of all living things, including plants) - Wundt
- Neuropsychism (psyche only in those who have nervous system) - Darwin
- Brain psychism (the psyche is only for those who have a brain) - K.K. Platonov
- Sensopsychism (the psyche is only in those who have a sensory system - the ability to respond to vital insignificant environmental stimuli) (Leontiev)
With the emergence of life on Earth, large molecules appeared that had the sign of living, that is, they absorbed nutrients and got rid of decay products. This property is called irritability - the body's response to biologically significant properties of the environment, which are directly involved in metabolic processes.
Irritability is not mental, irritability is a biological reaction.
The psyche arises when sensitivity appears - the body's reaction to biologically insignificant (abiotic, biologically neutral) properties of the environment.
With the disappearance of the immediate environment nutrients a living organism has a need to detect them at a distance, so the rudiments of sensitivity arose, that is, the psyche as the ability to signal the body about positive and negative reactions.
Stages of the formation of the psyche:
1) Tropisms (there were taxis, i.e. the first unicellular creatures) - the level of irritability
phototropisms (to light)
thermotropisms (for temperature)
chemotropisms (on the physical biological environment)
topotropisms (for mechanical stress)
2) Reflexes - point automatic reactions to stimulation of certain receptors or sensory organs.
3) Instincts are innate, unchanging forms of behavior that are the same in individuals of the same type.
4) Learning - the acquisition of lifetime experience through trial and error.
5) Intellectual behavior - solving life problems without preliminary trial and error by means of insight (insight). (See Keller "On the experiments in the study of great apes")

Basic concepts of functional asymmetry of the brain

The functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres is the morphophysiological features of the cerebral structures that determine the dominance of the hemisphere when processing information of a certain type. It manifests itself in the difference in functional loads performed by the symmetrical parts of the hemispheres.

At the same time, the absence of stability in the asymmetry of the hemispheres of the human brain was established. In case of unilateral lesions, the opposite hemisphere, forming new connections between the projection fields, is able to take over the performance of the lost functions. Functional asymmetry is considered as the ability of a person's cerebral adaptation to changing conditions in health and disease.

Features of the asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres

The distribution of functional responsibilities between the hemispheres is genetically inherent. However, under the influence social factors the functional asymmetry of the brain undergoes changes; Briefly describing the work of the hemispheres of relatively simple functions (the work of the sensory organs and striated skeletal muscles), scientists regard it as conditionally equipotential. Symmetrical sections of the hemispheres provide for movement and specific sensitivity equally. However, such averaging does not apply to higher cortical functions, emotions, activation and adaptation processes. Neurophysiologists classify interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain into:

Anatomical (expressed in the morphological heterogeneity of hemispheres);

· Biochemical (manifested by differences in cellular reactions, the content of neurotransmitters);

· Psychophysiological (motor, sensory, cognitive-emotional).

The functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain ensures the responsibility of the left hemisphere for the analysis of verbal information, the right for the processing of spatial and figurative patterns. The dominant part is that part that provides the function of phase (speech), possession of the most frequently used hand. For most people (right-handers), the left hemisphere is dominant. For left-handers, the right hemisphere is the leader. There is a small group of people with the same ability to skillfully wield the right and left hand. This feature is called ambidexterity. It can be either congenital or acquired.

People with a predominant right-brain influence tend to be contemplative, reminiscent, and subtle deep sensitivity. Thought processes in the right hemisphere are carried out by an initial synthesis mechanism followed by analysis. The right hemisphere prevails when it is necessary to think specifically and to perform emotional activity. The right hemisphere provides: ear for music, emotional coloring of speech; holistic perception of images; spatially intuitive information processing. concrete thinking, visual perception and recognition.

The left hemisphere specializes in the mechanisms of inductive intellectual activity (the initial process of analysis followed by the synthesis of information). It is dominant for abstract, symbolic thinking. The left hemisphere determines: operating with logical and abstract concepts; consistent mental activity; local perception of images; verbal-symbolic functions; establishing similarity and identity.

There are three types of psychological experiment: laboratory, natural and formative (psychological and pedagogical).

P.Ya. Galperin (1902-1988) - Russian psychologist, disciple of L.S.Vygotsky; the creator of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.

In the formative experiment, the regularities of the formation of cognitive abilities in preschoolers were established (research by P.Ya. Galperin, L.F. Obukhova, G.I. Minskoy, N.N. Poddyakov, L.A. Venger, A.V. Zaporozhets and others ), the features and conditions of the transition from preschool to school childhood (studies by E.E. Shuleshko and others), the possibility and expediency of forming the foundations of scientific and theoretical thinking in younger schoolchildren and the decisive importance for this content and teaching methods (research by V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin and others). The formative experiment has become the main method of Russian educational psychology. Its advantages are the orientation towards the development of the student in the educational process, the theoretical validity of the experimental model of the organization of this process, the duration of the study, which guarantees the validity and reliability of the data obtained.

D.B. Elkonin (1904-1984) - Russian psychologist, student of L.S.Vygotsky; the creator of the psychological theory of children's play and the periodization of mental development in childhood.

Testing is a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values.

Objective research methods

When diagnosing a patient, the doctor uses subjective and objective research methods. Objective methods allow you to get information about the main symptoms necessary for the diagnosis and assess the condition of individual organs. They have all the classification and rules of use, which will be set out in this text.

Classification

Objective research methods are divided into main and auxiliary. The main difference is that the basic methods can be applied in almost any setting using a minimum amount of equipment, while auxiliary methods require a special room and a significant amount of equipment.

The main research methods include:

Examination - an assessment of the general condition of the patient, as well as his individual organs, skin, position and mucous membranes.
Palpation - allows you to determine the temperature, soreness, the presence of seals or damage in the patient's organs.
Listening is subdivided into mediocre (using a device) and direct (without using devices). With its help, the presence of pathologies in the respiratory system, heart and abdomen is determined.
Tapping (percussion) - allows you to determine the presence of pathologies in certain parts of the body by the duration and tone of the sound.

The auxiliary research methods include:

Measurements of various patient parameters
Laboratory testing of body fluids
Biopsy - examination of tissue particles
Direct examination - examination of the patient's organs and cavities
Instrumental research

General rules for conducting research

1. General inspection should be carried out strictly according to the following scheme

2. First of all, a general inspection is carried out

3. The state of consciousness of the patient is assessed (clear or disturbed)

4. The state of mucous membranes and skin is noted

5. The presence of edema is determined

6. Body type is assessed

7. A palpation examination, listening or percussion of organs, the state of which may lead to symptoms identified by subjective research methods or general examination, is carried out.

Based on the information received, appropriate auxiliary research methods are prescribed, such as laboratory, instrumental and others. A subjective study of the patient's complaints, medical history and lifestyle is also carried out. Analyzing the picture obtained as a result of the main research methods, as well as the results of auxiliary methods, they substantiate the diagnosis and prescribe the necessary treatment.

Using objective research methods, most diseases are detected, since today, in addition to the main methods, there are auxiliary ones that allow using medical equipment to accurately determine the patient's diagnosis.