Speaking about expressive syntax, this term is usually specified with the word "stylistic" - "expressive (stylistic) syntax", thereby emphasizing its belonging to the categorical apparatus of stylistics. However, it will be legitimate to use the term "expressive syntax" to designate the doctrine of the construction of expressive speech, the subject of which is the linguistic foundations of expressive speech, while the term "stylistic syntax" refers to the metalanguage of stylistics, for, as you know, a stylistic device is always the discovery of the potential expressive possibilities means of the common language.
In the scientific literature for the first time about the expressive means of language wrote E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk: "Expressiveness in speech is the enhancement of expressiveness and depiction." EAT. Galkina-Fedoruk highlighted the varieties of expressive language means. She highlights both lexical and syntactic expressive means. Expressiveness can be embedded both in a single word and in a sentence.
So, let's take a closer look at the main expressive syntactic tools.
The syntactic means for creating expression are varied. These include: addresses, introductory and plug-in constructions, direct speech, many one-part and incomplete sentences, inversion as a stylistic device, and others. Stylistic figures, which are a powerful means of emphatic intonation, should also be characterized.
Emphase (from the Greek. Emphasis - indication, expressiveness) is an emotional, agitated construction of oratorical and lyrical speech; emphatic speech is accompanied by appropriate intonation techniques.
Various techniques that create emphatic intonation are characteristic mainly of poetry and are rarely found in prose, and they are designed not for visual, but for auditory perception of the text, which makes it possible to evaluate the rise and fall of the voice, the rate of speech, pause, that is, all shades of the sounding phrase. Punctuation marks can only conditionally convey these features of expressive syntax.
Poetic syntax is distinguished by rhetorical exclamations, which contain a special expression, increasing the intensity of speech. For instance:
tief hat sie noch nie gefühlt - sinnlos selig müssen Tiere sein! (Der Kuss, W. Borchert)
Often such exclamations are accompanied by exaggeration, as in the following example: Lush! He has no equal river in the world! (Gogol about the Dnieper).
They are often combined with rhetorical questions: Troika! Bird three! Who invented you? ..
A rhetorical question - one of the most common stylistic figures, characterized by remarkable brightness and a variety of emotionally expressive shades.
Rhetorical questions contain a statement (or denial), framed as a question that does not require an answer:
Didn't you at first so viciously persecute His free, courageous gift and fanned a slightly hidden fire for fun? .. (Death of the poet, M.Yu. Lermontov).
gehn dich meine Blicke an? ist der Sonne gutes Recht, strahlt auf den Herrn wie auf den Knecht; strahle, weil ich nicht anders kann. (Aus einem Briefe, H. Heine)
The rhetorical question is not posed to induce the listener to communicate something unknown to the speaker. The function of a rhetorical question is to attract attention, enhance an impression, raise an emotional tone, and create elation. The answer is already suggested in it, and the rhetorical question only involves the reader in reasoning or experience, making him more active, ostensibly forcing him to draw a conclusion.
Rhetorical questions, which coincide in external grammatical design with ordinary interrogative sentences, are distinguished by a bright exclamatory intonation, expressing amazement, extreme tension of feelings; it is no coincidence that the authors sometimes at the end of rhetorical questions put an exclamation mark or two marks - a question and an exclamation point:
Does her female mind, brought up in seclusion, doomed to alienate from real life, know how dangerous such aspirations are and how they end ?!
The rhetorical question, unlike many stylistic figures, is used not only in poetic and oratorical speech, but also in colloquial, as well as in journalistic texts, in fiction and scientific prose.
A stricter, bookish coloring characterizes parallelism - the same syntactic structure of adjacent sentences or speech segments:
The stars shine in the blue sky
In the blue sea, waves whip;
A cloud is walking across the sky
A barrel floats on the sea (A.S. Pushkin).
Daß alles sieht so lustig aus, wohl gewaschen das Bauerhaus, morgentaulich Gras und Baum, herrlich Blau der Berge Saum! (Landschaft, J.W. Goethe) mir gegrüßt, mein Berg mit dem röthlich strahlenden Gipfel! Mir, Sonne, gegrüßt, die ihn so lieblich bescheint! (Der Spaziergang, F. Schiller)
Syntactic parallelism often reinforces rhetorical questions and exclamations, for example: All these subtleties are incomprehensible to Bazarov. How is it, he thinks, to prepare and attune himself to love? When a person really loves, how can he be graceful and think about the little things of external grace? Does true love hesitate? Does she need any external aids of place, time and momentary disposition caused by the conversation?
Parallel syntactic constructions are often based on the principle anaphora (monotony). So, in the last of the examples we see the anaphoric repetition of the word unless.
Classic examples of anaphora are the following lines:
I am the one whom You listened to in the midnight silence, Whose thought whispered to your soul, Whose sadness you vaguely guessed, Whose image you saw in a dream. I am the one whose gaze destroys hope; I am the one that nobody loves; I am the scourge of my earthly slaves, I am the king of knowledge and freedom, I am the enemy of heaven, I am the evil of nature ... (Lermontov).
Ich hör die Bächlein rauschen
Im Walde her und hin,
Im Walde in dem Rauschen
Ich weiß nicht, wo ich bin. (In der Fremde, J.F. Eichendorff)
Epiphora (ending) - repetition of the last words of a sentence - also enhances emphatic intonation: Why destroy the independent development of a child, forcing his nature, killing his faith in himself and forcing him to do only what I want, and only the way I want, and only because I want?
Among the vivid examples of expressive syntax are various ways of breaking sentence closure. First of all, it is syntax offset: the end of the sentence is given syntactically differently than the beginning, for example:
And to me, Onegin, this splendor, tinsel of hateful life, My successes in a whirlwind of light, My fashionable house and evenings, What's in them?
It is also possible incomplete phrase, as indicated by the author's punctuation: as a rule, these are ellipses:
But those to whom I first read the stanzas in a friendly meeting ... There are no others, but those are far away, as Sadi once said.
Look ... It's getting light already. Dawn is like a fire in the snow ... Something reminds me ... But what? .. I can't understand ... Ah! ... Yes ... It was in childhood ... Another ... Not autumn dawn ... You and I sat together ... We are sixteen years old ...
The emotional tension of speech is transmitted and connecting structures, there are those in which phrases do not fit into one semantic plane at once, but form an associative chain of attachment. Various methods of joining are provided by modern poetry, journalism, fiction:
Here I am in Bykovka. One. It's autumn. Late.
Professor N.S. Valgina notes: "Syntactically dependent sections of the text, but extremely independent intonationally, divorced from the sentence that gave rise to them, acquire greater expressiveness, become emotionally rich and bright."
Ellipsis is a stylistic figure, consisting in the deliberate omission of any member of the sentence, which is implied from the context: We sat down - in ashes, hails - in dust, in swords - sickles and plows.
, ich möchte immerhin, wenn ich tot bin, so eine Laterne sein, die nachts ganz allein, wenn alles schläft auf der Welt, sich mit dem Mond unterhält - natürlich per Du. (Lsternentraum, W. Borchert)
Skipping the predicate gives speech a special dynamism and expression.
Silence should be distinguished from this syntactic technique - a turn of speech, consisting in the fact that the author deliberately understates the thought, giving the listener (reader) the right to guess which words are not uttered:
No, I wanted ... maybe you ... I thought it was time for the Baron to die.
The ellipsis hides an unexpected pause, reflecting the speaker's excitement.
, die vorübergehn, vorbei, mich, weil ich blind bin, keiner stehn? ich steh seit Drei ... (Monolog eines Blinden, E. Kästner)
As a stylistic device, silence is often found in colloquial speech: - You have no idea, this is such news! .. How am I now? .. I can not calm down.
An expressive stylistic figure is used for intonation and logical emphasis of the selected objects - multi-union (polysindeon)... Usually compositional, connecting conjunctions and, neither -
The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded away, and went somewhere into infinity ...
Though this book did not reveal Neither the sweet inventions of the poet, nor wise truths, nor pictures; But neither Virgil, nor Racine, nor Scott, nor Byron, nor Seneca, nor even the Ladies' Fashion Magazine did not interest anyone: That was, friends, Martin Zadeka, the Head of the Chaldean sages, the Diviner, the interpreter of dreams.
The lines in which the opposite stylistic device is applied next to the multi-union is gaining greater expressiveness - asyndeton:
There was typhus, and ice, and hunger, and a blockade. It was all over: cartridges, coal, bread. The mad city turned into a crypt, where the cannonade was echoing.
The absence of alliances gives impetus to the statement, richness of impressions. Let's remember Pushkin's lines:
Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, hovels, men, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies, fashion stores, Balconies, lions on the gates And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.
This excerpt from "Eugene Onegin" draws a quick change of pictures, objects really flicker! But the possibilities of non-union and multi-union are varied, these techniques were used by the poet, describing the dynamics of the Poltava battle:
Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts, Drum beat, clicks, rattle, The thunder of cannons, stomp, neigh, groan, And death, and hell from all sides.
Stringing syntactic units of the same type (for example, homogeneous members, subordinate clauses) often creates gradation - that is, such an arrangement of words (phrases, parts of a complex sentence), in which each subsequent enhances (less often weakens) the meaning of the previous one, due to which an increase in intonation and emotional tension of speech is created. This can be illustrated by the passage from Eugene Onegin quoted above ( Although this book did not reveal any sweet inventions of the poet ...) and many other examples, including prosaic ones: In autumn, feather-grass steppes completely change and get their own special, original, not similar look.
Stylistic figures often combine, complement, reinforce each other, giving speech exciting intonations. Let's remember Onegin's explanation with Tatiana! -
Whenever life is at home
I wanted to limit;
When would I be a father, a spouse
a pleasant lot ordered;
When would a family picture
I was captivated even for a single moment, -
That is true b, except for you alone
I was not looking for another bride.
Anaphora and gradation are combined in this utterance, which is a brilliant example of a special type of complex sentence - the period.
Period a complex syntactic construction, harmonious in form, is called, characterized by a special rhythm and ordering of parts, as well as an exceptional completeness and completeness of the content.
A.P. Kvyatkovsky, naming classical works as examples of the period - "When sometimes the memory" by Pushkin (in 26 lines), "When the yellowing cornfield is worried" by Lermontov (16 lines), "Oh, for a long time I will be in the silence of the secret night" by A. Fet (12 lines) and his "When I dreamily am devoted to silence" (20 lines), states: "The poem, written in the form of a period, testifies to the breadth of the author's poetic breathing and great mature mastery", allowing "to cope with the complex apparatus of verse, including myself a few stanzas. "
The doctrine of the period as a means of emphatic intonation was developed as early as in ancient rhetoric. The period owes its name to intonation in a complex syntactic structure: at first, the voice rises smoothly, as if describing a curved line, then reaches the highest point on the main part of the utterance, after which it sharply decreases, returning to its original position, closing the line (period - from the Greek periodos, bypass).
Compositionally, the period splits into two mutually balanced parts: the first is characterized by an increase in intonation, the second - by a decrease, which determines the harmony and intonational completeness of the period. In terms of content, the period represents one whole, develops one theme, revealing it with a certain completeness and versatility.
Most often, the period is built as a complex sentence with homogeneous clauses that appear at the beginning. For instance:
When he, on the first day, getting up early in the morning, left the booth at dawn and saw first the dark domes, the crosses of the Novodevichy Convent, saw frosty dew on the dusty grass, saw the hills of the Sparrow Hills and the wooded shore meandering over the river and hiding in the lilac distance, when he felt a touch of fresh air and heard the sounds of jackdaws flying from Moscow across the field, and when then suddenly light sprays from the east and the edge of the sun solemnly floated out from behind the clouds, and domes, and crosses, and dew, and the distance, and the river, everything played in a joyful light , - Pierre felt a new, untested feeling of joy and strength of life. (Leo Tolstoy. "War and Peace")
In the period, subordinate clauses, conditions, reasons, modes of action, comparative, etc. are used. Here is an example of a period with concessive subordinate clauses:
No matter how hard it was for Princess Marya to get out of that world of solitary contemplation in which she had lived until now, no matter how sorry and as if ashamed it was to leave Natasha alone, the worries of life demanded her participation, and she involuntarily gave herself up to them.
Less often, certain common members of the sentence are involved in the composition of the period, for example, adverbial expressions that perform the function of the circumstances of the time:
Appearing to the regimental commander; having been assigned to the old squadron, going on duty and foraging, entering into all the small interests of the regiment and feeling deprived of freedom and chained in one narrow unchanging frame, Rostov experienced the same calmness, the same support and the same consciousness that he was here at home, in his place, which he felt and under the parental roof.
Leo Tolstoy's periodic speech invariably attracts researchers, because studying it provides a key to understanding the peculiarities of the great writer 's style. A.P. Chekhov admired Leo Tolstoy's "power of periods".
The opportunity to use a variety of stylistic figures in the period has always attracted and will continue to attract artists of the word.
The use of stylistic figures, various syntactic means of creating emphatic intonation in great poets is usually combined with the use of tropes, evaluative vocabulary, vivid techniques for enhancing emotionality, and imagery of speech.
Expressive syntax problems
The expressive function of language is the ability to express the emotional state of the speaker, his subjective attitude to the designated objects and phenomena of reality.
Expressivity as a general linguistic category affects all spheres of the language and the arsenal of its expressive means is immense. However, the problems of expressive syntax are becoming increasingly important in modern linguistics. This is due to the intensive study of the structure of the text, the linguistic personality as a subject of speech activity, its pragmatic aspects of colloquial, oral-dialogical speech, the relationship between the speaker and the addressee, sound means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech and enhancing its impact on the perceiver.
Expressive possibilities of syntactic text construction
The text and its division, as you know, relate to the field speech. Written and oral forms of speech are a unity. The analysis of the construction of the text (as a written analogue of speech) provides for the solution of such issues of its organization as the allocation of not only minimal, limiting units, but also units that are different in their structure. However, as VG Gak rightly notes, "It is impossible to inventory the structures of texts and SFU, they are infinitely diverse and entirely belong to the sphere of functioning (and not device) of the language, that is, to the sphere of speech ...". In this regard, such a feature of the text as the looseness of the boundaries between its subdivisions, in particular the SFU, the variety and non-fixedness of the means of organization, is noted. "The speaker knows in advance how to combine words into sentences. But he cannot know how to combine sentences into text." However, the analysis of a written statement - the text allows you to establish the means of combining individual segments of the statement into a complete text.
A written text is, in most cases, a verbal work developed by the author in a linguistic and stylistic respect. The purpose of such processing is, first of all, in the desire to convey the most fully and expressively certain content in the appropriate stylistic form and thereby contribute to its adequate perception. And although the author, when creating a text, least of all thinks about the use of certain specific syntactic constructions, syntactic means of communication, grammatical forms, punctuation marks, etc. of those means that act not only as signs of connecting segments of an utterance, but also as signs that contribute to the articulation of the text, the consideration of these means by analyzing the text allows you to establish the linguistic foundations of the expressiveness of the text.
Basic means of expressive syntax
1. Actual division of the proposal
The linguistic means of actual division are usually: prosodic (intonation), syntactic (word order) and lexical means (articles, pronouns, adverbs, etc.). The opposition: theme - rhema (or an expressive version of their order: rhema - theme) is carried out in oral speech with the help of a predictive pause as the main prosodic means of expressing a predicative connection (Kovtunova 1976: 37).
The predictive pause takes on special meaning where without it it would be difficult to understand the meaning of the statement: it signals the end of the previous and the beginning of the next, communicatively most important part of the statement, i.e. performs a meaningful function.
In the course of the statement, the actual division may change (it is this factor that is especially important for the plan of expressing dynamic syntax). With such a change, the speaker is not free to choose the position of the predictive pause. He introduces it where the structure of the statement and the general goals of communication, including expressive ones, require it.
In combination with a predictive pause, syntactic means can also act as a means of actual division. For example, changing the order of words in order to expressiveness (in a neutral sentence, the topic usually precedes the rema), namely, placing the rema in the starting position.
For the English language, there are certain means that make it possible to signal the "actual division" of a sentence in cases where it does not coincide with the syntactic division of the sentence, for example, word order, articles, particles, intonation, special constructions. In many cases, the deviation from the usual word order in the English sentence (subject - predicate) is explained precisely by the needs of expressing the "actual division" of the sentence.
To change the structure of a sentence in order to put in the last place the word expressing bump, adverbial adverbial words can be used in the initial position. Rhema carriers can be subordinate clauses.
The actual divisions are important element expressive syntax, which allows you to more clearly define the semantic boundaries of the utterance, and brings variety to written and oral speech.
2. Parceling of the speech stream
The phenomenon of parceling belongs to linguistic universals. It was investigated on the material of various languages. In connection with the study of the text, the ways of its division and organization, the problem of parcelling has become one of the most relevant in the study of syntax.
The term "parceling" goes back to the French word parceller, which means "to divide, split into parts", it is used to denote a way of dividing the text. As you know, parcelling belongs to the area of \u200b\u200bexpressive syntax.
Parcelling does not have a complete and unambiguous definition in the linguistic literature, which is undoubtedly connected with the multifaceted nature of the phenomenon of parcelling with a difference in approaches to its study.
The essence of parceling, according to E.A. Ivanchikova, consists in dismembering a syntactically coherent text into intonationally isolated segments, separated by a dot, and E.A. Ivanchikova, considering parceling to be a method of expressive syntax, refers it only to the sphere of the written literary language (Ivanchikova 2010: 106).
The phenomenon of parcelling is an intonational - and very often positional - isolation of a word form or phrase, in which this detached and brought out element acquires an intonational contour and informational load of an independent statement.
Some researchers consider parcels as a kind of connecting structures due to the similarity of their structures, intonation, the nature of the connection, informational richness and expressiveness.
3. Parental contributions and their functions
One of the most important problems in the study of a text - overphrasal unity - is the study of the relationship and interaction of the syntactic construction of a sentence and the syntax of overphrasal unity.
A sentence as a linear structure is characterized by certain patterns of organization of semantic and communicative relations. Being, in turn, a structural part of the whole, the sentence reveals all sorts of words, constructions ("signals", "signs"), indicating its connection with the previous message (either within the sentence, or within the framework of a superphrasal unity, text).
The set of text-linking means (anaphoric, cataphoric, expressed by unions, pronouns, syntactic parallelism, etc., etc.), realizing a structural (and semantic) connection between sentences of supraphrasal unity, undoubtedly include, despite their "isolation" , and many parenthetical contributions.
In the English language, the structure of sentences that form a superphrasal unity (text) does not always correspond to the construction rules prescribed by the normative grammar. Sentences of real live speech very often reveal various kinds of "disturbances" in the harmony, smoothness and consistency of the "normal" rhythm and norms of intonation pattern.
These features, characteristic of texts of all registers, have long been noticed by rhetoric and used them to create such stylistic devices as prolapse, paranthesis, etc. Studying the linguistic basis of these devices is the task of expressive syntax.
The theoretical basis for the study of the phenomenon of "disturbances" was the level of parenthetical inputs. The essence of this "violation" lies in the fact that words or syntactic constructions "invade" into the composition of the sentence - parenthetical insertions and "violate", "destroy" linear syntactic links (Alexandrova 2009, p. 177).
An isolated sentence containing a parenthetical insertion often cannot provide a complete picture of either the subject of the statement or the content of the parenthetic insertion. Only within the framework of the text does it become clear, and the parenthetical insertion itself, breaking the connections of the sentence, by its content switches the attention of the listener / reader to what was previously said and thereby allows linking (generalizing, drawing a conclusion, establishing identity, etc.) with what is perceived in the given moment content.
Before talking about the expressive function of such "violations", let us consider the structure and significance of such contributions.
O.V. Alexandrova in her classification divides them into:
1.one-word applications: again, anyway, doubtless, first, further, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, moreover, next, nevertheless, now, otherwise, perhaps, probably, rather, say, second, since, so, sometimes, somewhat, still, too, then, thenceforward, thereby, therefore, though, thus, well, whenever etc.
2.insertions-combinations of words, among which combinations with prepositions are widespread after, along, at, by, for, from, of, on, since, to, towards, throughout, with, without and etc.: after all, at any rate, at best, at least, by and large, for example, for instance, in addition, in any case, with qualifications already noted, on this basis, on each such occasion, for any of a range of reasons, at any timeand etc.
3. Particularly common are deposits on -1y: intelligibly enough, quite independently, differently from but quite compatibly with, less discriminatingly, more or less persuasively, vaguely enough, clearly enough, quite hypothetically, no doubt imperfectly and often obscurely and etc.
4. suggestions: he said, he will observe, I believe, I fancy, I suggest, I suppose, I take it, I think, I would think, it is true, it seems to me, one may say, one may think, one would suppose , one would think, some would further urge, some would say, they said, we believe, we may agree, we said, we suggested and etc.
In terms of general content, contributions fall into three categories:
1.category of reference - these are words and syntactic constructions, sometimes very extended, that the speaker uses in speech in order to refer to a fact, literary or other source, to his previous statement, etc., for example: hence, then, too, thenceforward, to my mind, as you say and etc.
2.category of exemplification, which includes words and syntactic constructions, with the help of which examples, explanations, clarifications of what has been said, etc. are introduced, for example: say, for instance, suppose we take, for example and etc.
3.category of deliberation - these are words and syntactic constructions expressing doubts, reflections, assessment, etc.: it seems, no doubt, no wonder, in asense, at any rate, at best, at least, no wonder and etc.
The objectivity of this categorization is confirmed by the fact that it is relevant for each of the above structural types of contributions. So, the vast majority of one-word additions fit freely into the selected categories:
· References : hence, then, too, thenceforward and etc.;
Exemplifications: thereby, thus and etc.;
Deliberation: again, anyway, doubtless, indeed, moreover, next, of course, perhaps, say, sometimes, somewhat, though and etc.
Does the same apply to deposits? syntactic constructions:
Reference: in general, as you say and etc.
Exemplification : for example, for instance, that is, that is to say and etc.
Deliberation: after all, at any rate, at best, at least, by and large, in addition, in a sense, in fact, it seems, let us say, no doubt, no wonder, on the whole, so to speak and etc.
Each of these groups can, in turn, be divided into smaller semantic subgroups [Aleksandrova 2009: 134].
This structural and semantic categorization is closely related to the expressive function of parenthetical contributions, with the role they play in the text.
Generally, the function of parenthetical contributions is to "characterize the communicated from the speaker's point of view to the communicated", i.e. it is closely related to the category of modality [Vinogradov 1958: 229].
It is known that modality is a conceptual category with the meaning of the speaker's attitude to the content of the utterance and the relationship of the content of the utterance to reality, expressed by various lexical and grammatical means (such as mood forms, modal verbs, intonation, lexical and lexical-phraseological means of expressing the category of modality) ... When analyzing parenthetical contributions, the above means of expressing modality, and most importantly, the contextual environment and registers, should be considered in the aspect of constructing expressive speech.
Also syntactic stylistic devices belong to the syntactic carriers of expressiveness:
Repetition (anaphora) - the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of each part or whole sentence (Skrebnev Yu.M. 2003, p. 140).
Inversion - the wrong order of words in a sentence, as a result of which the sentence takes on an expressive connotation. Here's an example: Talent Mr. Micauber has. (Mr. Mikauber has talent)
Chiasm is an inversion in the second half of the word, for example: He rose and down she sat (he got up and she sat down) (Znamenskaya T.A. 2004, p. 54-56).
In addition to stylistic devices, the syntactic means for creating expressiveness include emphatic grammatical constructions (for example, whatever it costs,… (at any cost)), as well as emotionally expressive sentences. These sentences are constructed using pronominal words that qualify as intensifiers, for example: What a fool I was (what a fool I was) (Furs L.A. 1995, p. 20).
Exercise 1.
Find cases of concurrency, multi-union, and non-union. Define their functions in the texts.
1) Black raven in the snowy dusk,
Black velvet on swarthy shoulders. (A. A. Blok)
2) The hour hand is approaching midnight.
The candles fluttered like a light wave.
Thoughts were stirred up like a dark wave.
Happy New Year, heart! (A. A. Blok)
3) No, I’ll say positively, there was no poet with such universal responsiveness as Pushkin, and it’s not only responsiveness here, but its amazing depth, but in the reincarnation of his spirit into the spirit of foreign peoples, an almost perfect reincarnation. (F.M.Dostoevsky)
4) If such masters as Akhmatova or Zamyatin are walled up alive for life, condemned to the grave to create in silence, without hearing an echo of their written, this is not only their personal misfortune, but the grief of the entire nation, but a danger to the entire nation. (A.I.Solzhenitsyn)
5) Each of them (killed during the Great Patriotic War) was a whole world. And this world went out forever. Together with him, unfulfilled dreams, unplayed weddings, unborn children, unsung songs, unbuilt houses, unwritten books fell into the graves. (V.V.Bykov)
Exercise 2.
Find cases of ellipsis, inversion and parceling. Define their functions in the texts.
1) But those who confess only the dead shell of churchliness are not suitable for leaders ... These people will not accept. Receives - drops. (I. E. Shmelev)
2) We wanted songs - there were no words.
We wanted to sleep - there were no dreams.
We were in mourning - the orchestra played carcasses. (V. Tsoi)
3) And the first is fuller, friends, fuller! And all to the bottom in honor of our union!(A. Pushkin)
4) Oh you, Motherland! ... You, immeasurable, fall to you tired and driven, and you take your poor sons on your powerful chest, embrace with multi-versed arms, sing with eternal strength. (B. K. Zaitsev)
5) Who doubts our right and duty to think about the arrangement of future Russia! Everything changes in this world. No one knows the timing, the time will come - there will be a new Russia.(I.S.Shmelev)
6) By the way, on a cloudy day before rain, take a closer look at the light. Before the rain it is one, during the rain it is different, and after the rain it is completely special. Because wet leaves give the air a faint shine. Gray, soft and warm.(K.G. Paustovsky)
Exercise 3.
Find examples of antithesis in the texts. Determine what antonyms are used in them, how the method of opposition affects the expressiveness of the text.
1) My faithful friend! my enemy is insidious!
My king, my slave! Native language! (V. Ya. Bryusov)
2) You and wretched
You are abundant
You and mighty
You are powerless
Mother - Russia!(N. A. Nekrasov)
3) I'm sad because you're having fun. (M. Yu. Lermontov)
4) The world is multifaceted, multicolored,
Sometimes kind, sometimes cruel,
He is generous and stingy, rich and poor:
Look at him - he is all for us!(V. Alatyrtsev)
5) I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am God. (G.R.Derzhavin)
6) Faces appear, are erased,
Mil today, and tomorrow is far away. (A. Akhmatova)
Exercise 4.
Read a poem by A.A. Blok. A.A. Blok uses the following synonymous series in the poem: to describe the night - month, moon, darkness, fog; silent, sleeping, resting; to describe the day - life, sun; will light up, boil.
These are contextual synonyms, because only in this text are they words that are close in meaning. Make up antonymic rows of synonyms, arranging them according to the degree of growth of the sign.
Expressive syntactic tools
Expressive (expressive) means of phonetics, vocabulary, morphology, syntax are extremely important both in communication between people and in understanding a literary text. It is they who form what is called the meaning of a literary text, that unique author's individuality that appears between the lines, “behind the word”. One of the brightest linguists of the twentieth century R.O. Jacobson, defining the system of functions of language and speech, identified three functions that are universal, that is, those that are inherent in any language in all historical eras:
- information message function,
- expressive-emotive function (that is, the expression by the speaker or writer of his attitude to what he is talking about),
- an inviting and incentive function that regulates the behavior of the addressee of the message. 53
Modern linguists give priority to the expressive-emotive function as a background for the expression of information that forms the meaningfulness of speech expressing a thought. 54
It is easy to see that the last two functions of R.O. Jacobson's are closely related to one another: the expression of feelings is always aimed at attracting the attention of the interlocutor to the reported. The most ancient form of the inviting-motivating function of R.O. Jacobson considers the magical function with the difference that in the case of verbal magic, the addressee of speech is not the interlocutor, but something unknown, possibly a higher power: Let this barley come off sooner, pah, pah, pah!(Lithuanian spell). 55
Carrying out the magical function of speech, that is, uttering conspiracies, curses, oaths, prayers, praises, etc. in the process of religious mysteries, people endowed the word with magical, magical power, they thought that the word was not a symbolic designation of some object, but its part, therefore, for example, pronouncing a ritual name can cause the presence of the one who is named. From the point of view of psychology and semiotics (theory of the sign), this attitude to the word is subjectively biased, expressing the depths of the speaker's personality. This brings together the religious perception of the sacred word and the artistic (aesthetic) attitude to speech, brings the magical function of language closer to its aesthetic function 56.
A person speaking expresses his attitude to the expressed thought from the time he began to speak. These are, first of all, interjection words-sentences: Oh! Alas! T-s-s! and the like. The Russian language is unusually rich in synonyms that differ from each other in subtle expressive shades of meaning: head, head, head, head; push, push, pushetc.
All means of language, not just its vocabulary, can be expressive if the speaker aims to strengthen his assessment of reality. Using linguistic means in speech, he fills them with additional, connotative, meaning additional to the main one, the informative function of the language is enhanced by the expressive function. Such constructions express expressively colored thought. For example, the structural-semantic type of a sentence itself does not have expressiveness, it is neutral, but the choice of lexical content, the condensed use of certain components in order to actualize them gives it expressiveness.
In the scientific literature for the first time about the expressive means of language wrote E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk: "Expressiveness in speech is the enhancement of expressiveness and depiction" 57. EAT. Galkina-Fedoruk highlighted the varieties of expressive language means. Already in the first article on the problem, both lexical and syntactic expressive means were noted. Expressiveness can be embedded both in a single word and in a sentence, which is shown to us by interjections - sentence words.
The system of expressive-evaluative suffixes arose a very long time ago and is most fully manifested in folklore works. It is known how powerfully the system of expressive word-building and form-building means is developed in folklore. Deminutives (words with diminutive-affectionate suffixes) are typical for the language of folklore, as well as for works of art that imitate oral folk art:
Because of the forest, the dark forest
Rose red zoryushka,
Scattered with a clear rainbow
Lights- the rays are crimson,
This morning withsunshine
Whether from those dark thickets
Swam out likezorenka ,
Snow-whiteswan ,
Behind a slim band
Movedswans ,
And the mirror surface was crushed
On rings emerald. (S. Yesenin)
Expressive role in poetic text can also be performed by prefixes:
The day will come - sad, they say! -
They will reign, they will repay, they will burn away, -
Chilled by other people's nickels, -
My eyes, moving like a flame. (M. Tsvetaeva)
Death is like this:
Unfinished house,
Undergrown a son,
Untied sheaf,
Underbreathed sigh,
Under-shouted scream. (M. Tsvetaeva)
The aesthetic function of speech is to evoke aesthetic experiences in the listener (reader): the feeling of the attractive magical beauty of the word, the desire to repeat it - to read it, listen to the text, empathizing with its very sound and the subtle nuances of meaning.
The syntactic structure of a work of art conveys its rhythm and expression of the figurative use of vocabulary. It is no coincidence that the earliest folklore traditions, the first poetic works go back to magic rituals. Magic and poetry are based on a metaphor in a broad sense (actually a metaphor, personification, metonymy, comparison, hyperbole, lithote, etc.). In poetry, metaphor is a generator of meanings, a tool for penetrating the secrets of things, the main factor in poetic expressiveness. But the metaphor itself has an implicit syntactic etymology, the metaphor is predicate by definition (ND Arutyunova).
A powerful expressive force is possessed by a system of syntactic means that form a variety of repetitions in a poetic text. Repetitions are the most ancient means of transmitting the rhythm and melody of a work of art, means of its coherence and integrity. Repetitions by means of language reflect the various rhythms that fill the world. In folk songs, epics, we meet direct tautology, anaphora, epiphora, repetitions of key words, stanzas-choruses, whole compositional fragments defining the storyline, whole plot lines, for example, in the epic “Ilya Muromets”, etc. The repetitions of stanzas organize a circular composition, parallelism, gradation, refrain, antithesis, which later came to the structure of the author's work of art. Within these repeating elements we see repetitions of a more particular compositional nature: repetitions of synonyms and antonyms, exclamation and interrogative sentences, rhetorical questions, repetitions of conjunctions and connecting particles, references, double and paired negation, etc. These tools are widely used in both classical and modern poetry.
Pushkin uses repetitions in an extremely diverse way, including lexical ones, up to the creation of a contextual oxymoron (Ch. 4, ХУШ):
Everyone in the world has enemies,
But God save us from friends!
These are for me friends, friends!
It was not for nothing that I remembered them.
Repetitions of identical tokens
Repetitions of tokens with a wide variety of functions are common. In the first place in frequency are marked pronominal components in the connecting function. The derogatory characterization of retrograde Moscow society is achieved by repeating the pronoun all, passing into a homonymous particle, and a pronominal adverb soalso with a particle (ch. 7, ХLУ):
But there is no change in them;
All in them for the old sample:
Aunt Princess Elena's
Allsame tulle cap;
All Lukerya Lvovna is whitewashed,
Allalso Lyubov Petrovna is lying,
Ivan Petrovich same stupid
Semyon Petrovich same stingy
At Pelageya Nikolavna
Still the same friend Monsieur Finmush,
AND same spitz, and same husband;
And he, all of the club is a member of service,
All the same humble, same deaf,
AND same eats and drinks for two.
Anaphoric repetitions can span multiple stanzas, creating a whirlwind movement, deepening expression due to numerous parallel repetitions - both syntactic and lexical. On the one hand, exclamation particles create an expressive frame. asstructuring stanzas. On the other hand, this space is filled with numerous repetitions of the verb and nominal parts of the compound predicates, convex, voluminous and at the same time dynamically creating the image of the main character. Here, expressive means no longer form a sentence, but a microtext that characterizes the hero as much as possible, not describing, but showing him in action (Ch. 1, X, X1, XI):
how early could is he hypocrite,
Conceal hope, to be jealous,
Reassure, forcebelieve ,
To seem gloomy, to languish,
Be proud and obedient
Attentive or indifferent!
How languid was is he silent,
how ardently eloquent,
In heart letters how careless!
One breathing, one thing loving,
how is he knew how to forget yourself!
how his gaze was fast and gentle,
Shy and impudent and sometimes
Shone an obedient tear!
How he knew how to seem new,
Joking innocence amaze,
Frighten despair ready,
Pleasant flattery amuse,
To catch a moment of emotion,
Innocent years of prejudice
Mind and passion win,
Involuntary caress expect,
Pray and demand confessions,
Eavesdrop the first sound of the heart,
Chase love, and suddenly
To achieve secret meeting ...
And after her alone
Give lessons in silence.
how early could so he disturb
Note coquette hearts!
When did I want to destroy
His rivals,
how he is sarcastic slander!
What kind network them cooked!
But you blessed husbands,
You were friends with him ...
Highlighted repetitions show how densely rich the text is. Semantic hubs-nodes in all stanzas - modal linking verbs could, could - they smooth out the direct author's descriptive characteristics, unfold it towards the character's self-manifestation in his activity self-expression.
Of the three stanzas containing the characterization of the hero, the central, eleventh one, is a simple sentence with thirteen homogeneous predicates, the last of which is parceled, which further accentuates its ironically mischievous meaning. The X and XP stanzas are made out according to the text model, and the twelfth is incomplete, making up only half of the stanza. Inside the chapter, being included in its composition, there is a separate energy clot, with its own composition, semantic deepening, and artistic fullness - this is the central part of the chapter - an in-depth, detailed description of the main character of the novel.
Pushkin makes extensive use of anaphores, primarily pronominal (ch. 1, ХLУ1):
Who lived and thought that one can not
In my heart, do not despise people;
Who felt togo worries
The ghost of unrecoverable days:
Tom there are no charms,
Togo the snake of memories
Togoremorse gnaws.
With the help of the anaphora, subjects-subjects (behind which the author's self stands) of the main sentences in the composition of the SPP are actualized.
More often, repetitions structure individual sentences or their components. Anaphorically, the ligamentous component of the compound verbal predicateexpressing a bundle of emotions when creating a detailed antithesis (ch. 6, XXXIII):
Nicely bold epigram
Infuriate a blunder enemy;
Nicely ripen like him stubbornly
Bowing his horns,
Involuntarily looking in the mirror
And he is ashamed to recognize himself;
More pleasantif he, friends,
Will foolishly scream: it's me!
Even nicer in silence
Prepare an honest coffin for him
And quietly aim at a pale forehead
At a noble distance;
But send him to the fathers
It is hardly pleasant will be us.
Anaphora can be combined with thickening of exclamation sentences (ch. 8, 1U):
But I fell behind their union
And fled into the distance ... She followed me.
How often affectionate muse
I was delighted by the dumb path
By the magic of a secret story!
How often on the rocks of the Caucasus
She is Lenore, in the moonlight,
I rode a horse with me!
How often along the banks of Taurida
She me in the darkness of the night
Drove to listen to the noise of the sea
The silent whisper of Nereid
A deep eternal chorus of shafts,
A hymn of praise to the father of the worlds.
In exclamation sentences, only their formal components can be repeated (Ch. 7, P):
how sad to me your appearance,
Spring, spring! it's time for love!
What languid excitement
In my soul, my blood!
FROM what heavy affection
I enjoy the breeze
Into my face the blowing spring
In the bosom of rural silence!
Anaphora can extend over several stanzas, linking them into a single ideological and thematic whole (Ch. 8, XXIU-XXU1):
There were ladies elderly
In caps and roses, seemingly evil;
There was a few girls
Unsmiling faces;
There was the messenger who spoke
On public affairs;
Herewas in fragrant gray hair
The old man who joked in the old way:
Excellent, subtle and intelligent,
Which is somewhat ridiculous today.
Go to the next stanza :
There was greedy for epigrams,
For all angry mister:
Tips master's too sweet
On a plane give, per tone men,
To talk about a vague novel,
On a monogramgiven to two sisters,
On a lie magazines, to the war,
On the snow and onhis wife…
Next stanza:
There was Prolasov, who deserved
Fame for the baseness of the soul ...
Expressiveness of the main anaphora there were amplified by ten identical word forms (in + vin. p.) with complex syncretic semantics - these are additions with adverbial causal and target meaning.
Repetitions can structure the catechetical structure of the stanza, for example, in the form of rhetorical prompting questions (Ch. 3, XXIU):
Why Is Tatyana guilty?
For that eh , what in sweet simplicity
She knows no deception
And believes the chosen dream?
For the fact that loves without art,
Obedient to the attraction of feeling
what she is so trusting
what gifted from heaven
Rebellious imagination,
Alive with mind and will,
And a wayward head
And with a fiery and tender heart?
Here we see the formation of causal relationships in the lyric text. Complicated causal sentences in the first third of the 19th century are extremely rare in Russian poetry, they are combined with object semantics.
In ch. 6 (XXXY1) anaphora actualize clots of rhetorical questions, including three rows of homogeneous members and three characterizing appeals:
Faded! Where hot excitement
Where noble aspiration
And the feelings and thoughts of the young,
Tall, gentle, daring?
Where stormy love desires,
And thirst for knowledge and work
And fear of vice and shame
And you cherished dreams
You, the ghost of unearthly life,
You saint dreams of poetry!
Less often, anaphoric repetitions are expressed by nouns in combination with substantivated pronouns in the form of paired repetitions (Ch. 7, USH, 1X, X):
Alas! young bride
Your sadness is wrong.
Other captivated her attention,
Other had time for her suffering
Euthanize with love flattery,
Ulan knew how to captivate her,
Ulan love her soul ...
And now with him at the altar
She's shyly under the crown
Stands with bowed head
With fire in downcast eyes,
With smile easy on the lips.
Lexical repetitions the other is the otherlancer - lancer accompanied by syntactic repetitions of one word form with adverbial meaning and enthyme.
There are repetitions in the form of numerals, the last of which in the series are also substantiated:
We knew the passion gameboth ;
Tormented life both us;
INboth the heat of the heart went out;
Of both anger awaited ...
Pushkin is characterized by the combination of several expressive syntactic means in one sentence. For example, anaphores are combined with detailed comparisons, homogeneous terms, separate definitions and an appendix (Ch. 2, X):
He sang love, obedient to love,
And his song was clear
Like the thoughts of an innocent virgin,
Like a baby's sleep, like the moon
In the deserts of the serene sky,
Goddess of secrets and gentle sighs;
He sangseparation and sadness,
And something, and the fog is distant,
And romantic roses;
He sang those distant lands
Where long in the bosom of silence
His living tears flowed;
He sang the faded color of life
Nearly eighteen years old.
Anaphora structuring stanza He sang - combined with other repetitions: three comparative turns, five homogeneous additions.
In ch. 5, stanza XIU, the anaphora is combined with elliptical sentences introduced by Pushkin into the structure of a literary text, and with enzhambemanes (transitions, or transfers), semantically deepening the syntactic structure (see below):
Tatiana into the forest; the bear is behind her;
Snow is loose up to her knees;
Then long branch by her neck
Will suddenly hookthen from the ears
Gold earrings will vomit by force;
Then in fragile snow withlegs cute
A wet shoe gets stuck;
Then she will drop the handkerchief;
She has no time to lift;fears,
The bear hears behind him
And even with a tremulous hand
He is ashamed to lift the garment;
She runs,he followed ,
ANDforces already run away to hernot .
The rhythm of a complex non-union sentence, including a complex block with dividing alliances then - then creates the impression of a dynamic action, intermittent breathing of the fleeing Tatyana.
Pushkin created a text in which all kinds of syntactic expression were systematically manifested based on the condensation of sentences of different types and types and their individual components.
Millions of newspaper pages fall into the hands of readers every day. Waves of hundreds of radio stations permeate the air today, the blue screens of television receivers are shining, bringing news from every corner of our planet to listeners, making us witnesses of events in different countries of the world and in our country. Thanks to the use of the media (mass media), the communicative sphere has taken a dominant position in the system of ethnic communication, showing its influence on the formation of stereotypes of public speech behavior.
Research on the language of the media is currently attracting a lot of attention from specialists. This is due to the fact that by informing a person about the state of the world and filling his leisure time, the media have an impact on the whole structure of his thinking, on the style of perception of the world, on the type of culture of today.
Usus media (common use of words and expressions) is a very dynamic object of research. It clearly reflects the movement, as well as new trends in the development of the language situation, is sensitive to changes in social and generation proportions in society, to progress in the scientific and technical equipment of information and communication contacts. At the same time, one cannot fail to note the internal inconsistency of the language of the media, which simultaneously combines such opposite qualities as dynamism and conservatism, standardization and dependence on the speech priorities of its time, including on various kinds of fashionable preferences.
"Analyzing the usus of mass communication, one cannot fail to notice an obvious decline in the speech standard, accompanied by an active intrusion of elements of the spoken language, including expression. Stylistic usus is" communicative skills of language use. "
The language of journalism in the post-Soviet period has been little studied. And since journalism most actively reacts to changes in the social system, it requires new research methods.
The language of modern mass media is extremely mobile; most of the vocabulary in articles has a certain emotional load. In any text, the author's principle is clearly expressed, while it is closely connected with value orientations in society.
Elements of the theory of expressiveness in linguistics appeared at the end of the 19th century in the works of the French linguist J. Vandries and the Russian and Ukrainian philologist A. A. Potebnya, who associated expressiveness with affectivity. A particular interest in expressiveness awakened by the middle of the 20th century in the works of Sh. Bally, J. Zima, E. M. Galkina - Fedoruk and other researchers, in which the theoretical understanding of the category of expressiveness was continued, the role of expressive elements in the language was emphasized.
In the philosophy of the 20th century, the merit of drawing the attention of researchers to the importance of the expressive element in syntax belongs to Charles Bally. He showed that syntactic means - he attributed them to expressive indirect means, in contrast to lexical means, which he calls direct - are capable of giving speech a special effective charge.
Today, there are two main approaches to understanding the expressive in syntax. The first direction connects the expressive with the concept of subjective modality. Modality is considered by many researchers as the relation of the communicated to reality or the speaker to the communicated. The most vividly, expressive-modal meanings are described by I. Yu. Shvedova, who studied the syntactic structure of colloquial syntax based on data fiction... We are talking about structures of the type "Drive this way; I believed it".
In academic grammars, such constructions are described as structures with subjective-modal or modal-expressive meanings. In this case, expressiveness is understood as the appearance of an emotional attitude. In this interpretation, firstly, there is a fusion of the concepts of expressive and emotional, with the inclusion of evaluative, and secondly, these characteristics are attributed to the construction of oral syntax. The distinction between the expressive and the emotional in language was introduced by E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, who noted that "expression is manifested not only in speech, but also in gesture, facial expressions, general behavior. The need to distinguish between expressive and emotional elements in language is dictated by the fact that their functional tasks are different, despite their interconnection. Emotional is on a par with intellectual and volitional, expressiveness can penetrate both emotional and intellectual and volitional in their manifestation. Therefore, expressiveness is much wider than emotionality in language. , an increase in the influencing force of what is said. "
And, making a conclusion about the differentiation of these two concepts, EM Galkina-Fedoruk says: "The emotional means of language are always expressive, but the expressive means may not be emotional."
At the same time, many scientists assess the relationship between the emotional and the expressive as independent. Emotional meaning is associated with undivided sensory function, while expressive is associated with material meaning; these are intensifying shades that are superimposed on the main ones.
The main thing that distinguishes the concepts of emotional and expressive is the involuntary, unintentional nature of emotions, since they belong to the sphere of feelings, and the predestination of expression as a means of influencing the speaker when he realizes the intentional use of these linguistic means. The distinction between the emotional and the expressive at the syntactic level is quite difficult. In our opinion, the difficulty lies in the fact that if emotionality is understood as the expression of feelings and mood without a desire to influence, then purely emotional expression is always present in oral speech, which is less controlled by the speaker.
Are there special constructions, in addition to interjection and some types of non-segmented sentences, for expressing emotions in oral speech? It is difficult to answer this question, since there are fewer certain syntactic means for deliberately influencing the listener in oral speech than in writing. From this, one could conclude that the concept of expressive syntax should be primarily associated with written speech. But written speech is secondary and is more influenced by oral speech.
The second direction in the development of the concept of syntactic expression is associated with the name of V.V. Vinogradov. Back in the 30s, he put forward the concept of subjective-expressive forms of syntax as means of expressive depiction. The author connected these concepts most of all with improperly direct speech ("alien") in a narrative style. Subjective forms containing an expressive beginning are most of all represented at the level of a sentence, objective ones at the level of syntagmas, which are understood as the simplest syntactic units, semantically and intonationally limited and possessing more or less closed forms of a phrase. Thus, expressive depiction was understood as a certain artistic device inherent in "new" prose (Pushkin, Karamzin) and expressed at the formal syntactic level.
The ideas of VV Vinogradov, who interpreted the expressive in syntax as a special technique of written speech, accompanied by constructive changes, were developed in the 60s, when the term “expressive syntax” appeared. Expressive constructions form an open row. Most often, these include such phenomena as parceling, segmentation, repetition of question-and-answer constructions, special cases of word arrangement, and others.
The textual behavior of expressive constructions manifests itself in several ways:
1. With the help of expressive constructions, a special, most often, economical form of information transfer is achieved.
2. When using expressive syntactic constructions, instead of one whole sentence, we often have two or more “utterances” that increase the communicative and functional capabilities of the entire expressive structure in comparison with its “original” synthetic version.
3. Expressive constructions extend expression, as it were, to the entire microtext, which may be characteristic of non-expressive sentences. This is due, first of all, to the existence of expressive constructions in certain functional varieties of the written form of the language (primarily in fiction and journalism), as well as to the creation of the text.
Communication means communication. Communication is usually defined as the "transfer of information" from person to person. Communication can be carried out both in the course of any activity, for example, production, and using a specialized form - speech or other activity using signs. Speech, speech activity, communication, mediated by language, one of the types of human communication. Back in the late 1920s, G.O. Vinokur wrote: “If language in general is, first of all, some kind of message, communication, then the language of a newspaper, ideally, is a message par excellence, communication, naked and abstracted to its extreme conceivable limits. we call “information.” The most important sign that influences the appearance of varieties of speech is the nature of communication: official or unofficial. Official communication can be personal and public. Informal - only personal.
Public communication is divided into two subtypes: mass (radio, television, print media, etc.) and collective (lecture, report, speech at a meeting, etc.). The main difference between them is that in mass communication there is no feedback between the speaker and the listener. This excludes the possibility for the speaker to know (see, hear, feel) the reaction of the audience and react to it. Another important feature of mass communication is the use of technical means.
Written speech is speech without a direct interlocutor, its motive and intention are completely determined by the writing journalist, therefore the entire process of control over written statements remains within the scope of the writer, without correction by the reader.
V. G. Kostomarov in his book "Russian language on a newspaper page" notes: "In its communicative function, language serves not only to express thoughts, but also to express feelings; logical thinking is associated with emotional reaction." Thus, the communicative aspect of any newspaper text seeks to combine an objective assessment and a subjective characterization of an event.
Mass media are subdivided into visual (periodicals), auditory (radio) and audiovisual (television, documentary films). Despite all the differences between them, the media are united into a single system of mass communication due to the commonality of functions and the special structure of the communication process. Modern mass media, acquiring a global character, create a new type of culture, transform the structures of a person's everyday life, and make changes in the nature of his activities and communication.
The mass media have a set of specific knowledge, values \u200b\u200band norms, play a large role in the formation of public opinion, and have inherent only features of the impact of information circulating in the QMS on its consumers. For the successful implementation of communication tasks, an understanding of the areas of communication is necessary. In the typology of functional varieties of language, a special place is occupied by the language of fiction and colloquial speech. As functional styles, which in their linguistic organization have significant differences, both from the language of fiction and colloquial speech, there are official business, scientific and journalistic styles.
Periodicals, the most traditional type of mass media, devoid of many of the advantages of television (the illusion of "live" communication, the presence of a "picture", the use of paralinguistic means, ample opportunities for the formation of a "journalistic image" - up to the demeanor and appearance) remains nevertheless and today essential tool mass media, which has significant potential to influence not only the reader, but also on different aspects of the life of society.
The main purpose of discourse in the media, including in periodicals, is to convey information of various types. Information in the media means the entire set of data, facts, information about the physical world and society, the whole amount of knowledge is the result cognitive activities a person who in one form or another is used by society for various purposes.
Among the functions of the media, the following are usually distinguished: information, commentary - evaluative, cognitive - educational, persuasive (influencing) and hedonistic (meeting the aesthetic needs of the addressee, causing pleasure) components, and the information function is considered primary.
The basis of information in the media is formed by reports of facts and their comments or assessments. Hence, it follows that the most important characteristic of discourse in this area is the category of the information field, which is understood as an information space that covers a particular volume of facts and events in the real world and is represented by a repertoire of topics.
The information field of newspaper discourse is formed largely due to news information.
The most important purpose of discourse is to broadcast information of various types - factual, commentary, conceptual, and entertaining.
In the conditions of modern Russian reality, interest in the media, including the print media, and their role are growing sharply. This is due to the change in the role and functions of the media in a democratic society, where they become the most important political and economic resource.
Every language is constantly changing. These changes are most clearly manifested in journalism. There is a replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which, first of all, is felt in publicistic texts: anglicisms, including the formation of Russian words according to the English model (I am fond of yachting), vocabulary jargon in its origin (cool, resting), revival of old words, expansion of meanings etc. There are also some trends in the stylistic design of journalistic texts: quotations, abuse of reduced vocabulary, etc.
These tendencies to a large extent appeared under the influence of the factor of destruction of everything Soviet: as a result of repulsion from the Soviet officialdom in journalism, the desire to bring the language of the author and the addressee closer together. These trends can be summarized as follows:
1. In the course of fundamental changes in the political system and in society, linguistic means and methods of word formation, which have become widespread in the media, undergo many-sided and complex changes. TO characteristic featuresthat determines the state of the modern Russian language at the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, is the blurring of the boundaries between unofficial, personal communication and official, public communication.
2. As a result of blurring the boundaries between the forms of communication, new mechanisms of word formation are formed, a new attitude towards communicative norms. The increase in dialogicity in oral and written communication, the expansion of the sphere of spontaneous communication, not only personal, but also oral public, the emergence of new jargons of public speech in the field of mass communication - these are already the consequences of a new attitude to the language norm, formed in the course of political, social, economic and social transformations in Russia.
3. There are two trends characteristic of the language design of press texts. The first trend is the result of blurring the boundaries between spoken and written language in the process of communication. Oral communication, as you know, prefers the use of dialogue structures, especially if equal (according to the criteria of social belonging, level of education, etc.) partners take part in the act of communication in a relaxed atmosphere. Changes take place within the language, within the variable models of the Russian language, and the mixing of oral and written influences the design of the text. The second trend encompasses changes in the use of lexical units: for example, the traditional opposition of political terms (for example, capitalist - socialist), which was characteristic not only of the Soviet totalitarian society, is canceled. Semantic derivation of words occurs: the semantic volume of words is expanded or reduced, an estimated value is added or removed.
What changes in vocabulary and the use of words will affect the system of the Russian language and / or word usage - the future will show.
The change in the general stylistic picture of modern publicistic texts clearly manifests itself, on the one hand, a tendency to express the author's point of view and self-expression (pronounced evaluative speech, various methods of emphasizing one's own opinion, etc.), and on the other hand, a tendency towards maximum veiling its subjectivity as a realization of the claim for the objectivity of presentation.
The word publicistic is derived from latin word publikus, which means "public, state".
The purpose of the journalistic style of speech is to inform, transmit socially significant information with a simultaneous influence on the reader, listener, convince him of something, instill in him certain ideas, views, and encourage him to certain actions, actions.
The journalistic style is represented by various genres (varieties or "substyles"), which include: articles in newspapers and magazines (newspaper and magazine genre), essay, reportage, interviews, feuilleton, oratory, speeches on radio, television and at meetings, report ...
The journalistic style, like all other styles, is a phenomenon that is historically subject to changes, but in it more than in other styles, changes are noticeable that are due to social - political processes in society. So, even a layman can see changes in the modern newspaper style in comparison, for example, with the language of the late 20th century: open invocation, sloganism, directiveness of newspapers have disappeared, modern newspapers are striving at least for external argumentation of presentation, polemical publications. However, the characteristic stylistic features of journalism have been preserved.
Within the framework of the journalistic style, its newspaper and magazine variety became widespread.
The journalistic style of the newspaper, first of all, is characterized by the desire to influence the reader. This is its most important feature, its influencing function, which can be designated by the linguistic term "expressive function". This function is inherent in all genres of journalistic style in any socio-political conditions.
A characteristic feature of the newspaper journalistic genre is also the information awareness associated with the popularizing function. The desire to communicate something new to the reader ensures the success of this genre. The peculiarity of the functioning of the newspaper journalistic genre, the conditions for preparing the material, the different qualifications of numerous correspondents contribute to the emergence of standard language means in the language of newspapers. The standardization of linguistic means is generated both by repetition, and by the fact that the search for expressive means is limited by time, and therefore ready-made expression formulas are used.
In the last decade, the attention of researchers to the text and the process of its generation, that is, discourse, has increased. In the journalistic style, the linguistic function of influence (agitation and propaganda) is realized, with which a purely informative function (news reporting) is combined. Publicistic works touch upon issues of a very broad subject - topical issues of our time of interest to society: political, economic, moral, philosophical, issues of culture, education, everyday life. The journalistic style is used in social and political literature, periodicals (newspapers, magazines), political speeches, speeches at meetings, etc.
The importance of linguistic study of newspaper texts is obvious, since, despite the powerful development of such media as radio and television, the newspaper continues to occupy an important place in the life of modern society. A significant part of the vocabulary of the newspaper style is made up of general literary words and various terms (science, art, sports, etc.). Both, in the appropriate context, can be rethought and acquire a journalistic coloration. Various stereotypes (standards, clichés) are widespread in the newspaper as nowhere else. It should be noted, however, that the trend towards standardization in the language of the newspaper is opposed by the trend towards increased expressiveness, lively narration with words and phrases from other styles, especially from the colloquial.
The main characteristic style-forming features of newspaper and publicistic speech, inextricably linked with the basic extralinguistic factors, are:
- "economy" of language means, laconic presentation with informative richness;
Selection of linguistic means and structures with a focus on their clarity;
The use of speech stereotypes, clichés characteristic of this style;
The presence of socio-political vocabulary and phraseology, rethinking the vocabulary of other styles (in particular, terminological) for the purposes of journalism;
Genre variety and the associated variety of stylistic use of linguistic means;
Combining features of the journalistic style with features of other styles, due to the variety of topics and genres;
The use of pictorial - expressive syntactic means of the language for expressive purposes;
Bright evaluativeness, soft standardization and general comprehensibility of the materials used in the newspaper.
Not all features are equally represented in all newspaper genres, and not all of them are characteristic only of the journalistic style. A firm stylistic fixation of lexical and grammatical means is a relatively rare phenomenon. However, their predominant use in one style or another, the adaptation of words, phrases, structures of one style for the purposes of another, that is, their functional use, is already a sign of this style.
By its very essence, journalism is designed to actively intervene in people's lives, to form public opinion... The publicist is not a passive registrar of events, but an active participant in them, passionately and openly defending the ideas to which he is committed. The journalist not only informs the reader about socially significant facts, events and phenomena of reality, but also gives them an assessment. It is only natural that not all newspaper genres are the same in terms of the use of informative and evaluation tools, but a simultaneous orientation towards information content and evaluativeness is characteristic of all types of newspapers, all materials of mass communication.
"The newspaper word is, of course, also a rhetorical word, that is, an expressive word, designed for maximum impact, but the main and specific feature of newspaper speech is precisely this predominant orientation towards the naked message, towards information as such."
The interaction of two functions - impact and message (informing) and determines the use of the word in journalism.
The fundamental difference between the publicistic word lies in the large role in it of the emotional, which acquires an evaluative character within the framework of the newspaper - publicistic style.
In various linguistic styles, including journalism, linguistic means are widely used that enhance the effectiveness of the statement due to the fact that various expressive and emotional shades are added to its purely logical content. The vocabulary of the journalistic style is characterized by the use of figurative means, figurative meaning of words, words with a bright emotional coloring. The means of emotional influence used in this style of speech, for the most part, resemble pictorial - expressive means artistic style of speech, however, with the difference that their main purpose is not to create artistic images, but to influence the reader, listener, convince him of something and inform, transfer information.
The means of emotional impact and rhetorical enhancement of speech used in the newspaper genre are diverse. These are tropes (allegory, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, epithet, etc.) - turns of speech in which words or expressions are used in a figurative meaning in order to achieve greater expressiveness, and stylistic figures, or figures of speech (antithesis, non-union, plug-in constructions, gradation, inversion, oxymoron, parallelism, parceling, rhetorical question, exclamation, inversion, default, ellipsis and repetitions). The group of figures of speech that occupy an important place in the language of the newspaper are repetitions of different types. Lexical repetitions (for convenience) are separated by us into a separate subgroup.
The use of tropes and figures is one of the most important stylistic devices and, at the same time, a means of increasing the aesthetic level of the text, enhancing the expression and figuratively expressive function of speech in publicistic works. In our work, we analyzed one type of emotionally expressive means - figures of speech, their role, meanings and functions in creating the expression of newspaper text.
In the book "Russian language on a newspaper page" V. G. Kostomarov singled out the main feature of the language of the newspaper: the desire for standardization and at the same time for expressiveness. Figures of speech - deviations from a neutral way of presentation with the aim of emotional and aesthetic impact - provide ample opportunities for the implementation of this trend.
Figures (Greek Schema, Lat. Figura - shape, appearance; speech turnover) are syntactic constructions designed to influence the reader. Stylistic figures are forms of speech, in contrast to tropes - forms of thought. They are used in speech both non-fiction (in everyday life and newspaper and journalistic styles) and fictional (especially in poetry).
The study of stylistic figures has a long history (the first judgments date back to the era of antiquity). Until recently, they were considered mainly in the educational - didactic plan; in practical manuals on rhetoric, stylistics and poetics, samples of figurative speech were demonstrated, taken, as a rule, from works of the distant past; various classifications of stylistic figures were given (they numbered from 20 to 70); the corresponding instructions were based on the assumption that they are nothing more than artificial and external methods of "decorating" speech, mastered through imitation. From a modern point of view, stylistic figures are ordinary, "natural" ways of using the expressive capabilities of language, used by the speaker (writer) in the implementation of specific acts of speech and are one of the most important components of an individual style. They can be subdivided into three types, each of which exists in two opposite variations: extension figures, connectedness figures, and significance figures.
Figures, as syntactic constructs, are designed to have an impact on the listener and reader. The functions of the figures are to emphasize, highlight, strengthen one or another part of the statement. They serve as "an expression of the speaker's emotional movement and a means of conveying the tone and degree of his mood to the listener."
2. 2 Figures of expressive syntax on the pages of mass media in Ozersk, Chelyabinsk region.
The stylistic means of the language and the methods of their use are gradually taking shape, representing a historically changing phenomenon. The stylistic resources of the modern Russian language are available at all levels of the linguistic structure and are found in the prevailing generally accepted methods of using linguistic stylistic units. Many syntax tools are highly expressive and emotional. One of the means of linguistic expressiveness used in journalism is the stylistic means of language - figures. They are extremely diverse and contain rich stylistic possibilities. In our work, we will focus only on some of them, most often found in the periodicals of Ozersk and serving as an expressive means of suggestion and influence on the reader.
2. 2. 1 Types of lexical repetition in the print media of Ozersk.
In the linguistic literature, repetitions are considered in various aspects and on various materials, which is associated with their polyfunctionality. Repetitions include: and the position of the word form with diminutive meanings (quietly); and a certain type of sentences, built on the principle of repetition to express additional values \u200b\u200bof the modal type (sleep, so sleep, an order is an order); and the repetition of the prepositions of the tributary phrase, characteristic of the Old Russian language and dialect syntax (at the very place, at the market); and various syntactic figures of artistic speech, primarily poetic, with syntactic parallelism, indicated as an artistic device since the time of ancient rhetoric.
OS Akhmatova in the "Dictionary of linguistic terms" gives the following definition of repetition.
Repetition (repetition, reproduction) -
1. Full or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing their sound composition (or with a partial change) as a way of forming words, syntactic, descriptive forms and phraseological units:
1) Twin words (barely).
2) Onomatopoeia: quack-quack.
3) Emphatic combination (barely).
2. The figure of speech, consisting in the repetition of sounds, words and expressions in a known sequence:
1) Sonic: storms raged.
2) Vocabulary: stupid and stupid.
In a global examination of repetition, its varieties are distinguished either taking into account what is repeated (to which language level the unit belongs), or taking into account how it is repeated (what place the repeating unit occupies in the structure of the statement).
The implementation of the first approach makes it possible to distinguish the following types of repetition:
1) sound;
2) morphemic;
3) lexical;
4) syntactic.
When implementing the second approach, we can distinguish the following types of repeat:
1) simple (direct) repetition - epanolepsis,
2) anaphora,
3) epiphora,
4) anadiplosis - repeat at the junction,
5) loop repeat,
6) refrain.
Repetition (lexical) is the main variety of stylistic figures of addition (according to M.N. Gasparov).
A well-known wisdom says: "What they say three times, the people believe." Repetitions can be created by means of any language level. Repetitive segments are fixed in memory and influence the formation of an attitude towards the corresponding problem. Repetition is the most important style-forming component of the newspaper, going far beyond the figures of speech, affecting the macrostructure of the text, such as repetition of information in the title, summary and directly in the text of the article. Such a significant place occupied by repetition in the newspaper is explained by its ability not only to have an emotional impact, but also to make changes in the system of "opinions - values \u200b\u200b- norms".
Our card index contains 302 repeat units. In the course of the analysis, we established the constructions of lexical repetitions, their frequency of use and the degree of participation of parts of speech in the construction of constructions and modeling of linguistic units.
Anaphora - monotonous speech (from the Greek anaphora - bringing up) is a literary (poetic) technique consisting in the repetition of individual sounds, words or phrases (phrases, rhythmic and speech structures) at the beginning of sentences or passages that make up a statement.
Anaphoric repetition in our card index contains 19 language units, which is 6.29%. Combinations of words (47.37%), noun and particles (15.79% each), pronoun (10.53%), verb and adverb are used in the construction of anaphora structures.
Consider anaphoric repetition expressed by a combination of words.
"Little Red Riding Hood trembled. She was alone. She was like a needle in the desert" (Ozersky Bulletin. 30.07.2003).
The repetition of the phrase "pronoun + verb" "she was" focuses the reader's attention on the loneliness, confusion and defenselessness of the girl in the current situation, the emotional semantic load of the current circumstance increases.
"This is a work of art! It's not tea, but a symphony of color and smell!" (Concrete newspaper. 5. 09. 2003).
The repetition in this example (the phrase "pronoun + amplifying particle") acts as an increase in enthusiasm from the anticipation of tea drinking, arouses the desire to definitely try this drink. Repetition is a means of intensifying the properties, semantic shade and comparative assessment of the quality of the drink.
The noun and particles are the second most involved in modeling repetition.
"Sunny, little bucket, look out the window! Sunny, roll, red, dress up!" (About the Lighthouse. 25.04.2003).
By repeating the noun "sun" in addition to highlighting artistic image, emotionality is given to the statement, in this case a request, an appeal. At the same time, the transition from one action "look out" to another - "roll", "dress up" is emphasized.
"And Memory is an eternal and inextricable link between generations. Memory is our history." (About the Lighthouse. 03.11.2003).
Strengthening and dissemination of statements as a result of repetition, a parallel is drawn in the continuity of the connection between generations of people in history.
On the pages of the Ozersk mass media, anaphoric repetition, expressed by a phrase, prevails, which is 47.37% of all identified structures.
Epanolepsis - a simple repetition - a technique consisting in the repetition in the process of writing (saying) individual sounds, words, phrases in order to give brightness to the sound of antonyms, words and other lexico-semantic groups in a sentence.
The collected card index contains 254 language units, which is 84.01% of all language repetition units. Service parts of speech are involved in modeling epanolepsis - prepositions (8.94%), conjunctions (20.54%), particles (10.26%) and significant - noun (13.9%), adverb (6.95%) , verb (11.59%) and others.
By the number of repetitions in the constructions, paired repetition prevails - 165 linguistic units, by the degree of contact - non-contact - 178 linguistic units.
The analysis of the degree of participation of various parts of speech in the modeling of expressive - syntactic structures of repetition in a sentence showed that such significant parts of speech as a noun, pronoun, adverb and verb are involved, to a greater degree of repetition. Of the service parts of speech, alliances are highly productive - 62 language units. Such parts of speech as participle, gerunds and a special group - interjections and modal words in the newspapers we looked at are not found in expressive syntactic constructions.
Consider examples of the use of epanolepsis, expressed independent parts speech.
"In a word, as you know, you can save, in a word you can lead the shelves." (Ozerskaya panorama. 11.09.2003).
The repetition reveals pathos and emotionality in the given phrase, an organic transition to another action. Repetition acts as a means of intensifying an utterance and a means of increasing a sign, a degree of quality, and increasing influence on possible events. Expresses a positive assessment of actions.
"They say about the generations of our fathers and grandfathers: they want to return the past. No, they are simply true to the past, true to the ideals of their generation. Just like today's youth will be true to some of their principles, and who will have their own holidays." About the Lighthouse. 03.11.2000).
There is a spread of action, strengthening of the informative center, repetition acts as a means of increasing the sign.
"Now, less and less often you meet a man with front-line awards, and even more so a woman" (Tuning Fork. 29.09.2000).
Repetition acts as a characterological function, as a means of emphasizing, reinforcing regret and, possibly, sadness for the premature departure of the front-line soldiers. The prescription of the past events is emphasized.
"This clearly non-traditional school taught him to sincerely and deeply love a simple, honest, modest life, love Nature, love good people "(Tuning Fork. 24.10.2003).
Syntactic dissemination endows the statement, as it were, with additional, emotional strength, enhances such a wonderful feeling as "love" and extends it to various aspects life.
Consider examples of the use of epanolepsis, expressed by service parts of speech.
"Small inhabitants of the lake will learn about the cunning Fox, who did not want to be cunning, about whether chickens can be friends with foxes, and about much more." (Ozerskaya panorama. 24.10.2003).
The repetition of the preposition o appears in the form of a construction of the propagation of the action and, at the same time, additionally indicates the object to which the action is directed.
"My dear fellow countrywomen! It so happened that we were cut off from Russia, but mentally we are always with her, with our home." (All Ozersk. 11.08.2003).
The repetition of the preposition "c" acts as a complement.
"Our bureaucracy makes her feel hot and cold. One of two things: she will either cry or scream at her despair." (Tuning fork. 05.12.2003).
The repetition of the union then in the above phrase plays the role of a dismembering, separating factor. At the same time, the negative role of our bureaucracy is intensified and emphasized, and how difficult it is for an ordinary person to fight it.
Epanolepsis is highly frequent on the pages of mass media in Ozersk, expressed by a combination of words.
“The mayor is the best versed in everything, the deputy for economics is the best versed in economics, the deputy for education is the best versed in education, etc.” (Tuning Fork. 24.10.2003).
On the one hand, the importance of specialists increases, the superiority of each of them in their field is emphasized, on the other hand, repetition acts as, as it were, a factor dividing by profession. In the process of repetition, the accentuation and evaluation of the activities of leaders of various ranks takes place and, at the same time, a kind of division (dismemberment) of the proposal into separate parts.
"A good situation in terms of construction, and in terms of the development of production facilities, and in terms of the well-being of the people." (About the Lighthouse. 03.10.2003).
Repetition, as a means of syntactic dissemination of a feature, gives a certain emotional - expressive coloring to the statement, strengthens the semantic evaluative load.
Anadiplosis - (from the Greek anadiplosis - doubling) - a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the final consonance, word or phrase at the beginning of the next phrase or line of poetry. This is a repetition with isolation of the semantic identity of repeated words, repetition at the junction. There are 11 units in the card index (3.64%), of which, as stylistic figures are: noun - 4 linguistic units, verb - 2 units, adverb 1 unit and phrase - 2 units.
"The first and main mistake was that we started gambling. Now I understand that the" smart casino "was just the beginning. The project was ruined by moneyMoney ruins everything." (All Ozersk. 15. 12. 2003).
Repetition at the junction acts as an expressive - emotional means of increasing the sign, strengthening and affirming the statement. The negative role of money in certain types of human activity is emphasized.
"Memory is our history. The history of the life of each of us, the history of the family, the history of generations, the history of the country." (About the Lighthouse. 03.11.2000).
Anadiplosis spreads, clarifies and deepens the events taking place, acts as a means of increasing the sign, expressing the duration of action and strengthening the informative significance of the events of history and reality in question.
Epiphora - (from the Greek word epiphora - after carrying) - ending, literary device, reverse anaphora, which consists in repeating words or groups of words at the end of a poetic line.
In our card index, it has 5 language units (1.66%). In the construction of figures, there are: noun - 1 units, verb - 2 units, word combination - 2 units.
"In addition to the official registered reception, an anonymous reception is conducted in the office. Yes, plus visits at home, and plus consultations" (Ozerskaya Panorama. 13. 03. 2003).
Syntactic distribution facility. By repeating the noun "reception" the author seeks to emphasize that the doctor's work does not end with an official reception, but also includes other types of assistance.
"It is unpleasant to step on a rake - it is even more unpleasant to step on a child's rake." (Specific newspaper. 11.09.2003).
By repeating the phrase "stepping on a rake" the author enhances the ironic meaning of the famous winged expression", adding a new element of" childish "rake to it, thereby emphasizing that a person who stepped on a" childish rake "commits an even more stupid and ridiculous act.
Circular repetition is a literary-poetic device, an expressive-syntactic figure, which consists in the repetition at the beginning and at the end of segments of speech (poems, phrases) of the same word or sound.
In total, there are 10 language units in the card index (3.31%)
"If you go, you will definitely go." (Tuning fork. 21.11.2003).
"The great writer is right, and how right he is!" (Tuning fork. 16.03.2001).
Repetition is a means of enhancing the emotional and subjective meaning of a statement. The author asserts himself even more in the correctness of the writer himself and strives for the reader to believe in it.
An analysis of the card index shows that lexical repetition, as an element of the journalistic style of Ozersk mass media journalists, performs several different functions:
1. Expressive - grammatical functions.
In these functions, repeat acts as:
1. 1. A binder, common components, a factor, it seems to bind more closely homogeneous members offers:
"But I am heartily glad to any kind of manifestation in our meager high feelings time: and a slide, and a Christmas tree, and a cup of warm tea for a pensioner on a holiday" ("Tuning fork". 24.10.2003).
"These are festive commissions, summer health campaigns, and coordination councils for people with disabilities, and we can go on for a long time." ("Ozerskaya panorama". 09.25.2003).
1. 2. Dismembering factor:
"So you have to constantly think: either to eat, or to get dressed, or to pay the debts for the apartment. It's sad." ("Concrete newspaper". 05.09.2003).
1. 3. Means of syntactic distribution:
"Unfortunately, this issue has to be dealt with over and over again." ("About the Lighthouse". 11/28/2003).
“I have always considered my true homeland and now I still consider Russia. My dear parents were born here, here I was born myself, here I grew up! (“ Tuning fork ”. 24.10.2003).
1. 4. Means of intensifying the question (gives the structure persistence and emotionality):
"- And I will fulfill this order. Well, what should I bring you, my youngest daughter, beloved daughter?" ("All Ozersk. 15.09.2003).
"In the clinic, after the morning round: - Doctor, doctor. Sorry, I didn't hear what you said." ("All Ozersk. 30.06.2003).
1. 5. Means of expressing the conditionality of an action:
“But the little finger is responsible for our well-being: if we tighten it, we are thrifty, good housewives; if we stick it out, it means we live for the outside world. Popular pedagogy.” ("Ozerskaya panorama". 21.08.2003).
1. 6. Means of expressing the duration and intensity of action:
"There are other words like this: dizzy, dizzy from them!" ("Tuning fork". 21.11.2003).
1. 7. Means of organic transition from one action to another:
"In the first month of autumn everything can happen to the weather: frosts at night, daily prolonged cold rains, and warm sunny weeks." ("Concrete newspaper". 05.09.2003).
"The work is going on around the clock. Kurchatov and Zavenyagin personally follow all the preparations, because the success of the test depends on this. You can see both of them either at the site of the future explosion, or in the bomb assembly rooms, or in the concrete dugouts - laboratories." ("About the Lighthouse". 03.21.2003).
1. 8. Means for enhancing a feature, degree of quality or action.
"Woe to us that they did not know how to preserve our language and carefully grow it - in its sound, in its natural freedom, in its rhythm and in the vestments of its organically grown spelling." ("Tuning fork. 14. 12. 2003).
"At first, the bill went to millions, then to tens, and then to hundreds of millions of rubles." ("Tuning fork". 09.09.2000).
2. Characterological function.
This is a function in which repetition is a means of emphasizing, reinforcing the subjective - modal meaning of the statement (for example, the meaning of rage, anger, grief, surprise, reproach, etc.).
"- We, the former repressed, were taken only into the infantry, and in the most - the most poorly equipped!" ("Ozersky Bulletin". 29.10.2003).
"We often talk, for example, about our reality: a stupid life, when everything will be all right, when it all ends. That's the sadness that will end." ("About the Lighthouse", 05.04.2002).
3. The pictorial (painting) function.
It is associated with the concretization of the artistic image, the selection, which is essential for a given picture, of the details of the external description of objects (portrait, landscape, interior, etc.). Most often, this function is played by non-contact repetition.
"And when the sounds, so imperious and so gentle, fall silent, then a silence reigns, saturated with the expressed ineffabilities" ("Tuning Fork". 14. 12. 2003).
"There is the buzz of distant bells and the silver of nearby bells. There are forest rustles and crunches in it. There are rustles and sighs of grass. There are cries, and gurgles, and whistles, and bird chirps. In it are heavenly thunder, and animal roars, and whirlwinds. unsteady and barely audible splashing. It contains the whole singing Russian soul: the echo of the world, and the human groan, and the mirror of divine visions "(" Tuning Fork ". 14. 12. 2003).
The results are summarized in tables 2 and 3 and presented in the appendix.
2. 2. 2. Ellipsis.
Ellipsis - (from the Greek Elleipsis - omission) - a stylistic figure, which consists in the omission of any implied member of a sentence or a structurally necessary element of a statement, usually easily reconstructed in a given context or situation. "Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms" by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova gives the following definition of ellipsis: situations. Ellipsis is used as a stylistic figure to give dynamism, intonation of lively speech, artistic expressiveness to an expression. "
Ellipsis is a syntactic means of expressiveness, the opposite of an epithet. Due to the omission of one of the main members of the sentence, the remaining members of the sentence receive a stronger accent, and the entire intonation of the phrase becomes more expressive and energetic. In total, there are 94 items in the card index. Ellipsis shows the emotional state (excitement, etc.), accelerates the pace. With the help of the ellipsis, a quick change of events, actions, a tense psychological state of the character, etc., is conveyed. We join the broad understanding of the ellipsis as the omission of an element of a statement.
According to our observations, elliptical sentences in publicistic discourse perform the following functions: characterological (descriptive) function, excretory, function of transferring emotion, intensity of action, state of the lyric hero.
The work of a teacher is a high intellectual and civic tension. At the same time, it is fascinating and invaluable for society, for people. She keeps your former students grateful for life. "
If we want to direct the school towards constant, quiet reform, renewal, then our main concern should be the teacher - he decides the fate of the school, and not someone else. It is necessary to elevate the teacher so that he becomes one of the first figures of the country. "(" About the LIGHTHOUSE ". 03.09.2004).
"In a word, everyone agreed that holding competitions for professional skills is an important, necessary and promising business." ("About the LIGHTHOUSE". 07.10.2004)
2. 2. 3 Default
Silence is a turn of speech, consisting in the fact that the author deliberately does not fully express his thought. Silence - makes you think about what the author does not say. Default is an indication in a written text by graphic means (ellipsis) that a part of a thought is not expressed. Silence is a turn of speech, consisting in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader (or listener) to guess for himself what exactly remained unspoken. The default opens up a wide scope for subtext: at the place of the pause, you can offer various comments.
The formal sign of this technique is the presence of an ellipsis in the text.
The material in our file showed that all the defaults are at the end of the sentence.
"But there were lessons to be learned from the Afghan campaign. Today, there is pain from those days." ("PrO Mayak". 03.09.2004).
"From here it is already very close to the poetic theme, to that poetic concept in which the great love of man for his Motherland was revealed, for that infinitely dear land on which he was born and raised, which he defended in battles." ("Pro Lighthouse". 03.09.2004).
"The Russian Empire was preparing thoroughly for the 1912 Games in Stockholm, But it was a complete fiasco." ("Concrete newspaper". 02.09.2004).
2. 2. 4. Rhetorical question
A rhetorical question is a stylistic figure consisting in the fact that a question is posed not in order to get an answer to it, but in order to draw the reader's attention to a particular phenomenon. Rhetorical questions are very common in all functional styles of language, including its newspaper and journalistic variety. They act as a means of expressiveness, emphasizing the emotionality of the author's speech. A rhetorical question is an expressive statement or denial, it stands out intonationally and structurally against the background of narrative sentences, which introduces an element of surprise into the text and thereby enhances its expressiveness.
There are 30 items in the card index.
We have analyzed rhetorical interrogative sentences by means of expressing interrogation, by structure and intonation.
The research results are shown in the table.
Analysis of rhetorical questions
By intonation, units By structure, units By means of expression, units
rhetorical 20 pronouns 9 special expressive intonation 8
rhetorical statement 4 non-pronouns 21 interrogative words (pronouns and 14
negation of an adverb)
rhetorical urge 6 interrogative 8
particles word order:
straight, 14
reverse 16
“Few of the young people will be able to name the names of heroes - the Young Guards of Krasnodon or such heroes as A. Matrosov, Z. Kosmodemyanskaya, L. Chaikina, Yu. Smirnov and many, many others who accomplished feats at the cost of their lives. How can one forget these the names of a moral society? " ("ABOUT LIGHTHOUSE". 17.09.2004).
“We, the members of the movement“ Our city is our future ”, believe that Ozersk has bright times ahead. We just need to unite efforts and mobilize all the resources that are available in the city today. But is it possible to build a future without youth? our tomorrow is theirs today. " ("Ozersky Bulletin". 04.09.2004).
"Yes, the memory of the heroes remains in hearts and bronze. But it would be better if there were no more such wars in the history of Russia. How much effort and wisdom should the state put into this ?!" ("Pro Lighthouse". 03.09.2004).
2. 2. 5. Rhetorical exclamation.
Rhetorical exclamation - sentences in which the expression of content is accompanied by the expression of the speaker's feelings. Any of the sentences for the purpose of the utterance can become an exclamation point: declarative, interrogative, incentive. Rhetorical exclamation, according to the classical definition, is a ostentatious expression of emotions. In written text, this pseudo-emotion is expressed graphically (exclamation mark) and structurally. The exclamation mark in such statements is a way to attract the attention of the reader and encourage him to share the author's indignation, amazement, and admiration. Rhetorical exclamation emphasizes the emotionality of the author's speech, enhances the expression of feelings.
Our card index contains 41 units of rhetorical exclamation.
"And what grandmothers come to us! Caring, attentive, interested in the child's development, so that all his abilities are revealed." ("ABOUT THE LIGHTHOUSE". 10. 2004).
"Ah, the festival, the festival!" ("Ozersky Vestnik". 04.10.2004).
The analysis was carried out by the main means of forming rhetorical exclamation sentences: constructive elements of exclamation, by the goals of the statement and the expression of the intellectual state.
2. 2. 5. Rhetorical address
A rhetorical address is a word or combination of words that names a person or object to which speech is directed. It is grammatically unrelated to the sentence it contains. The appeal can take place at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the sentence, emphasizes the emotionality of the author's speech, directed towards the subject of the artistic image. It can not only attract the attention of the interlocutor, but also express the attitude of the speaker towards him. The address stands out intonationally: the so-called vocative function is inherent in it.
A total of 15 items are collected in the card index.
Places of references in the proposal were distributed as follows: at the beginning of the proposal - 7 units, in the middle of the proposal - 5 units, at the end of the proposal - 3 units.
Most often (units) act as references to a person in texts:
People's own names - 1,
Just the word people - 2,
Names of persons by relationship - 1,
By social status - 1,
By profession (including colleagues, officials) - 5,
By fellow countrymen - 4,
Lord (god) - 1.
"The address is a kind of syntactic construction, the contradictory features of which do not allow to unambiguously determine its syntactic status. It is a grammatical form that has a primary function and several secondary ones. In its primary function, the address has no analogue among other syntactic categories: it is the name of the recipient of speech (addressee), which is pronounced by the speaker in order to establish a communicative contact (speech addressing function) ".
Bearing in mind only this contact-establishing function (vocative, appellative, incentive), we cannot consider the appeal as a member of the sentence: the interlocutor's name is not yet the "speech" itself, not a statement, but only a call to its perception. The appeal is included in the composition of the utterance due to the fact that it receives additional, secondary functions: the function of characterization and the function of nomination of the subject of speech (for the purpose of concretization).
"Comrade drivers, be attentive and careful on the roads and when approaching pedestrian crossings!" ("Ozersky Vestnik". 01.10.2004).
"Lord, how to survive this ?! Not defended, not saved. Pain and grief these days filled the whole country: two airplane explosions in the air, a terrorist attack in Moscow near the Rizhskaya metro station, a hostage-taking in a North Ossetian school in Beslan." ("Ozersky Vestnik". 17.10.2004).
"We are already punished, having problem children. It is very difficult to support them in prison. This is life, real life, and everywhere there is all this, from which the city authorities so diligently disown, people live with this in other cities! That's all. what I wanted to say. People, do not leave us in trouble, help us to survive in a difficult situation, support, do not judge and you will not be judged !!! " ("Ozersky Bulletin". 03.09.2004).
"Through the educational world, I would like to see in some future a better society. And I would very much like my colleagues to call their students in a cheerful voice: hurry up, children, we will learn to fly!"
("ABOUT LIGHTHOUSE". 03.09.2004).
1. In the newspaper genre of the journalistic style of the Ozersk mass media, stylistic figures of speech have become quite widespread as an expressive means of influencing and suggesting a person. The analysis showed that the highest frequency of the use of figures belongs to one of the types of lexical repetition - epanolepsis (254 units), ellipsis (94 units), default and anadiplosis (69 units each).
2. The presence of figures of speech of various functions in the journalism of newspaper text allows us to make an assumption about the approval of the means of expressive syntax in this style of Russian written speech.
3. The dominance of complicating constructions in the texts of the newspaper genre of the journalistic style becomes mandatory, since it is functionally and ethically justified due to the full correspondence of the purpose of these constructions to the goals and objectives of speech interaction (communication) of this type.
4. The predominant use of complicated constructions fully corresponds to one of the main goals of the genre - disclosing the true picture of the events that have taken place, orienting the addressee in it, exposing the logic and the mechanism of their accomplishment to the reader. Complicating syntactic constructions in genre texts appear as a bright linguistic feature of this genre, reflecting its goals and specificity.
5. The use of bright expressive designs in newspaper materials increases their effectiveness. In this case, the influencing function is realized, a communicative effect is achieved.
6. The use of emotionally expressive means of language in a small volume of newspaper informational text allows journalists to clearly express their attitude to the reported.
7. As a result of all that has been said, it can be assumed that at present there is a simplification of the norms of the literary language, due to the gradual convergence of the latter with the spoken language.