Scientific advisor series- A.B. Khavin
Sidorov P.I., Parnikov A.V.
С34 Introduction to Clinical Psychology: T.II.: A textbook for medical students. - M .: Academic Project, Yekaterinburg: Business book, 2000. - 381p. - (Library of Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Psychotherapy)
The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the main sections of clinical psychology. More fully than in other similar manuals, the psychology of the treatment process, the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, suicidal behavior, and the psychology of dying are covered. For the first time, a complex of medical and psychological knowledge is offered in organic unity with general, age-related and social psychology.
The textbook is addressed to students of all faculties of medical educational institutions, as well as doctors and psychologists specializing in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.
UDC 159.9.07 BBK 56.14
ISBN 5-8291-0057-3 ("Academic Project") ISBN 5-88687-086-5 ("Business Book") ISBN 5-8291-0058-4 ("Academic Project", vol. II) ISBN 5-88687 -080-6 ("Business Book", vol. II)
© Sidorov PI., Parnyakov AV,
2000 © Academic Project,
Original layout, design,
2000 © Business book, 2000
THEORY OF PERSONALITY
MAIN DIRECTIONS IN THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY
PERSONALITIES 3
THEORY OF PERSONALITY IN DOMESTIC PSYCHOLOGY
The concept of personality from the standpoint of the psychology of activity 9
Communication and personality formation 12
Relationship Psychology 13
Installation theory 14
PSYCHODYNAMIC DIRECTION IN PSYCHOLOGY
Sigmund Freud: A Psychodynamic Theory of Personality 16
K. Jung (Jung C): Analytical Psychology 32
A. Adler (Adler A.): individual psychology 36
K. Horney (Homey K.): the theory of "basal anxiety" 38
H. Sillivan (Sillivan H. S.): Interpersonal Theory 40
Fromm E.: The Theory of Alienation 43
Erikson E.H.: Identity Theory 45
BEHAVIORAL DIRECTION IN PSYCHOLOGY
(BEHAVIORISM)
Beginning of Behaviorism, Classical (Radical) Behaviorism 50
Non-behaviorism _ 54
The concept of neurosis and behavioral psychotherapy 57
HUMANISTIC DIRECTION IN PSYCHOLOGY
A. Maslov: self-actualization theory 60
Carl Rogers: Phenomenological Theory of Personality 65
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND AGE
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
AGE PERSONALITY
Subject and methods of developmental psychology 71
The concept of age in psychology 73
Age-related evolution of the brain and psyche 74
Basic theories of growing up 76
Domestic concepts of mental development 80
MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN BEFORE ENTRY IN
SCHOOL Mental development of a child from birth to the end
First year 86
Early childhood (preschool period) 93
Preschool 99
MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNGER SCHOOL PUPIL
Psychological characteristics of primary school children
Age 105
The main psychological problems of the entry period
Go to school 106
Adaptation of the child to school 108
Psychological difficulties of the primary school
Age 109
Antidisciplinary behavior (educational difficulties) 113
Scheme of examination of a child with complaints of difficulties
adapting to school 113
PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF ADOLESCENTS
AND YOUNG AGE
General characteristics of the period of growing up 115
Psychological development of adolescents and young men 117
Physical development and maturation 121
Sexual development and maturation 129
Intellectual development and maturation 134
Social development and maturation 136
ADULTS OF PSYCHIC ACTIVITY IN MATURITY AND OLD AGE
Psychology of the Period of Adulthood 141
Aging and the psychology of old age 144
PERSONALITY AND SOCIETY: PSYCHOLOGY
HUMAN RELATIONSHIP
BASIC CONCEPTS OF LARGE PSYCHOLOGY
SOCIAL GROUPS
Social psychology as a science 153
Resilient large social groups 156
Elemental Groups 159
Mass social movements 162
SMALL GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
Small group classification 167
Small group structure and phenomenology 171
Small group development stages and models 173
Group Dynamics Mechanisms 177
Leadership and leadership in small groups 178
Group performance 181
Group therapy 184
Chapter 27 REGULARITIES OF COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION OF PEOPLE
Psychological and social relations 189
Communication and its structure 190
The communicative side of communication 191
The interactive side of communication 196
Perceptual side of communication 200
PERSONALITY AND DISEASE
PSYCHOGENIC DISEASES
Mental Trauma Teaching 204
Frustration 207
Motivational conflicts 210
Psychological defense mechanisms 213
Psychogenic neuropsychiatric diseases 214
PSYCHOSOMATIC
DISORDERS
Definition and classification issues 226
History of studying the problem of psychosomatic relationships 229 Psychodynamic concepts and the "hypothesis of specificity"
Psychological factors in the genesis of psychosomatosis 231
Stress and the "non-specific" role of psychosocial
Factors in the genesis of psychosomatosis 235
Psychosomatic approach in medicine, psychological aspects
diagnostics and therapy of psychosomatic diseases 241
SOMATIC DISEASES:
INNER PICTURE OF THE DISEASE
The internal picture of health 248
The influence of illness on the human psyche 251
Internal picture of the disease 254
Types of reaction to illness 256
Ambivalence of the patient's attitude to the disease 260
Experiencing an illness in time 261
Age features of the internal picture of the disease 261
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DYING
Behavior and Subjective Experiences of the Dying 264
State of consciousness at the time of death 269
Terminal Patient and His Quality of Life 274
SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR
Psychological features of the personality of a suicide 282
Diagnosis of suicidal behavior 284
Post-suicidal condition 289
Questions of psychotherapy and psychoprophylaxis of suicidal
behavior 290
DOCTOR AND PATIENT: PSYCHOLOGY
THE TREATMENT PROCESS
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF EVERYDAY
MEDICAL ACTIVITIES
The doctor as a person and professional issues
Fitness for medical activity 293
The patient and his image of the "ideal doctor" 305
The patient's personality and the effectiveness of the psychological
Contact with him 307
Methods for establishing psychological contact 308
Conversation: General Structure 315
The main forms of psychological interaction between
Doctor and sick 321
Nature of the disease and type of contact 323
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY
Correlation between different types of psychological assistance 332
Symptomatic and pathogenetic psychotherapy 336
Psychodynamic direction in psychotherapy 342
Humanistic (existential-humanistic, pheno
menological) direction in psychotherapy 344
Behavioral direction in psychotherapy 346
Personality-oriented (reconstructive) psychotherapy 349
PSYCHOLOPE1CHASPECTSHYCHOGY1 AND PSYCHOPROPHYLAXIS
Basics of Mental Hygiene 352
The main tasks of psychoprophylaxis 362
SUBJECT INDEX 368
Section 4
THEORY OF PERSONALITY
MAIN DIRECTIONS IN STUDY
PERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY
To date, the number of personality theories in foreign personalology (from the English personality-personality, individuality) is in the hundreds, and they all significantly depend on the theoretical orientation of their authors. Personality theories in foreign psychology for the most part reflect the content of the most common in the West psychodynamic, existential-humanisticwhom and behavioral directionsin psychology. Such a variety of personality concepts is a consequence of the lack of methodological foundations of psychology, the lack of consensus among psychologists on the issue of understanding the subject, methods and tasks of psychology as a science.
AT russian psychology,which developed independently over a significant historical period of time, several theories of personality were also formed, which, although they solve this problem in different ways, but proceed from the basic position of Marxist philosophy that a person's personality is determined by social, social conditions, and personality is not simple the projection of these conditions, she herself creates and creates them.
The beginning of psychology as an independent science is associated with the book "Foundations of Physiological Psychology" by the German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), published in 1874. He believed that the objects of psychology are those processes that are available simultaneously to both external (physiological) and internal (psychological) observation. The only such direct method of studying consciousness is introspection (self-observation), which allows one to identify and describe the simplest mental components of consciousness, its "atoms" or structures (structuralist approach). Physiological experiment in psychology, although it made self-observation more accurate, but its action, according to Wundt himself, is limited
It was diversified only by the area of \u200b\u200bthe simplest material of consciousness - sensations, ideas and feelings.
As you know, W. Wundt believed that higher mental processes (memory, imagination, thinking and will) cannot be revealed by self-observation. The study of higher mental functions and mental development already requires other methods. To study them, it is necessary to go beyond physiological psychology into the field psychology of peoples,where, through the study of their spiritual life, language, myths and legends, customs and mores, it would be possible to shed light on the patterns of the flow of higher forms of individual consciousness. It was this part of psychology that he contrasted with individual experimental psychology. With the introduction by Wundt of two psychologies, differing in content, methods and differently oriented - on natural science and the science of the spiritual, a split in a single science was already laid, which was one of the reasons and a characteristic feature of the open crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology that erupted at the beginning of the second decade of the 20th century.
Although structuralists believed that experimental introspection was precisely the method that distinguished psychology from other sciences, introspection was not devoid of significant drawbacks. From a methodological point of view, here the "tool" for studying the consciousness of the subject is his own consciousness, which introduces subjectivity into the technique. You cannot first introduce consciousness into the foundations of the scientific method, and then use this method to study consciousness itself. Indeed, each subject in Wundt's experiments described his impressions or experiences in such a way that they rarely coincided with those of the next subject: what was pleasant to one, seemed unpleasant to another, one person perceived the sound too loud, and to another this sound seemed average in strength ... Worse, the feelings of one and the same person vary from day to day: what seemed pleasant to him today may become boring tomorrow and downright unpleasant the day after tomorrow.
While Wundt and his collaborators tried to study the structure of consciousness, in other countries a different direction of research of consciousness appeared - functionalism. Its origins are the psychology of William James (1842-1910) and his major work, Foundations of Psychology (1890). From the point of view of James and his followers, the problem is not to know what consciousness is built from, but to understand its function and role in the survival of the individual. They saw the role of consciousness in its ability to give a person ways of adaptation in various life situations - either repeating previously developed forms of behavior, or adapting them to new situations, or, finally, mastering new behavioral methods of adaptation. True, they also preferred the introspection method in studying the functions of consciousness.
Lectures, which allowed them to learn how the individual develops awareness of the activity to which he indulges. Instead of analyzing consciousness according to the "what" type, they carried out an analysis according to the "how" and "why" type of certain mental operations, through which consciousness solves certain problems in a particular adaptive act.
Followers of functionalism have also been criticized for this approach to the study of consciousness. According to critics, the subject of scientific research should be only what is accessible to direct observation. It is impossible to directly observe thoughts or feelings, introspection is extremely subjective and unable to overcome these difficulties. Only behavior observed from the outside lends itself to objective description.
The struggle of opinions in the field of theory, new facts obtained during the period of intensive development of empirical and applied research in the first 50 years of the existence of psychology as an independent science, increasingly revealed the inconsistency of the existing unified psychological theory, and, above all, the insufficiency of its foundation - subjective introspectionist representation about the psyche. In the early 10s of the XX century, psychology entered a period of open crisis that lasted until the mid 30s. It was methodological crisispsychology,and its positive content was that work was unfolding on the creation of a new psychological theory. If until the end of the 19th century psychology was essentially an introspective psychology of consciousness, then as a result of the crisis, two main trends emerged in psychology.
Representatives of the first trend defended the possibilitygive a strictly scientific explanation for behaviorperson. Moreover, if some of them saw the main reasons for a person's actions and behavior in the external situation, i.e. action of the environment sociodynamic theories,then others considered internal factors and personality traits as the main determinants of human behavior - psychodynamic theories.
An intermediate point of view is based on the principle of interaction of internal and external factors in the management of actual human behavior (interactionist theories).The famous researcher of personality psychology G. Allport symbolically expressed this point of view on behavior (R) in the form of the formula: R \u003d F (B, C), where B - internal, subjective psychological properties of a person; C is the social environment, and F is the sign of functional dependence. Then, in sociodynamic theories, behavior is described by the formula R \u003d F (C), and in psychodynamic theories, by the formula R \u003d F (B).
Representatives of the second trend were of the opinion that it is impossible to explain human behavior by methods adopted in classical science.Human behavior can only be described and "understood" externally (phenomenologically). This trend of "comprehending-descriptive" psychology is gradually taking shape in modern existentialism.
The first trendreceived its extreme expression in the writings of behaviorists and psychoanalysis.
Adherents behaviorism(behavioral direction in psychology) believe that psychology should not differ from other classical sciences (such as biology or physics), so they almost completely eliminated everything "subjective" in it, abandoning the study of consciousness. With the help of Watson's scheme "stimulus-response" (S- "R) can explain any human activity. Expressions like "this child is afraid of a dog" or "I am in love with this woman", from the point of view of behaviorism, scientifically mean nothing. On the contrary, objective descriptions such as "a child's tears and trembling intensify when a dog approaches him" or "when I meet this woman my heart beats harder and my pupils dilate" - make it possible to quantify and measure the feeling of fear or the degree of passion.
ATpsychoanalysis (Freud 3. and his followers) the reasons for human behavior are seen in him, or rather, in his subconscious drives, based on instincts. According to Freud, the instinctive sexual impulses of a person are "prohibited" at the level of consciousness by various social restrictions. Meanwhile, it is they who induce people to act, and thanks to their "energy" (libido), there is a gradual development of the personality and the attainment of maturity. Freud believed that the exact sciences would eventually provide a strictly scientific explanation for all psychoanalytic phenomena. He considered the separation of psychoanalysis from the exact sciences to be temporary and tried to preserve its "scientific character".
In second trend("understanding-descriptive psychology") it is believed that psychology should be a special science, the subject of which is exactly what is inaccessible to the study of traditional sciences with their methods, and the methods of psychology themselves should fundamentally differentfrom the methods of exact sciences. Since human consciousness is inaccessible for objective study, it can be comprehended only intuitively, through a kind of "feeling" - in a special way, the so-called. "understanding introspection" based on
Confidential self-report of the subject in the process of empathic dialogue between him and the researcher. It is this thesis that underlies exi stencial psychology (Heideger M., 1927; Sartre Jean-Paul, 1946; Camus A., 1942; Jaspers K., 1935; and others).
The very term "existence" (from Latin existentio - "existence") was first used by the religious Danish philosopher Seren Kierkegaardon (1843), understanding by it the world of individual human experience, his true, genuine inner existence - "being". This inner world of each person is unique, unrepeatable and can only be understood from his own and direct description of it by the person himself.
There are no two identical people in the world, each person creates and creates his own inner world. For each of us, our inner and outer worlds exist as their gradual disclosure during life. True, in everyday life a person does not always think about the meaning of his life and realizes his existence, being as an existence. For this, it is necessary that he finds himself in a borderline, extreme situation, for example, in the face of death. Only then will he most clearly understand and realize the meaning of his being - his existence. In order to live and act actively, a person must believe in the meaning of his actions, the meaning of his life. The desire for a person's search and realization of the meaning of life can even be regarded as an innate motivational tendency inherent in all people and is the main engine of behavior and personality development.
UDC 159.9.07 BBK56.14 ■ S 34
Scientific consultant of the series-A.B. Khavin
Sidorov P.I., Parnikov A.V.
С34 Introduction to Clinical Psychology: Vol. II .: A textbook for medical students. - M .: Academic Project, Yekaterinburg: Business book, 2000. - 381p. - (Library of Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Psychotherapy)
ISBN 5-8291-0057-3 ("Academic Project") ISBN 5-88687-086-5 ("Business Book") ISBN 5-8291-0058-4 ("Academic Project", vol. II) ISBN 5-88687 -080-6 ("Business Book", vol. II)
The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the main sections of clinical psychology. More fully than in other similar manuals, the psychology of the treatment process, the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, suicidal behavior, and the psychology of dying are covered. For the first time, a complex of medical and psychological knowledge is offered in organic unity with general, age-related and social psychology.
The textbook is addressed to students of all faculties of medical educational institutions, as well as doctors and psychologists specializing in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.
UDC 159.9.07 BBK 56 .14
Section 4 THEORY OF PERSONALITY
Chapter 15 MAIN DIRECTIONS IN STUDY
PERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY
To date, the number of personality theories in foreign personology (from the English personality-personality, individuality) is in the hundreds, and they all significantly depend on the theoretical orientation of their authors. Personality theories in foreign psychology for the most part reflect the content of the most common
psychodynamic, existential-humanistic and behavioral trends in the West in psychology. So many
the lack of personality concepts is a consequence of the lack of methodological foundations of psychology, the lack of unity of opinion among psychologists on the issue of understanding the subject, methods and tasks of psychology as a science.
AT russian psychology,which has developed independently over a significant historical period of time, several personality theories have also been formed, which, although they solve this problem in different ways, but proceed from the basic position of Marxist philosophy that a person's personality is determined by social, social conditions, and personality is not simple the projection of these conditions, she herself creates and creates them.
The beginning of psychology as an independent science is associated with the book "Foundations of physiological psychology" published in 1874 by the German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). He believed that the objects of psychology are those processes that are available simultaneously to both external (physiological side) and internal (psychological side) observation. The only such direct method of studying consciousness is introspection (self-observation), which allows one to identify and describe the simplest mental components of consciousness, its "atoms" or structures (structuralist approach). Physiological experiment in psychology, although it made self-observation more accurate, but its action, according to Wundt himself, is limited
was limited only by the area of \u200b\u200bthe simplest material of consciousness - sensations, ideas and feelings.
As you know, W. Wundt believed that higher mental processes (memory, imagination, thinking and will) cannot be revealed by self-observation. The study of higher mental functions and mental development already requires other methods. To study them, it is necessary to go beyond physiological psychology into the field psychology of peoples,where, through the study of their spiritual life, language, myths and legends, customs and mores, it would be possible to shed light on the regularities of the flow of higher forms of individual consciousness. It was this part of psychology that he contrasted with individual experimental psychology. With the introduction by Wundt of two psychologies, differing in content, methods and differently oriented - on natural science and the science of the spiritual, a split in a single science was already laid, which was one of the reasons and a characteristic feature of the open crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology that erupted at the beginning of the second decade of the 20th century.
Although structuralists believed that experimental introspection was precisely the method that distinguished psychology from other sciences, introspection was not devoid of significant drawbacks. From a methodological point of view, here the "tool" for studying the consciousness of the subject is his own consciousness, which introduces subjectivity into the technique. You cannot first introduce consciousness into the foundations of the scientific method, and then use this method to study consciousness itself. Indeed, each subject in Wundt's experiments described his impressions or experiences in such a way that they rarely coincided with those of the next subject: what was pleasant to one, seemed unpleasant to another, one person perceived the sound too loud, and to another this sound seemed average in strength ... Worse, the feelings of one and the same person vary from day to day: what seemed pleasant to him today may become boring tomorrow and downright unpleasant the day after tomorrow.
While Wundt and his collaborators tried to study the structure of consciousness, in other countries a different direction in the study of consciousness appeared - functionalism. Its origins are the psychology of William James (1842-1910) and his major work, Foundations of Psychology (1890). From the point of view of James and his followers, the problem is not to know what consciousness is built from, but to understand its function and role in the survival of the individual. They saw the role of consciousness in its ability to give a person ways of adaptation in various life situations, either by repeating previously developed forms of behavior, or by adapting them to new situations, or, finally, by mastering new behavioral methods of adaptation. True, they also preferred the introspection method in studying the functions of consciousness.
lectures, which allowed them to learn how the individual develops awareness of the activity to which he indulges. Instead of analyzing consciousness according to the "what" type, they carried out an analysis according to the "how" and "why" types of certain mental operations, through which consciousness solves certain problems in a particular adaptive act.
Followers of functionalism have also been criticized for this approach to the study of consciousness. According to critics, the subject of scientific research should be only what is accessible to direct observation. It is impossible to directly observe thoughts or feelings, introspection is extremely subjective and unable to overcome these difficulties. Only behavior observed from the outside lends itself to objective description.
The struggle of opinions in the field of theory, new facts obtained during the period of intensive development of empirical and applied research in the first 50 years of the existence of psychology as an independent science, increasingly revealed the inconsistency of the existing unified psychological theory, and, above all, the insufficiency of its foundation - subjective introspectionist representation about the psyche. In the early 10s of the XX century, psychology entered a period of open crisis that lasted until the mid 30s. It was crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology,and its positive content was that work was unfolding on the creation of a new psychological theory. If until the end of the 19th century psychology was essentially an introspective psychology of consciousness, then as a result of the crisis, two main trends emerged in psychology.
Representatives of the first trend defended the possibility of giving a strictly scientific explanation of behaviorhuman. Moreover, if one of them saw the main reasons for a person's actions and behavior in the external situation, i.e. action of the environment sociodynamic theories,then others considered internal factors and personality traits to be the main determinants of human behavior - psychodynamic theories.
An intermediate point of view is based on the principle of interaction of internal and external factors in the management of actual human behavior (interactionist theories).The famous researcher of personality psychology G. Allport symbolically expressed this point of view on behavior (R) in the form of the formula: R \u003d F (B, C), where B - internal, subjective psychological properties of the personality; C is the social environment, and F is the sign of functional dependence. Then, in sociodynamic theories, behavior is described by the formula R \u003d F (C), and in psychodynamic theories, by the formula R \u003d F (B).
Representatives of the second trend were of the opinion that
explain human behavior by methods adopted in the classical
which science is impossible.Human behavior can only be described and "understood" externally (phenomenologically). This trend of "comprehension-descriptive" psychology is gradually taking shape in modern existentialism.
The first trendreceived its extreme expression in the writings of behaviorists and psychoanalysis.
The adherents of behaviorism (a behavioral direction in psychology) believe that psychology should not differ from other classical sciences (such as biology or physics), so they almost completely eliminated everything "subjective" in it, abandoning the study of consciousness. Any human activity can be explained with the help of the stimulus-response (S- ”R) scheme proposed by Watson. Expressions like "this child is afraid of a dog" or "I am in love with this woman", from the point of view of behaviorism, scientifically mean nothing. On the contrary, objective descriptions such as "a child's tears and tremors intensify when a dog approaches him" or "when I meet this woman my heart beats harder and my pupils dilate" - make it possible to quantify and measure the feeling of fear or the degree of enthusiasm.
In psychoanalysis (Freud 3. and his followers), the reasons for human behavior are seen in himself, or rather, in his subconscious drives, based on instincts. According to Freud, human instinctual sexual impulses are "prohibited" at the level of consciousness by various social restrictions. Meanwhile, it is they who induce people to act, and thanks to their "energy" (libido), there is a gradual development of the personality and the attainment of maturity. Freud believed that the exact sciences would eventually provide a strictly scientific explanation for all psychoanalytic phenomena. He considered the separation of psychoanalysis from the exact sciences to be temporary and tried to preserve its "scientific character".
In second trend("understanding-descriptive psychology") it is believed that psychology should be a special science, the subject of which is exactly what is inaccessible to the study of traditional sciences with their methods, and the methods of psychology themselves should fundamentally differentfrom the methods of exact sciences. Since human consciousness is inaccessible for objective study, it can be comprehended only intuitively, through a kind of "feeling" - in a special way, the so-called. "understanding introspection", based on
trusting self-report of the subject in the process of empathic dialogue between him and the researcher. It is this thesis that underlies the
stencial psychology(Heideger M., 1927; Sartre Jean-Paul, 1946; Camus A., 1942; Jaspers K., 1935; and others).
The very term "existence" (from Lat. Existentio - "existence") was first used by the religious Danish philosopher Seren Kierkegaoron (1843), understanding by it the world of individual human experience, his true, genuine inner existence - "being". This inner world of each person is unique, unrepeatable and can only be understood from his own and direct description of it by the person himself.
There are no two identical people in the world, each person creates and creates his own inner world. For each of us, our inner and outer worlds exist as their gradual disclosure during life. True, in everyday life a person does not always think about the meaning of his life and realizes his existence, being as an existence. For this, it is necessary that he finds himself in a borderline, extreme situation, for example, in the face of death. Only then will he most clearly understand and realize the meaning of his being - his existence. In order to live and act actively, a person must believe in the meaning of his actions, the meaning of his life. The desire for a person's search and realization of the meaning of life can even be regarded as an innate motivational tendency inherent in all people and is the main engine of behavior and personality development.
Humanistic psychology(Rogers K., Maslow A. and others)
arose in the 30s of the XX century. and received the greatest development in the 50-60s. It occupies a special place in the presented classification.
In the works of psychologists of this direction, in contrast to psychoanalysis, the idea is put forward that a person initially has humanoid, altruistic needs, that they are the sources of human behavior, and not animal instincts. Recognition of the leading role in human behavior of his desire for self-improvement and self-expression (self-actualization) is a single link in all humanistic concepts of personality. Thus, just as in psychoanalysis, intrapersonal factors are recognized here as the explanatory principle of behavior, which allows us to classify humanistic psychology as a group of psychodynamic theories of personality.
However, humanistic psychologists prefer to describe the phenomenology of personality, they are primarily interested in how a person perceives and understands real actual events in his life (the principle of "here and now"). Seeing the meaning of life and striving at the same time for worthy goals for a person (self-actualization) is the essence of the psycho-correctional doctrine of the humanistic direction. It is not difficult to notice in this the closeness of humanistic psychology with the views of representatives of "understanding psychology", i.e. existentialism.
Chapter 16 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY IN DOMESTIC PSYCHOLOGY
CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY FROM THE POSITION OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ACTIVITY
Within the framework of Russian psychology, the crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology was overcome by applying the activity approach to the study of the psyche. It is based on the category of objective activity developed by K. Marx. As an explanatory principle of the psyche and consciousness activity categoryused in the study of various areas of psychic reality. It is in a specific human activity and its products objective manifestationfind not only the psyche and individual consciousness of a person, but also the collective, social consciousness.
The main task that was set before all psychological schools was to study the dependence of the elements of consciousness on the parameters of the stimuli that cause them: the impact on the receptive systems - * emerging response (objective and subjective) phenomena. Later, this two-term scheme found its expression in the famous formula S - ^ R. However, this formula excludes from the field of vision the meaningful process that realizes the subject's real connections with the objective world. Learning theories do not consider anything that might be called consciousness, feeling, imagination, will. The processes that carry out the real life of a person in the world around him, his social being in all the diversity of its forms, are activities.
In the theory of activity of Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev (19031979), who developed the ideas of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), the personality is considered as a product of social and social development; as its real basis is the totality of human social relations, implemented by his activities.
In activity there is a transition of an object into its subjective form, into an image; at the same time, in activity there is also a transition of activity into its objective results, into its products. That is, activity acts as a process in which transitions between the poles "subject-object" take place. Through activity, a person influences nature, things, other people. At the same time, in relation to things, he acts as a subject, and in relation to other people - as a person.
Internal, mental activity of a person arose from external practical activity through the process of internalization. External and internal activities have close interaction, there is also a reverse process of generating external activities on the basis of compiling them in the internal plan - this is the process of exteriorization. These transitions themselves are possible only because external and internal activities have the same structure.
Activity is not a reaction and not a set of reactions, but a system that has a structure, its internal transitions and pre-
rotation, its development.Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at cognizing and transforming the external world and the person himself.
The activity of each individual person depends on his place in society, on the conditions of his life and unique individual circumstances. The main characteristic of activity is its objectivity. The main thing that distinguishes one activity from another is the distinction between their objects. It is the subject of activity that gives it a certain direction. In this case, the object of activity appears in two ways: primarily - in its independent existence - as subordinating and transforming the activity of the subject; secondarily - as an image of an object, as a product of the mental reflection of its properties, which is carried out as a result of the activity of the subject.
It is clear that human activity follows from his needs and outside of activity, the realization of any need is impossible. In this case, the core of the personality, its core are motives and goals of the activity.A motive is an object of need or, in other words, a motive is an objectified need. Motives, prompting and directing activities, generate actions, i.e. lead to the formation of conscious goals.
Along with the class of conscious motives, there are motives that actually may not be realized. However, they are also presented in consciousness, but in a special form - these are personal meanings and emotions. Personal meaning is defined as the experience of an increased subjective significance of an object or phenomenon that has found itself in the field of action of a leading motive. This concept is historically connected with Vygotsky's ideas about the dynamic semantic systems of the individual consciousness of a person, expressing the unity of affective and intellectual processes. By its function, personal meaning makes the subjective
the meaning of certain circumstances or actions, but this "informing" is often carried out in an emotional and sensory form. Then the subject is faced with the task of reflection - the task of finding meaning. And sometimes the subject unconsciously sets another task - to conceal the meaning, and above all from himself. This concealment lies behind the defense mechanisms described by Freud, therefore, to explain them, there is no need to involve the concept of a conflict between instances of the I or innate drives. Manifestations of personality, which are found in projective tests, can also be understood in terms of personal meanings and the corresponding human activity to search for or hide these meanings. Similarly, emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. If a person is worried about something, then this "something" somehow affects his motive. Emotions are revalent to activity, not to the actions and operations that realize it. Therefore, the same operations, carrying out different activities, can acquire the opposite emotional coloring.
The polymotivation of human activity is a typical phenomenon. Some motives, prompting to activity, give it a personal meaning (sense-forming motives), others (motives-incentives), coexisting with the first, play the role of incentive factors (positive or negative). The distribution of the functions of meaning formation and motivation between the motives of one activity allows us to understand the main relationships that characterize the motivational sphere of the individual, the relationship of the hierarchy of motives.
It should be noted that in the course of the activity itself, new motives may form. In the theory of activity, the mechanism of the formation of motives is studied, which is called the mechanism of the shift of the motive to the goal (the mechanism of converting the goal into a motive). The essence of this mechanism is that the goal, previously prompted to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent incentive force, i.e. becomes a motive. It is important to emphasize that this only happens with the accumulation of positive emotions associated with the achievement of this goal. Only then does a new motive enter the system of motives as one of them (Gippenreiter Y.B, 1988).
The personality is characterized by the formation of the hierarchy of motives, their breadth, dynamics, as well as the content of the leading activity. Changes in the motivational sphere in diseases and personality disorders can consist in a violation of both the incentive (decrease in the range of interests) and the semantic function of the motive (decrease
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The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the main sections of clinical psychology. More fully than in other similar manuals, the psychology of the treatment process, the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, suicidal behavior, and the psychology of dying are covered. For the first time, a complex of medical and psychological knowledge is offered in organic unity with general, age and social psychology. The index, including subject and personal, brings the publication closer to a full-fledged reference guide for all major sections of clinical psychology. The textbook is intended for students of all faculties of medical educational institutions, as well as doctors, psychologists and social workers specializing in clinical psychology and psychotherapy. 3rd edition, revised and enlarged. Publisher: "GEOTAR-Media" (2010) Other books on similar topics:
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P.I. A.V. Sidorov Guys
INTRODUCTION TO CLINICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
AND THE SECOND BUILDING (ADDITIONAL)
The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the main sections of clinical psychology. More fully than in other similar manuals, the psychology of the treatment process, the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, suicidal behavior, and the psychology of dying are covered.
For the first time, a complex of medical and psychological knowledge is offered in organic unity with general, age and social psychology. Indexes of subject matter and personalities bring the publication closer to a complete reference guide for all major sections of clinical psychology.
The textbook is addressed to students of all faculties of medical educational institutions, as well as doctors, psychologists and social workers specializing in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.
FOREWORD
Clinical psychology is a borderline area between clinical medicine and psychology. This is reflected both in the title itself and in its content. Modern clinical practice requires the patient to recover not only somatic health, but also optimal psychological and social functioning; Moreover, the psychological state of a person most actively affects his health, often determines the speed and quality of recovery from diseases. Therefore, in the preparation of a doctor, the volume of necessary knowledge, skills and abilities has significantly increased. After all, the modern doctor's knowledge and skills in the field of psychology are just as necessary as knowledge and skills in the power of atomy or physiology.
The future of modern domestic medicine is to strengthen the role of humanitarian specialists in it. This was especially emphasized at a joint visiting meeting of the interdepartmental coordinating council for clinical (medical) psychology under the Ministry of Health of Russia, vice-rectors for academic affairs and heads of clinical psychology departments, which took place in Arkhangelsk in December 1999, and was devoted to teaching psychology in medical Universities. Practical healthcare already today requires the involvement of clinical psychologists and social workers in the treatment process. Psychology is also necessary for every representative of the new profession in medicine - health care managers.
This textbook was written for students of medical higher educational institutions and takes into account the requirements of psychology programs not only of medical faculties (general medicine, pediatrics, dentistry and others), but also of the faculties of clinical psychology, medico-social work and medical managers. The textbook reflects the main provisions of the training system in clinical psychology and related fields, developed by the authors and tested over many years at the faculties of the Northern State Medical University, where, in addition to traditional medical ones, the faculty of medical and social work was opened in 1995, and the faculty has been functioning since 1997 medical management and the first in medical universities in Russia, the faculty of clinical psychology.
The textbook contains a systematic summary of the main sections of general, developmental and social psychology, the features of the use of this knowledge in medical practice. The first section is built from introductory material related to the subject of psychology and, in particular, clinical psychology. The second section is devoted to a systematic description of the main mental processes and states of the individual, their disorders and methods of examination. The third and fourth sections introduce into the circle of problems studied in personology, describe the main theoretical directions and empirical
research of personality psychology, the concept of personality disorders. The fifth section is devoted to developmental psychology and developmental clinical psychology. The sixth section acquaints students with the basics of social psychology, in particular the patterns of interpersonal relationships and communication, group psychology and the psychological foundations of group therapy. The seventh and eighth sections introduce the student to the circle of problems on the topics: “Personality and illness”, “Doctor and patient: psychology of the treatment process”. This also includes a description of the psychology of dying, suicidal behavior, as well as the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, psychocorrection, psychological counseling, psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis.
The second edition (the first was published in two volumes in 2000) was prepared taking into account the experience of using the textbook in universities. All chapters are additionally provided with a Summary and Conclusions section with a list of questions for revision, and new data and illustrations are included. Given the absence of special workshops on the discipline, a number of chapters contain materials that can be used by the teacher to organize practical classes with students. The second edition also retains the basic principle of constructing the textbook - to ensure the possibility of its use by students of different faculties. For this purpose, the sections that are of a reference nature have been expanded, and also, in addition to the subject index, an index of persons has been introduced.
The materials of the publication are presented in the most comprehensible form. This textbook will undoubtedly be useful for students studying clinical psychology not only in medical universities, but also for all specialists receiving professional training in the field of psychiatry, narcology and psychotherapy.
Head of the Department of Educational Medical Institutions and Personnel Policy of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences,
professor N.N. Volodin
President of the European Association for Psychotherapy, President of the All-Russian Professional Psychotherapeutic League, Head of the Department of Psychotherapy and Medical Psychology
professor V.V. Makarov
Wundt
William
(1832–1910)
Section 1 Introduction to Psychology
SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY, ITS TASKS AND METHODS
AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF "PSYCHE"
Each specific science has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other disciplines. For a long time, the phenomena studied by psychology have been distinguished and delimited from other manifestations of life as special phenomena. Their special character was seen as their belonging to the inner world of a person, which differs significantly from external reality, from what surrounds a person. Gradually, all these phenomena were grouped under the names "perception", "memory", "thinking", "will", "emotions" and many others, together forming what is called the psyche, ie. the inner world of a person, his mental life. The study and description of the laws of this inner world of a person and refers to the conduct of psychology as a scientific discipline. Psychology is the science of the human psyche, i.e. the science of the inner, spiritual world.
Scientific psychology received official registration relatively recently - in 1879, when the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (Wundt) opened the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig and began to publish a special psychological journal. Before that, and this is almost 2.5 thousand years, psychological knowledge developed within the framework of philosophical teachings of the soul.
The proposition put forward by philosophers about the possibility and necessity of studying the psyche of man and animals, relying on the methods of natural sciences, could not be realized before production, technology, and, in connection with them, natural science had reached a certain level of development. In particular, by the middle of the 19th century
physiology has developed so much that its individual sections, and especially the physiology of the sense organs and neuromuscular physiology, have already come close to the development of problems that have long been related to psychology. In addition to the successes of physiology, the penetration of scientific and experimental methods into psychology was facilitated by such sciences as physical optics, acoustics, biology, psychiatry and even astronomy. It was these sections of natural science and medicine that constituted the main sources from which psychology grew as an independent experimental field of scientific knowledge.
Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology - the myth of the love of a simple mortal earthly woman Psyche and Eros, the son of the goddess Aphrodite. Psyche
gained immortality and became equal to the gods, steadfastly enduring all the trials that the angry Aphrodite brought on her. For the Greeks, this myth was a model of true love, the highest realization of the human soul. Therefore, Psyche - a mortal man who has acquired immortality - has become a symbol of the soul seeking its ideal.
Strictly speaking, the term “psyche” first appeared in the works of the philosopher from Ephesus Heraclitus (530–470 BC), who believed that psyche is a special transitional state of the “fiery” principle in the body. It should be emphasized that the name introduced by Heraclitus to denote psychic reality was also the first proper psychological term. On its basis, in 1590, Goklkenius proposed the term "psychology", which, starting with the works of the German philosopher Christian Wolff "Empirical Psychology" (1732) and "Rational Psychology" (1734), will become commonly used to denote the science that studies the human psyche.
Psychology arose at the intersection of natural sciences and philosophy, therefore, it is still not precisely defined whether to consider psychology a natural or humanitarian science. Even branches of psychology are sometimes classified depending on whether they gravitate towards biological sciences (zoopsychology, psychophysiology, neuropsychology) or social (ethnopsychology, psycholinguistics, social psychology, psychology of art). In general, psychology belongs to the natural sciences, although many researchers believe that psychology should occupy a special place in the system of sciences.
It has a special place also because the psyche, as a property of the most highly organized matter - the brain, is the most complex thing that is still known to mankind. In addition, in psychology, in contrast to other sciences, the object and the subject of cognition seem to merge. The same mental functions and abilities that serve us for knowing and mastering the external world turn to the knowledge of ourselves, our "I" and they themselves become the subject of awareness and comprehension. It should also be noted that by examining himself, a person not only cognizes himself, but also changes himself. It can even be said that psychology is not only a cognitive science, but also a constructive and constructive science of man.
Etymologically, the term "psychology" comes from the Greek word "psyche" - soul and "logos" - teaching. However, it is very difficult to clarify the specifics of the phenomena studied by psychology, and their understanding largely depends on the worldview of the researchers. For these reasons, an exhaustive and universally recognized definition of the concept of "psyche" is still lacking.
The idea of \u200b\u200bindependence of the soul from the body and its immaterial origin arose in ancient times. Our ancestors also assumed that another invisible creature (“shadow”) is imprisoned in the human body, busy deciphering what enters the senses. This "shadow" or "soul" was endowed with the ability to go out and live its own life during sleep, as well as after the death of a person.
Past civilizations have invented gods and goddesses who interfere in people's lives, forcing them to fall in love, angry or be brave. The surrounding world was also endowed with a soul - animism (from the Latin anima - “soul”). In the sixth century BC. the Greek philosophers were already aware that all these ideas are based on myths. Nevertheless, they were convinced that in every person there is something that allows him to think, worry ..
Animism is the belief in the existence of countless spiritual entities participating in human affairs and capable of helping or hindering a person to achieve their goals. The concept of "animism" does not denote any scientific or religious doctrine, but is considered as a certain historical type of worldview.It took place in primitive society and manifested itself in the current practice of ancient people, was reflected in their religious beliefs, as well as in mythology.
Animistic ideas about the soul preceded the first scientific views on its nature. Basically, they boiled down to understanding the soul as something
supernatural, "like a beast in an animal, like a man inside a man ...". Death was understood by people as the absence of a soul, and you can protect yourself from it if you close the exit of the soul from the body. If the soul has already left the body, then we must try to make it come back. Only the soul allows the bodies of plants, animals and humans to live and develop. Human defenselessness in front of natural phenomena instilled confidence in the spirituality not only of the elements, but also of everything that surrounded a person.
Beginning with the era of great geographical discoveries, information about the life of the “wild peoples” found in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania began to penetrate into Christian Europe. These peoples, as it turned out, believed in the universal spirituality of the world around them. Some 19th century missionaries became interested in the scientific side of these "savage superstitions." Subsequently, interest in them crystallized in Tylor's work "Primitive Culture", where he put forward the position that animism was the first form of religion. Religion itself, as he believes, “grew out of the doctrine of the soul,” and the latter, in turn, developed on the basis of spontaneous reflections on death, dreams and visions. The images of deceased ancestors that appeared in a dream were perceived by people as indisputable proof of the existence of souls and their special life after the death of the body.
The actual scientific concept of the soul first appears in ancient philosophy. Scientific understanding, unlike beliefs, aims at explaining the soul and its functions. The doctrine of the soul of the ancient philosophers of antiquity is the first form of knowledge, in the system of which the first psychological concepts begin. In the philosophical solution to the problem of the relationship between matter and spirit, three points of view were gradually determined: materialistic, idealistic and idealistic.
Materialistic views on the psyche. Materialistic views on the psyche go back to ancient philosophy. The first leading centers of ancient Greek culture and science, along with others, are called by historians the cities of Miletus and Ephesus. Usually the beginning of the scientific world outlook is associated with the Milesian school, which existed in7–6 cc. BC. Its representatives were Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes. They were the first to be credited with separating the psyche or “soul” from material phenomena. They also put forward the position that all the diversity of the world, including the soul, are different states of a single material principle, primary principle or primary matter. The difference between them consisted only in what kind of concrete matter they took as the fundamental principle of the universe. Thales considered water to be the primary principle, Anaximander - “apeiron” (the state of prime matter, which has no qualitative definiteness), and Anaximenes - air. Philosopher from Ephesus Heraclitus(530–470 biennium BC) recognized fire as the fundamental principle of the world. According to Heraclitus, the soul is a special transitional state of the fiery principle in the body, which he called "psyche". All of these philosophers are often called the firstnatural philosophers, since for them "nature", i.e. nature is at the heart of everything in the world. They also overcome the animism of the ancients, creating a fundamentally new teaching -hylozoism ... Here all matter also has a soul, but they no longer see the soul as an independent counterpart of matter, but is an integral part of it.
Among the contemporaries of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460–377 BC), Democritus (460370 BC) stands out among the most prominent philosophers of the ancient era. He argued that everything that exists, including the soul, consists of atoms, which appeared to him in the form of the smallest and indivisible particles. Following Empedocles (5th century BC), Democritus actually recognized the inner world as real as consisting of material micro-duplicates of external objects.
In its most complete form, the atomistic doctrine is presented by Aristotle (384-322 BC), but he denied the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from living bodies, i.e. matter, as the idealist philosophers did. The psychological concept of Aristotle was closely related and followed from his general philosophical doctrine of matter and form. The world and its development was understood by him as the result of the constant interpenetration of two principles - passive (matter) and active (form). Aristotle believed that matter cannot exist without taking shape. The soul is the form of living matter. The soul is an active, active principle in a material body, its form, but not the substance or body itself. In a person, the heart is the center of the soul, where impressions from the senses flock. Impressions form the source of ideas that, as a result of rational thinking, subjugate human behavior.
To explain the nature of the soul, Aristotle used a complex philosophical category that he called "entelechy", which means the existence of something that has a purpose in itself. Explaining his thought, he gives the following example: "If the eye were a living being, then his soul would be sight." So, the soul is the essence (entelechy) of a living being, just as vision is the essence of the eye of the organ of vision. Thus, Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some external phenomenon in relation to it. This point of view of the ancient philosopher can no longer be considered consistently materialistic. Here it is already dualistic, since, establishing the unity of soul and body, Aristotle at the very starting point accepts them (soul and body, form and matter) as two completely independent principles.
In fact, Aristotle tried to combine materialistic and idealistic views on the nature and origin of the soul. This is probably not accidental, since he was a student of Plato, the most prominent representative of idealist philosophers. However, here it is important for us to note that in the philosophical and psychological views of Aristotle, thinking, knowledge and wisdom are put forward in the first place, and his idea that the main function of the soul is the realization of the biological existence of the organism, later became entrenched in the concept of “psyche”. And in modern materialistic natural science, the psyche is recognized as one of the main factors in the evolution of the animal world.
Idealistic views of the psyche. Psychic idealistic views also date back to ancient philosophy. Their representatives (Socrates, Plato) recognize the existence of a special spiritual principle, independent of matter. They view mental activity as a manifestation of an immaterial, disembodied, immortal soul.
The main position of Plato (427–347 BC) is to recognize as true being not the material world, but the world of ideas. The philosopher came to this conclusion when clarifying the essence of a number of ethical and aesthetic categories. For example, he wonders what beauty is. All single beautiful things age, losing their beauty, and new ones come to replace them. But what makes all these things beautiful? Therefore, there must be something that unites all these single things. They are all united not by the material, but by the spiritual essence - this is the idea of \u200b\u200bbeauty. There is something similar for everything visible in the world. It is this something that Plato called the idea, which represents the ideal universally valid form of a body. These general ideas are opposed by the philosopher to the material world and
transformed into an independent entity, independent of both material objects and the person himself.
Thus, it is the idea that is declared the root cause of everything that exists, and material things are just its embodiment. Everything that we see around us exists only in our sensations and ideas as a peculiar and mysterious manifestation of the “absolute spirit” or the main, “universal idea”. Otherwise, the initial existence of the ideal world is postulated here, i.e. the world of ideas about the essences of objects in the external world. For example, there is a universal idea of \u200b\u200bbeauty, justice or virtue, and what happens on earth, in the daily life of people, is only a reflection or "shadow" of these universal ideas. To join the world of ideas, the human soul must free itself from the influence of the mortal body and not blindly trust the senses. It is necessary to take care of the health of the soul much more than the health of the body, since after the death of the soul, a guilty world - the world of spiritual, ideal essences - leaves.
Plato, in turn, was a disciple of Socrates (469-399 BC), and the latter preached his views orally, in the form of conversations. Subsequently, all of Plato's works were written in the form of dialogues, where the main character is Socrates. In Plato's texts, his own philosophical concept is organically connected with the views of his teacher, Socrates.
Socrates was born in the capital of Greece - Athens. He took an active part in the cultural and political life of Athens, where at that time a popular philosophical school was the school of the Sophists, with whose representatives he controversially. In the popular assembly of the city, Socrates did not always agree with the opinion of the majority, which required a lot of courage, especially during the reign of the “thirty tyrants”. In 399 BC. he was accused of “not respecting the gods and corrupting youth,” for which he was sentenced to death. He courageously accepted the verdict, drinking poison. Socrates 'behavior at the trial, as well as his death, contributed to the wide dissemination of his views, as they proved that Socrates' life is inseparable from his theoretical ethical views.
One of the most important provisions of Socrates was the idea that there is absolute knowledge or absolute truth, which a person can discover in himself, to know only in his thinking. Proving that such absolute knowledge not only exists, but can also be transmitted from one person to another, Socrates turns to speech, arguing that the truth is fixed in general concepts, in words. In this form, the truth is passed on from generation to generation. He here for the first time connected the thought process with the word. Later, this position was developed by his student Plato, who identified thinking and inner speech.
Socrates is the author of the famous method socratic conversation... It is based on the so-called “suggestive” method. It is important here not to give ready-made knowledge to the interlocutor, but to lead him to an independent discovery of the truth. Socrates forced the interlocutor to reflect by asking specially selected leading questions. By introducing the concept of hypothesis, he showed him that the wrong assumption leads to contradictions. This required a different hypothesis. In this way, the conversation led Socrates' interlocutor to a gradual and independent discovery of the truth. In fact, the Socratic dialogue was the first attempt to develop a technology for problem learning. The method of Socratic conversation is also widely used in modern psychotherapeutic practice.
If you look at the teachings of Socrates and Plato from modern positions and approach them as bright and accurate artistic metaphors, you can find, as Yu.B. Gippenreiter (1996) that the “world of ideas”, which opposes the individual consciousness of a particular person, exists before his birth and to which each of us joins from childhood - this is the world of the spiritual culture of humanity, fixed in its material carriers, primarily in language, in scientific and literary texts. This is the human world
values \u200b\u200band ideals. If a child develops outside this world (and such stories are known - these are children fed by animals), then his psyche does not develop and does not become human.
For a long time, the concept of the soul as the guiding, moral beginning of human life was not accepted by “experimental psychology”. Only in recent decades, the spiritual aspects of human life have begun to be intensively discussed in psychology in connection with concepts such as personality maturity, personality health, personal growth, and also much more that is now being discovered and echoed with the ethical consequences of the doctrine of the soul of ancient philosophers.
Middle Ages. 1-2 centuries. new era - the beginning of the disintegration of the slave society. Political clashes, slave uprisings, civil wars, i.e. everything that accompanied the collapse of the Roman Empire could not fail to cause significant shifts in the consciousness of people. The difficulties of life and the impossibility of changing conditions prompted a person to lock himself in his inner world, to seek comfort in himself. The nascent church was quick to take advantage of these sentiments. By providing support to the emperors in suppressing the masses, the church strengthened its position and increased its influence in Rome. As you know, in the 1st century. Christianity is recognized as the state religion, and by the 4th century. the boundaries of the influence of the church go far beyond the borders of Rome.
In the Middle Ages, the doctrine of the soul completely fell into the possession of religion, which imposed a ban on attempts to scientifically study the human soul. The soul was declared a divine principle, representing a secret for mortals, therefore, the essence of a person should be comprehended not through reason, but through ignorance and faith in dogmas. During the 11 centuries of the intellectual Middle Ages, many schools of thought emerged that actively supported theology, regarding the natural sciences as a limitation of divine power over the human mind.
The Christian religion preached detachment from the outside world, called for humility and obedience, solitude with immersion in one's own inner world. This general attitude and orientation of a person to his inner personal world received a theological, theological interpretation in the philosophical and psychological views of the ideologist of early Christianity Plotinus (205-270). He believed that the activity of the soul is not only an appeal to God; but also in addressing his sensible world; in addressing herself. Thanks to inner gazethe soul has knowledge of all its past and non-present actions. Not a single state of mind can pass by the inner eye, whether it be from the cognitive or stimulating sphere. This doctrine of the existence of a universal capacity of the soul for introspection marked the first step introspective psychology(Yakunin V.A., 1998).
The next step in the development of the introspective trend in psychology was taken by Augustine (354-430). New in his psychology is the recognition of will as a universal principle organizing the activity of the soul. However, voluntarism in his teaching was of a theological nature. He believed that all human actions are predetermined by God. Therefore, any protest against belief in him is an act against this divine predestination, which leads to eternal torment after death. For the partial release of apostates from future torments in the afterlife, Augustine proposes to introduce the death penalty on earth by burning. This is how the first sparks lit up in the teaching of Augustine, from which the future bonfires of the Inquisition and the unsurpassed cruelty of the medieval church will grow.
The views of Plotinus and Augustine will be the guiding light for medieval scholasticism over the centuries. Traces of their ideas can be seen in modern times. Suffice it to say that the doctrine of the soul of Plotinus and Augustine became the starting point for R. Descartes, who, having come forward with his theory of consciousness, will finally formalize and approve introspective directionin European psychology of the XVII-XIX centuries.
Of the other philosophical teachings of that time, the most famous was the scholastic doctrine. It reached its peak in the 13th century thanks to Thomas (Tomos) Aquinas(1228-1274). He was the first to try and most subtly managed to introduce the teachings of Aristotle into theological dogma. Theological doctrine, put forward
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K. Rogers, like A. Maslow, considered the main life motive of human behavior to be his tendency to actualization, which is the desire to develop all his abilities in order to preserve and develop a personality. This fundamental tendency (the only one postulated by the author) can explain all other motives - hunger, sex drive, or the desire for security. All of them are only specific expressions of the main tendency - to preserve oneself for development, actualization.
For a person, for his thoughts and feelings, only that which exists within the limits of his internal coordinates or the subjective world, which includes everything that is realized at a given moment in time, is real for a person. Phenomenologically speaking, each person reacts to events in accordance with what he feels, subjectively perceives at the moment. Since different people can perceive the same situation diametrically opposite, phenomenological psychology defends the doctrine according to which the psychological reality of phenomena is solely a function of how they are seen, perceived by specific people. Rogers in psychology is interested in precisely this psychological reality (“phenomenological field”), and objective reality, in his opinion, is the lot of the study of philosophers. If we want to explain why a person feels, thinks and behaves in a certain way, then we should comprehend his inner world, his subjective experience, i.e. psychological reality.
A person's behavior is not determined by past events in his life, but only by how a person perceives his environment here and now. Of course, past experience affects the perception of the present, but a person's actions determine how this past is perceived now, i.e. currently.
Moreover, Rogers believed that behavior is more influenced not by a person's past history, but by how he sees his future. And finally, he stressed that the personality should be considered not only in the context of "present-future", but also as a single, integral organism and this unity cannot be reduced to the constituent parts of his personality. Rogers' commitment to the holistic direction is visible in almost every aspect of his theoretical framework.
The most significant element of psychological reality, individual experience of a person is his self, or “I-concept”. In fact, it is a system of views of a person on his essence, on what he is.
In addition to the true self (I – real) and the ideal self (I – ideal), the I – concept can include a whole set of I – images:
parent, spouse, student, musician, leader, etc.
The self-concept is a product of a person's socialization, and in the process of its formation, a child, and then an adult, always needs positive attention to himself from his environment. According to Rogers, this attention should be unconditional, i.e. without any “if” and “but”. A person should be perceived as he really is. It is this unconditional positive attention that we see in a mother's love for her son, regardless of his misdeeds. We see conditioned positive attention when a child is told that if he gets excellent grades in half a year at school, then he will buy some interesting toy for him. This conditioned positive attention is widespread in the daily life of an adult.
Rogers argues that conditioned positive attention is detrimental to personal development, the child tries to meet the standards of others, rather than define for himself who he wants to be and what to achieve.
Rogers believes that human behavior for the most part is consistent (congruently) with the self-concept, or at least a person strives for this correspondence. All experiences that are consistent with the self-concept are well understood and accurately perceived. And vice versa, experiences that are in conflict with the “I” are not allowed for awareness and accurate perception. In Rogers' theory, anxiety and a threat to well-being begins to arise only when people begin to realize that the self-concept does not correspond to their actual real state. So, if a person considers himself honest, but does not commit an honest act, he will feel anxiety with confusion, a sense of guilt.
It is also very likely that a person experiences anxiety, but does not realize the reasons for it. An anxious person is a person who is vaguely aware that the recognition or symbolization of certain experiences will lead to a violation of the integrity of his current self-image. Psychological personal defenses are also called upon to preserve the integrity of the self-structure.
If a person's experiences are completely inconsistent with the self-concept (incongruence), then severe anxiety arises and he has a neurotic disorder. The “neurotic” has a strong psychological defense, and although he needs the help of a psychotherapist, his self-structure is not significantly impaired. With the ineffectiveness of psychological defense and significant destruction of the self-structure, a person develops psychosis and needs the help of a psychiatrist. Rogers suggests that personality disorders can occur unexpectedly or gradually. In any case, as soon as there is a serious discrepancy between the “I” and the experience, the person's defense ceases to function adequately and the previously integral structure of the I is destroyed.
Client-centered non-directive psychotherapy.
In Rogers' therapy of personality disorders, the following conditions are required for the implementation of constructive personality changes:
1. The presence of psychological contact between the therapist and the client.
2. The client is incongruent, vulnerable and anxious, so he asked for help.
3. The therapist should be congruent, harmonious and sincere in his relationship with his client.
4. The therapist experiences unconditional positive attention to his client. The atmosphere of the psychotherapy process should create confidence in the client that he is fully understood and accepted.
5. The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client's inner experiences. The psychotherapist feels the patient's inner world as if he were his own inner world.
6. The transfer of empathic understanding and unconditional positive attention of the therapist to the client should take place. It makes no sense to have such feelings for your client if the latter does not know about it. The psychotherapist should try to convey this attitude to the client with every word, gesture.
Rogers argues that it is the client, not the therapist, who is responsible for personal growth and psychotherapy outcomes. The author's use of the term “client” instead of “patient” emphasizes precisely this recognition. This approach is understandable to everyone who shares Rogers' optimistic view of human nature - given the right conditions, a person himself seeks to move towards personal growth, actualization and health. Personality-centered psychotherapy is designed to eliminate the incongruity (incongruence) between experience and the self.
Training groups. Training groups are created for training with healthy people.
We are talking about the use of group forms of interaction between people not for therapeutic purposes, but for the acquisition of life experience and personal growth.
The emergence of this kind of psychocorrectional groups is due to the desire for self-expression, characteristic of the humanistic direction. Among such psychocorrectional groups, groups of organizational development (solving certain problems) can be distinguished; groups for training leaders, teaching interpersonal skills (social and psychological training); personal growth groups and others. C. Rogers (1947) paid particular attention to the provision of psychological assistance to the growth of personality by group methods. His concept of “meeting groups”, focusing on the search for authenticity (authenticity) in the expression of feelings, thoughts and behavior, is closely related to his work in the field of client-centered psychotherapy.
When conducting classes in training groups, it is considered that the group is the real world in miniature. It contains the same life problems of interpersonal relationships, behavior, decision-making, conflict resolution, etc. The difference from reality lies only in the fact that in this "laboratory" everyone can be both an experimenter and an experimental subject. First of all, the Human Relations Training Group (T-Group) teaches how to learn. All members of the group are involved in the general process of mutual learning and at the same time they learn to rely more on each other than on the leader. Learning how to learn involves first of all the process of self-disclosure (expansion of ideas about oneself).
The most effective model for understanding this process is the Jogari Window, named after its inventors Joseph Laft and Harry Ingram.
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According to the Jogari model, one can imagine that each person contains four personality zones:
1) “Arena” is what others know about me and I know myself, or a personal space open to everyone;
2) “Visible” is what is known only to me (for example, my fears or love affairs), I carefully hide it from others;
3) “Blind spot” is what others know about me, I don’t see it (as in the proverb: “A chip is visible in someone else’s eye, but does not notice a log in his own”;
4) “Unknown” is something hidden from everyone (the zone of the subconscious), including latent reserve resources for personal growth.
The Jogari Window clearly demonstrates the need to expand contacts and expand the arena. At the beginning of classes, the "arena" is usually small, and as cohesion and mutual understanding in the group grows, it increases, all the best personal resources are activated. By receiving feedback from each other, group members get the opportunity to correct their own behavior, become more natural in expressing their feelings. An important condition for the group's work is to focus on the "here and now" principle. What is relevant in the group is only what happens in it. The creation of various experimental group situations will allow to apply the acquired knowledge and skills of social interaction in real life (in the family, at work).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Humanistic psychology emerged in the 60s of the 20th century in American psychology, and it was not an attempt to revise or adapt to the new conditions of any of the existing schools. On the contrary, in psychology, it acts as a “third force” (after psychoanalysis and behaviorism), offering a new view of human nature. The most complete in theoretical terms, the main ideas of humanistic psychology are presented in the works of its founder, Abraham Maslow, and in the practice of clinical psychology and psychotherapy, the most famous is the concept of Karl Rogers.
Maslow's theory of self-actualization, in contrast to psychoanalysis, focuses not on animal instincts, but on humanoid needs of man.
The highest need is self-actualization, understood as an active striving for the disclosure of one's abilities, the development of personality and potential hidden in a person. However, in order for this need to appear, all the underlying needs of the “pyramid of needs” must be satisfied.
Maslow described eight behaviors that lead to self-actualization.
Negative past experience with the formation of bad habits (alcoholism, drug addiction), the influence of the group and psychological defenses that prevent the individual from knowing himself are obstacles to self-actualization. To the psychoanalytic list of defenses, Maslow added desacralization and the Jonah complex. Frustration of needs becomes the cause of neurosis, and the cure occurs only when they are satisfied. If a person does not have the opportunity to self-actualize, then he will also feel frustration, even if all other needs are satisfied. The level of complaints reflects the level of frustrated needs of the “pyramid of needs”. Meta-complaints reflect the frustration of the higher, spiritual needs of the individual.
In psychotherapy Maslow distinguishes between basic needs therapy and therapy of “essence”, spiritual needs. In any case, the psychotherapist is required to establish trusting contact with the patient, to take care of him like a brother or sister. Maslow believes that the Taoist “helper” model is the best option for a doctor's relationship with his patient.
In addition to self-actualization, there are other higher possibilities for spiritual development. With strong “peak-experiences” the sense of “I” in a person dissolves in the awareness of the all-embracing mystical feeling of unity with all that exists.
The importance of these transcendental aspects of experience is recognized by transpersonal psychology, which Maslow called the fourth force in psychology after behaviorism, psychoanalysis and humanistic psychology.
Rogers' “client-centered” psychotherapy advocates the need to treat the patient not as a patient, but as a client seeking advice. Moreover, the doctor should focus not on the symptoms, but on the personality of the client in order to awaken in him the primary need for self-actualization.
At the same time, it is important to imagine how the subject sees his “phenomenal field”, that is, the internal plan of his own behavior that he perceives. This requires a “warm emotional atmosphere” in which the individual reintegrates his creative personality as a whole. Only then will he get rid of anxiety and psychological stress.
Thus, K. Rogers' concept of personality reflects a femenomenological and holistic approach to its consideration. Therefore, the main task is not to solve individual problems of the client, but to transform his personality. And this is due to the fact that, given the right conditions, a person himself begins to rebuild his inner world and system of needs, since he himself strives to move towards personal growth, actualization and health.
Psychotherapy is designed to eliminate the incongruity (“incongruence”) between a person's phenomenal experience and their awareness.
The remarks of an outside observer and the person himself will be the same in a high-match situation (“congruence”). Rogers believes that the discrepancy explains most of the known symptoms of psychopathology. Once a person realizes the discrepancy between his self-concept and experience, he naturally strives to eliminate it.
The basic theoretical principles applied in individual therapy can be used when working with a group. Before group members create an environment of trust, the group goes through a period of uncertainty and dissatisfaction with what is happening. But in the process of work, along with the growth of emotional stress, tolerance to each other, mutual understanding and self-understanding increase.
Self-test questions
1) Why is humanistic psychology called the “third force” in psychology?
2) How is the basis of the personality structure understood in Maslow's humanistic psychology?
3) How is the concept of "self-actualization" defined, and what types of behavior according to Maslow lead to self-actualization?
4) What can prevent the emergence of self-actualization as the highest human need?
5) How does Maslow understand the neurotic conflict, and what complaints are typical for a person when the needs of the “pyramid of needs” are frustrated?
6) What is deficit and being psychology as understood by Maslow?
7) What types of relationships did Maslow singled out, and which should be established with the patient, both in psychotherapy of needs and psychotherapy of the “essence”?
8) What is the term Maslow defines an ideal, humanistically oriented society?
9) What are summit experiences, and how do they relate to Maslow's promotion of the psychology of the “fourth force” - transpersonal psychology?
10) Why is Rogers' concept of personality defined as phenomenological and holistic?
11) Why does Rogers prefer to use the term “client” instead of the term “patient” in psychotherapy?
12) How does Rogers understand intrapersonal conflict, and what consequences can it lead to?
13) Why is the conditioned positive attitude detrimental to the formation of the personality?
14) What conditions are required for constructive personality change when conducting Rogers psychotherapy?
15) How are the basic theoretical concepts used in individual psychotherapy used by Rogers when working with a group?
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AGE PERSONALITY
SUBJECT AND METHODS OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental psychology studies the features of human mental development in ontogenesis. The subject of her research is age dynamics, the leading patterns and factors of development and formation of a personality at different stages of his life path - from birth to old age. In developmental psychology, the following sections are usually distinguished: child, adolescent and youth psychology, adult psychology and gerontopsychology (gerontology is the science of old age).In his development, a person goes through several age periods, each of which corresponds to the flowering of certain mental functions and personality traits.
The study in the comparative age aspect of the main parameters of the normal development of the psyche is of great practical importance. For example, the teacher gets the opportunity to “decipher” many facts of children's behavior, the reasons for persistent errors of a certain type in some students, the peculiarities of the relationship of children with peers and adults, the reasons for distracted attention, etc. Development psychology is gaining importance in developing age rationing - readiness for schooling , marriageable age, retirement, etc.
Developmental psychology is closely linked with medicine, since mental development is inextricably linked with physical development. For a doctor, knowledge of the basic laws of the formation of mental processes allows us to understand the preference of the onset of symptoms and syndromes of neuropsychiatric disorders and the characteristics of the quality of their clinical manifestations in children and adolescents, as well as the modification of psychopathological syndromes in diseases in the elderly. Knowledge of the basic laws of the age dynamics of the psyche is also important for the creation of a scientifically grounded system of prevention and mental health protection.
In developmental psychology (developmental psychology), the same research methods are used that are accepted in general psychology: observation, experiment, conversation, analysis of products of activity, tests and socio-psychological methods. However, obtaining scientific data on the age-related development of mental functions has its own characteristics.
Research in developmental psychology can be carried out in three main areas:
1) Most research in developmental psychology is done on a cross-sectional basis. In these cases, certain psychological characteristics are studied in a comparative aspect in several groups of subjects, specially selected according to age and gender.
The positive in this approach is that in a short time you can get reliable indicators about the age characteristics of a variety of mental processes. However, it is difficult to take into account the individual characteristics of the subjects and little can be learned about the development process itself, its nature and driving forces.
2) Longitudinal (longitudinal) research involves the study of the same group of people for a long time, which makes it possible to establish qualitative changes in the development of mental processes and personality.
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget put forward his theory of intellectual development (Greek "genesis" - a child on the basis of many years of longitudinal research of one group of children. Only with the help of this method it is possible to understand what grows out of and is formed, it is possible to establish genetic (causal) relationships between the phases of development The disadvantages of this approach are that it is labor intensive and only a small number of subjects can be studied, which makes it difficult to generalize the findings to the entire population.
3) The experimental genetic approach (Greek "genesis" - origin, formation) in developmental psychology means the study of the child's psyche in the process of active formation of certain aspects of it. It describes and measures one or another mental phenomenon that they seek to form, assuming the laws of its development in ordinary conditions. This approach makes it possible to test the effectiveness of methods of teaching and raising children.
THE CONCEPT OF AGE IN PSYCHOLOGY
Age is the most important attribute of the existence of any physical body.
Age in psychology is a category used to designate the temporal characteristics of individual development. Unlike chronological age, in psychology, age denotes a certain, qualitatively new stage of ontogenetic development. Psychological age is mediated by social and biological factors. Age “increments” are in reality the summation of heterogeneous growth phenomena: general somatic, sexual and neuropsychic maturation. This growth takes place both in the period of maturity and in the period of aging, since it converges and intersects with many complex phenomena of social and cultural development of a person in the specific historical conditions of his existence.
The designation of certain stages in the taxonomy of age development only indicates that for a given age, certain mental qualities of an individual are new and most typical. The dating of the dates of the beginning and especially the end of the stage is also quite artificial. In the systematics of age stages, it is justified to use the method of “overlapping” age periods, and the main thing is the sequence of stages. Each stage is a period of the evolution of the psyche and at the same time a type of human behavior.
In our country, the following periodization of age is adopted:
1) Infancy - from birth to the end of the first year of life;
2) Early (preschool) childhood - from 1 to 3 years;
3) Preschool childhood - from 3 to 6-7 years;
4) Junior school age - from 6 to 10 years old;
5) Adolescence - from 10 to 15 years old;
6) Youth - from 15 to 21 years old, includes:
a) the first period (senior school age) from 15 to 17 years;
b) the second period - from 17 to 21 years;
7) Mature age:
a) the first period - from 21 to 35 years;
b) the second period - from 35 to 60 years;
8) Elderly age - from 60 to 75 years;
9) Senile age - from 75 to 90 years old;
10) Long-livers - 90 years and older.
AGE EVOLUTION OF THE BRAIN AND PSYCHE
The evolution of man as a biological species is extremely complex. Of all living beings, a newborn is the most helpless, and his childhood is the longest. At the same time, a person has the highest ability to learn, to be creative. In evolutionary terms, learning in the animal kingdom is closely related to the increase in size and complication of the functions of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex received the greatest development in humans. This part of the brain was the least specialized and, therefore, proved to be the most suitable for recording personal experience.
The dynamics of age development in humans is most intense at an early age. The brain mass of a newborn is 350 g, by 18 months it increases 3 times, and by the age of 7 it reaches 90% of the mass of an adult, i.e.
1350 Anatomically, the brain of a newborn and the brain of an adult are significantly different. And this means that in the process of individual development, the age-related complication of brain structures occurs. However, even after the completion of the morphological maturation of the nervous system, a person still has great opportunities for improvement, restructuring and new formation of functional systems on the basis of this primary brain structure as a set of morphologically relatively unchanged nervous elements.
The study of the developing brain makes it possible to conventionally speak of the “biological framework of the personality”, which affects the pace and sequence of the formation of individual personality traits. “The biological framework of the personality” is a dynamic concept. This is, on the one hand, a genetic program that is gradually implemented in the process of interaction with the environment, and on the other hand, an intermediate result of such interaction. The dynamism of the “biological framework” is especially evident in childhood. As they grow older, biological parameters are more and more stabilized, which makes it possible to develop a typology of temperaments and other personal characteristics.
Various features of brain activity are genetically determined, but this genetic program is just a tendency, a possibility that is always realized with some modifications, depending on the conditions of intrauterine development and environmental factors after birth.
Yet the influences of these factors are not unlimited. The genetic program determines this limit, which is commonly called. normal reaction. For example, such functional systems as visual, auditory, and motor systems can differ significantly in the reaction rates. One person from birth has the makings of absolute musical ear; the other needs to be taught to distinguish between sounds, but they still fail to develop absolute pitch. Speaking about the variants of the reaction norm of individual functional systems, one should point out their relative independence from each other. One can perfectly understand music, but poorly express it in movements. Thus, the “biological framework”, to a certain extent, predetermines the contours of that future ensemble, which is called a personality.
At each age stage, some functional systems develop faster, others more slowly. If we represent a certain age stage as a finish line, then we can see that various functional systems come to this finish with varying degrees of maturity and perfection.
Some have almost taken shape, while others are just beginning to take shape. This is the principle of heterochronism, not the simultaneous maturation of separate functional systems of the brain and psyche. Visual perception, for example, improves faster than auditory or gustatory perception, and the ability to understand directed speech occurs earlier than the ability to speak.
Despite the fact that each functional system and even its individual links have their own development programs, the brain at all periods works as a whole. This integrativity presupposes close interaction of different systems and their interdependence. The brain, remaining unified in its activity, at each stage of age development works differently, a different level of intersystem interactions is established. The emergence of new forms of response is accompanied by the extinction, reduction of old ones. Moreover, both processes - renewal and reduction - must be delicately balanced.
The important role of balancing the processes of reduction and renewal is especially evident in the motor development of children in the first year of life. A newborn has congenital posotonic automatisms that affect muscle tone depending on the position of the head in space. By the third month of life, they fade away, giving way to new forms of regulation of muscle tone.
If they do not disappear at the right time, then they should be considered as abnormal, since they prevent the holding of the head and then a whole chain of pathological phenomena is formed: the development of the visual and vestibular apparatus is disturbed; Difficulty developing the ability to sit. As a result, the whole scheme of motor development is distorted and, as a result, mental development may suffer.
Reduction often does not mean the complete disappearance of congenital automatisms or acquired functions, but implies their inclusion in more complex functional ensembles. Sometimes situations may arise when the primary automatism is still preserved, but does not violate the general pattern of development. A different picture occurs in cases when a delay in reduction is combined with a slowdown in the formation of new reactions. Then there are real opportunities for abnormal hypertrophy of some obsolete methods of response, regulation of functions. Thus, along with the heterochronism of the development of individual functional systems, a certain synchronicity in their interactions is also necessary: \u200b\u200bat each stage of age development, individual systems must be at a certain degree of maturity. Let these degrees be different, but the differences must be coordinated, otherwise there will not be a full-fledged merger of systems into a single ensemble.
The moments during which the formation of ensembles takes place are often called critical periods of development, since at these time intervals the function that has not yet been formed is the most vulnerable. For example, the ability to acquire speech is limited in time. If congenital hearing loss is not recognized in time, the intensity of pre-speech actions (humming, babbling) decreases by the end of the first year of life, because there is no adequate reinforcement from adults. Such a child switches to sign language and has difficulty learning conversational skills. If the speech function has not taken shape by the age of 4-5, further speech development is put under great threat. Similar critical periods exist in the development of other functional ensembles.
The analysis of critical periods allows a better understanding of the essence of many deviations encountered in clinical practice.
BASIC THEORY OF ADULTING
Development is the result of parallel processes - internal maturation (central nervous system, endocrine system, neuromuscular system) and external environmental influences (for example, parents and teachers), which can either contribute to or hinder the normal development of the child. Hence, the core of most theories of mental development is the identification of its driving forces, i.e. the role of the ratio of internal (hereditary) and external (environment, learning) factors in the formation of a person.
In many years of discussion on these issues, several extreme points of view have been determined:
1) biologization direction - the main importance in the formation of the psyche and behavior is attributed to evolutionary transformations of genetically inherent inclinations in the body;
2) sociologizing direction - completely denies the importance of genetic factors in development and claims that any psychological and behavioral properties develop only under the influence of education and upbringing;
3) the interactionist direction - an intermediate point of view on the processes of growing up with attempts to combine previous theories, explaining the development by the interaction of biological and social factors. However, even here it is considered important to answer the question of their relationship in the individual development of the child. This question is answered in different ways as representatives of theories of convergence, stochastic or functional theories of growing up.
Convergence theories - postulate the principle of convergence (convergence) of genetic and environmental factors in individual development. According to William Stern, both factors are equally significant for the mental development of a child, they determine two of his lines. These lines of development, i.e. maturation of hereditary data and development under the influence of upbringing intersect.
The main role in convergence theories is usually left to heredity, and the environment (upbringing) is only a regulator of the conditions in which this heredity is realized.
Stochastic (probabilistic) theories - assert that the final result of development, achieved at each of its stages, is not initially included in the genotype. Changes occurring at each stage of development are associated with both the genotype and the environment. However, in themselves, these changes are determined by a coincidence of circumstances in the life of the individual. What he acquires at each stage of development depends mainly only on the level that his body has reached at the previous stage of development.
Functional theories - put forward the position that the formation and transformation of this or that function is determined by how often it is used in the life of the organism. In them, the main principle is the provision on the determining role of the lifestyle in the development of the psyche.
The theory of cognitive development created by J. Piaget, which is described in more detail in the “Thinking” section, is, in essence, such an interactionist model that considers intelligence as an example of adaptation to the requirements of the external environment. From the point of view of cognitive theories, the human psyche is active, dynamic and has innate structures that process and organize information. Adaptation is carried out through the mutual process of incorporating new information into existing structures (assimilation) and a corresponding change in these structures in accordance with the requirements of the environment (accommodation).
A well-known example of a theory of this type is the cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions of the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky. In contrast to the theory of J. Piaget, cognitive and personal development here fits into a wider range of social and cultural context. L.S. Vygotsky emphasizes the unity of hereditary and social aspects in the development process. Heredity is present in the development of all mental functions of the child, but it seems to have a different proportion in them.
Elementary functions (starting with sensations and perceptions) are more hereditary than higher ones (voluntary memory, logical thinking, speech).
Higher functions are formed in interpersonal communication and are almost completely a product of the cultural and historical development of a person. The more complex the mental function, the longer the path of its ontogenetic development, the less the influence of heredity is reflected in it. Thus, mental development here is not determined by a simple mechanical addition of biological and social factors - their unity is dynamic, functional, and it changes in the process of development itself.
Biologizing theories. Biogenetic theories proceed from the notion that all mental characteristics are innate and all stages of development are hereditarily predetermined. They view development as a step-by-step and sequential disclosure of inclinations. They are based on the evolutionary ideas of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and the biogenetic law of Ernest Haeckel (1834-1919), according to which ontogeny (individual development) repeats phylogeny (historical development). These concepts were adopted by developmental psychology and pedagogy. Thus, the term "kindergarten", introduced by the teacher Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), reflects the following line of thought: children, like plants in the garden, grow and mature in accordance with the innate plan in the presence of suitable conditions (good soil, sun and rain) ... The teaching of children in kindergartens is based on a system of games with specific didactic material (“Frobel's gifts” - cubes, sticks, material for drawing, modeling, etc.). In this case, the active participation of an adult in the child's activity was assumed: “transferring gifts,” demonstrating ways of acting with them.
Biogenetic theories are based exclusively on somatic data, which are unjustifiably generalized. The applicability of growth and maturation models to characterize the development of the brain and motor functions is beyond doubt, but already in the emotional and cognitive spheres they seem to be too limited. A number of theories even argue that social forms of behavior are represented in a person by special genes selected in the process of evolution.
Biologizing theories attribute all the shortcomings of upbringing to "bad heredity", against which a person is powerless.
Psychoanalytic theories. Classical psychoanalysis considers mental development in connection with biological changes and the maturation of a powerful
libidinal energy, under the influence of which a child falls, learning to direct these forces through certain channels, and unconscious defense mechanisms are involved. With the help of the latter, the “I” protects itself from obeying the forces of “It”, carrying out the process of adaptation through identification, initially with parents, and then with other adults and peers who seem suitable for the role of a model. If this process is successful, then growing up proceeds without any problems. Otherwise, the libido energy can be directed against itself, which leads to regression or neurosis.
According to classical psychoanalytic theories, the main content of the development process is the adaptation of self-functions (ie personality) to instincts, in achieving balance between them. Ultimately, these theories have purely biological roots. Social moments are taken into account only insofar as others (adults or peers) become objects of the transfer of libidinal energy to them.
Neo-Freudian concepts. In contrast to classical psychoanalysis, neo-Freudianism attaches great importance to the self-functions, and the latter are associated with the influence of social factors. Much attention is paid to the processes of personal development in the theories of individualization. P. Bloss (1967) and E. Erickson's ego-identity (1959). In Blos's theory, individualization is successful only when the individual manages to free himself from the attachments of early childhood, and growing up is, as it were, re-experiencing the conflicts inherent in the previous transition period.
According to Erickson, child and adolescent development is highly dependent on the social environment. In the period of growing up, identity crises naturally occur in front of a person. he is faced with many tasks (physical maturation, mastering the role of an adult, choosing a profession, etc.) that make it extremely difficult to find his own “I”, his own identification. The central theme of individual development and existence is the constant pursuit of one's own identity and its preservation. Erickson attached great importance to roles and role-playing behavior, which links his approach to sociological theories of growing up.
Humanistic theories. From the point of view of humanistic theories, the focus of personality development is also on the individual's awareness of his own “I” and the meaning of his existence. According to K. Rogers, the human body has positive forces that direct it to health and growth. The main one, in his opinion, is a person's need for love and positive attention to him. Another humanistic psychologist A. Maslow also believes that development is carried out through the work of self-actualization, which is