STATE UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT

Institute of Tourism and Market Development

Specialty Management

Specialization Hospitality and Tourism

ESSAY

Discipline: Ecology

topic: Environmental problems due to soil pollution

Student Eremina P.V. (GTB IV -2, w / o)

Head Ph.D. Art. ave. Vasin S.G.

Moscow 2001

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………… .. …………… 3

main part................................................ ............................... 4

1. Soil ecosystem .............................................. ............ five

2. VALUE OF SOIL .............................................. ............................. five

3. Soil structure .............................................. ........................... five

4. Mineral nutrients and the ability of the soil to retain them ........................................ .............................................. ten

5. Soil pollution by chemicals AND ITS EFFECTS ......................................... .......................................... 13

6. Loss of soil .............................................. ................................ 17

7. CONTROL METHODS IN SOIL MONITORING ......... 20

8. BIOTECHNOLOGY OF LAND PROTECTION ........................................ 22

CONCLUSION …… .. ………………………………………………… ... 24

REFERENCES ……… .. ……………………………………… ..26

INTRODUCTION

Currently, the problem of interaction between human society and nature has become particularly acute. It becomes indisputable that the solution to the problem of preserving the quality of human life is unthinkable without a definite understanding of modern environmental problems: preserving the evolution of living, hereditary substances (the gene pool of flora and fauna), preserving the purity and productivity of natural environments (atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, forests, etc.). ), ecological regulation of anthropogenic pressure on natural ecosystems within their buffer capacity, preservation of the ozone layer, food chains in nature, biocycle of substances and others.

The soil cover of the Earth is the most important component of the Earth's biosphere. It is the soil cover that determines many processes in the biosphere.

The most important role of soils is the accumulation of organic matter, various chemical elementsas well as energy. The soil cover functions as a biological absorber, destroyer and neutralizer of various contaminants. If this link of the biosphere is destroyed, then the existing functioning of the biosphere will be irreversibly disrupted. That is why it is extremely important to study the global biochemical significance of the soil cover, its current state and changes under the influence of anthropogenic activity.

main part

1. Soil ecosystem.

An important stage in the development of the biosphere was the emergence of such a part of it as the soil cover. With the formation of a sufficiently developed soil cover, the biosphere becomes an integral complete system, all parts of which are closely interconnected and depend on each other.

2. VALUE OF SOIL

The soil cover is the most important natural formation. Its role in the life of society is determined by the fact that the soil is the main source of food, providing 95-97% of food resources for the world's population. The area of \u200b\u200bland resources of the world is 129 million km 2 or 86.5% of the land area. Arable land and perennial plantations as part of agricultural land occupy about 15 million km 2 (10% of the land), hayfields and pastures - 37.4 million km 2 (25% of the land). The total arable land is assessed by different researchers in different ways: from 25 to 32 million km 2.

The concept of soil as an independent natural body with special properties appeared only at the end of the 19th century, thanks to V.V.Dokuchaev, the founder of modern soil science. He created the doctrine of natural zones, soil zones, factors of soil formation.

3. Soil structure

Soil is a special natural formation that has a number of properties inherent in living and inanimate nature. Soil is the environment where most of the elements of the biosphere interact: water, air, living organisms. Soil can be defined as a product of weathering, reorganization and formation of the upper layers crust under the influence of living organisms, atmosphere and metabolic processes. The soil consists of several horizons (layers with the same characteristics), resulting from the complex interaction of parent rocks, climate, plant and animal organisms (especially bacteria), and terrain. All soils are characterized by a decrease in the content of organic matter and living organisms from the upper soil horizons to the lower ones.

Horizon A l is dark-colored, contains humus, is enriched in minerals and is of the greatest importance for biogenic processes.

Horizon A2 - eluvial layer, usually ashy, light gray or yellowish gray.

Horizon B is an eluvial layer, usually dense, brown or brown in color, enriched with colloidal dispersed minerals.

Horizon C is the parent rock changed by soil-forming processes.

Horizon B is the original rock.

The surface horizon consists of vegetation remnants that form the basis of humus, the excess or lack of which determines the fertility of the soil.

Humus - organic matter most resistant to degradation and therefore persisting after the main degradation process has already been completed. Gradually, humus is also mineralized to inorganic matter. Mixing humus with soil gives it structure. The layer enriched with humus is called arable, and the underlying layer - subsurface. The main functions of humus "are reduced to a series of complex metabolic processes, in which not only nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and water participate, but also various mineral salts present in the soil. Under the humus horizon there is a subsoil layer corresponding to the leached part of the soil, and a horizon corresponding to parent rock.

Soil consists of three phases: solid, liquid and gaseous. IN solid phase dominated by mineral formations and various organic substances, including humus, or humus, as well as soil colloids of organic, mineral or organomineral origin. Liquid phase soil, or soil solution, is water with dissolved organic and mineral compounds, as well as gases. Gaso second phase the soil constitutes "soil air", which includes gases that fill the pores free of water.

An important component of the soil, contributing to a change in its physicochemical properties, is its biomass, which, in addition to microorganisms (bacteria, algae, fungi, unicellular organisms), also includes worms and arthropods.

Soil formation occurs on Earth since the beginning of life and depends on many factors:

Substrate on which soils are formed. The nature of the parent rocks depends on physical properties soils (porosity, water-holding capacity, looseness, etc.). They determine the water and thermal regime, the intensity of mixing of substances, mineralogical and chemical composition, the initial content of nutrients, and the type of soil.

Vegetation - green plants (the main creators of primary organic matter). By absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, water and minerals from the soil, using the energy of light, they create organic compounds suitable for animal nutrition.

With the help of animals, bacteria, physical and chemical influences, organic matter decomposes, turning into soil humus. Ash substances fill the mineral part of the soil. Undecomposed plant material creates favorable conditions for the action of soil fauna and microorganisms (stable gas exchange, thermal regime, humidity).

Animal organisms that perform the function of converting organic matter into soil. Saprophages (earthworms and others), feeding on dead organic matter, affect the humus content, the thickness of this horizon and the structure of the soil. From the terrestrial animal world, all types of rodents and herbivores most intensively affect soil formation.

Microorganisms (bacteria, unicellular algae, viruses) decompose complex organic and mineral substances into simpler ones, which can later be used by the microorganisms themselves and higher plants.

Some groups of microorganisms are involved in the transformation of carbohydrates and fats, others - nitrogenous compounds. Bacteria that absorb molecular nitrogen from the air are called nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Due to their activity, atmospheric nitrogen can be used (in the form of nitrates) by other living organisms. Soil microorganisms take part in the destruction of toxic metabolic products of higher plants, animals and microorganisms themselves in the synthesis of vitamins necessary for plants and soil animals.

The climate affecting the thermal and water regimes of the soil, and hence the biological and physicochemical soil processes.

Relief redistributing to earth surface warmth and moisture.

Human economic activity is currently becoming the dominant factor in the destruction of soils, reducing and increasing their fertility. Under the influence of man, the parameters and factors of soil formation change - reliefs, microclimate, reservoirs are created, land reclamation is carried out.

The main property of the soil is fertility. It is related to soil quality. The following processes are distinguished in the destruction of soils and a decrease in their fertility:

Land aridization is a complex of processes for reducing the moisture content of vast territories and the resulting reduction in the biological productivity of ecological systems. Under the influence of primitive agriculture, irrational use of pastures, and the indiscriminate use of technology on land, soils are turned into deserts.

Soil erosion, soil destruction by wind, water, machinery and irrigation. The most dangerous is water erosion - soil washout by melt, rain and storm waters. Water erosion is observed when the steepness is already 1-2 °. Water erosion is facilitated by the destruction of forests, plowing on the slope.

Wind erosion is characterized by the removal of the smallest parts by the wind. Wind erosion is facilitated by the destruction of vegetation in areas with insufficient humidity, strong winds, continuous grazing.

Technical erosion is associated with the destruction of the soil under the influence of transport, earth-moving machinery and equipment.

Irrigation erosion develops as a result of violation of irrigation rules in irrigated agriculture. Soil salinization is mainly associated with these disturbances. At present, at least 50% of the irrigated land is salinized, millions of previously fertile lands have been lost. Arable land occupies a special place among soils, that is, lands that provide human nutrition. According to the conclusion of scientists and specialists, at least 0.1 hectares of soil should be cultivated to feed one person. The growth in the number of inhabitants of the Earth is directly related to the area of \u200b\u200barable land, which is steadily decreasing. So in the Russian Federation over the past 27 years the area of \u200b\u200bagricultural land has decreased by 12.9 million hectares, of which arable land - by 2.3 million hectares, hayfields - by 10.6 million hectares. The reasons for this are the disturbance and degradation of the soil cover, the allotment of land for the development of cities, settlements and industrial enterprises.

On large areas, there is a decrease in soil productivity due to a decrease in the content of humus, the reserves of which have decreased in the Russian Federation by 25-30% over the past 20 years, and the annual losses amount to 81.4 million tons. The earth today can feed 15 billion people. Careful and competent handling of the land has become the most pressing problem today.

It follows from what has been said that the soil includes mineral particles, detritus, many living organisms, that is, the soil is a complex ecosystem that provides plant growth. Soil is a slowly renewable resource. Soil formation processes proceed very slowly, at a rate of 0.5 to 2 cm per 100 years. The thickness of the soil is low: from 30 cm in the tundra to 160 cm in the western chernozems. One of the features of the soil - natural fertility - is formed for a very long time, and the destruction of fertility occurs in just 5-10 years. It follows from what has been said that the soil is less mobile than other abiotic components of the biosphere.

Human economic activity is currently becoming the dominant factor in the destruction of soils, reducing and increasing their fertility.

4. Mineral nutrients and the soil's ability to retain them

In order for plants (producers) to grow and develop normally, the soil, as a habitat, must satisfy their needs for mineral nutrients, water and oxygen. The acid-base properties of the soil (soil pH) and its salinity are very important.

For plant nutrition, such minerals as nitrates (NO 3 -ions), phosphates (PO 4 3-, H 2 PO 4, HPO 4 2- - ions), potassium salts (K + -ions), calcium (Ca 2 + -ions). With the exception of nitrogen, other biogens are initially included in the composition of rocks along with non-nutritive elements (SiO 2, Al 2 O 3, etc.). However, these biogens are inaccessible to plants as long as they are fixed in the structure of the parent rock. So that biogenous ions pass into a less bound state or into water solution, the mother breed must be destroyed. The parent rock is destroyed by natural weathering . Weathering includes all natural physical processes (freezing, thawing, heating, cooling, etc.), biological factors (pressure of plant roots,

growing in small cracks), as well as various chemical reactions.

Nitrogen enters the soil during rotting organic matter in the form of ammonia, which is oxidized to nitric acid under the action of nitrifying bacteria. The latter, reacting with carbonic acid salts in the soil, for example calcium carbonate, forms nitrate:

CaCO 3 + 2HNO 3 -\u003e Ca (NO 3) 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O

However, some part of organic nitrogen is converted by denitrifying bacteria into a form inaccessible to plants (free nitrogen). Processes that replace nitrogen loss include:

1) atmospheric electrical discharges, in which a certain amount of nitrogen oxides is always formed, followed by conversion into nitric acid and nitrate;

2) the transformation of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen compounds by nodule bacteria that are part of the roots of some plants (nodule plants, for example, legumes, clover and many other plants). Thus, in nature, there is a continuous cycle of nitrogen, as well as other nutrients. In agroecosystems, this cycle is disrupted, since biogens are removed along with the harvested crop.

When nutrient ions are released, they become available to plants, but can also seep through the soil (leaching process). Leaching not only reduces soil fertility, but also pollutes water bodies. The ability of the soil to bind and retain nutrient ions is called ion exchange capacity soil. If the ion-exchange capacity of the soil is lost, then biogens are leached and soil fertility decreases. Therefore, in agroecosystems, it is necessary to constantly replenish biogens by introducing them. in the form of fertilizers. Inorganic fertilizers (or chemical) are a mixture of mineral nutrients. Organic convenience rhenium - these are plant residues and animal waste (manure, peat), they increase the ion-exchange capacity of the soil and release biogens as they decompose.

In addition to the ion-exchange capacity, the soil must have water retention capacity, since plants need water to function not only for photosynthesis (1% water consumption), but also for the renewal of moisture lost through the leaves - transpiration (99% of water is consumed). It follows from the above that the soil must absorb water (infiltration) with surfaces, have water-retention capacity and a surface covering that prevents moisture evaporation.

Plants and soil microorganisms need oxygen to feed them: as a result of cellular respiration, plants emit carbon dioxide. The soil must ensure the diffusion of oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide from the roots into the air, that is, it must be well aerated. Aeration soil makes it difficult to compact the soil and excessive saturation of it with water.

The soil should not contain a lot of salt (ie, be saline), since in this case the cells are dehydrated ("reverse" osmosis) and the plants die.

The acidity of the soil should be close to neutral (pH - 6-8).

The ion exchange capacity of the soil, its infiltration, aeration, water retention capacity, as well as the workability of the soil depend on its particle size distribution.

The best granulometric composition of the soil is considered to be a loamy or dusty composition, which provides average soil properties. Regardless of the mechanical composition of the soil, humus and the soil structure created by it provide the necessary conditions for plant life. Over time, humus is destroyed (up to 50% per year), the soil structure is lost - soil mineralization occurs. Therefore, a constant flow of detritus into the soil is required.

Table 1

Granulometric composition of various types of soils and their properties

Soil type	Particle diameter, mm	Water infiltration	Water retention capacity	Ion exchange capacity		Machinability
Loam (40% sand, 40% dust and 20% clay)

In natural ecosystems, there is a relationship:

soil provides plants with nutrients, plants provide soil with detritus, soil ecosystem with food, protect soil from erosion, reduce water loss from evaporation and do not prevent infiltration. The relationship between soil and vegetation is dynamic equilibrium, not a steady state (less humus -\u003e less plants -\u003e less detritus -\u003e less humus, etc.).

5. Soil contamination with chemicals AND ITS EFFECTS

Technogenic intensification of production contributes to pollution and dehumification, secondary salinization, soil erosion.

Substances that are always present in the soil, but the concentration of which can increase as a result of human activities, include metals, pesticides. Of the metals in the soil, excessive concentrations of lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, etc. are often found.

Elevated lead levels can be caused by atmospheric emissions (absorption from the atmosphere) due to the exhaust gases of cars, as a result of the introduction of compost fertilizers, and the soil becomes dead when it contains 2-3 g of lead per 1 kg of soil (around some enterprises, the content of lead in the soil reaches 10-15 g / kg).

Arsenic is found in many natural soils in a concentration of 10 ppm, but its concentration can be increased by 50 times due to the use of lead arsenate for seed dressing. Mercury in common soils contains from 90 to 250 g / ha; by dressing, it can be added annually in an amount of about 5 g / ha; about the same amount gets into the soil with rain. Additional contamination is possible when fertilizers, composts are applied to the soil and with rainwater.

Thousands of chemicals have been invented to kill pests. They are called pesticides, and depending on the group of organisms on which they act, they are divided into insecticides (kill insects) rodenticides (destroy rodents), fungicides (destroy mushrooms). However, none of these chemicals is completely selective for the organisms against which it is designed and poses a threat to other organisms, including humans. ... Annual use of pesticides in agriculture in the Russian Federation in the period from 1980 to 1991 was at the same level and amounted to approximately 150 thousand tons, and in 1992 it decreased to 100 thousand tons. It is ecologically much more expedient to use natural or biological methods to combat agricultural pests. There are four main categories biological methods pest control:

a) with the help of natural enemies;

b) genetic methods;

c) the use of sterile males;

d) using natural chemical compounds

In podzolic soils with a high iron content, when it interacts with sulfur, iron sulfide is formed, which is a strong poison. As a result, microflora (algae, bacteria) in the soil is destroyed, which leads to a loss of fertility.

The regions with significant soil pollution include the Moscow and Kurgan regions, and the regions with medium pollution - the Central Black Earth Region, Primorsky Territory, and the North Caucasus.

Soils around large cities and large enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering, thermal power plants at a distance of several tens of kilometers are contaminated with heavy metals, oil products, lead compounds, sulfur and other toxic substances. The average lead content in the soils of a five-kilometer zone around a number of surveyed cities in the Russian Federation is in the range of 0.4-80 MPC. The average manganese content around ferrous metallurgy enterprises ranges from 0.05-6 MPC.

For 1983-1991 the density of atmospheric precipitation of fluorides around the Bratsk aluminum smelter increased 1.5 times, and around Irkutsk - 4 times. Near Monchegorsk soils are contaminated with nickel and cobalt more than 10 times higher than normal.

Soil pollution by oil in the places of its extraction, processing, transportation and distribution exceeds the background by tens of times. Within a radius of 10 km from Vladimir in the western and eastern directions - the oil content in the soil was 33 times higher than the background value.

Soils around Bratsk, Novokuznetsk, Krasnoyarsk are polluted with fluorine, where its maximum content exceeds the regional average level by 4-10 times.

Thus, the intensive development of industrial production leads to an increase in industrial waste, which, together with household waste, significantly affects the chemical composition of the soil, causing a deterioration in its quality. Heavy contamination of the soil with heavy metals together with zones of sulfur contamination formed during the combustion of coal lead to a change in the composition of trace elements and the emergence of man-made deserts.

A change in the content of trace elements in the soil immediately affects the health of herbivores and humans, leads to metabolic disorders, causing various endemic diseases of a local nature. For example, a lack of iodine in the soil leads to thyroid disease, a lack of calcium in drinking water and food - to damage to joints, their deformation, growth retardation.

Soil contamination with pesticides, heavy metal ions leads to contamination of agricultural crops and, accordingly, food products based on them.

So, if grain crops are grown with a high natural content of selenium, then sulfur in amino acids (cysteine, methionine) is replaced by selenium. Formed "selenium" amino acids can lead to poisoning of animals and humans. Lack of molybdenum in the soil leads to the accumulation of nitrates in plants; in the presence of natural secondary amines, a sequence of reactions begins that can initiate the development of cancer in warm-blooded animals.

The soil always contains carcinogenic (chemical, physical, biological) substances that cause tumor diseases in living organisms, including cancer. The main sources of regional soil contamination with carcinogenic substances are vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and petroleum products.

Anthropogenic interference can increase the concentration of natural substances or introduce new substances that are foreign to the environment, such as pesticides, heavy metal ions. Therefore, the concentration of these substances (xenobiotics) should be determined both in environmental objects (soil, water, air) and in food. The maximum permissible norms for the presence of pesticide residues in food are different in different countries and depend on the nature of the economy (food import-export), as well as on the habitual structure of the population's diet.

Moscow's land resources are prone to pollution and littering. To characterize soil contamination introduced total soil pollution indicator (SDR): with SDR< 15 у.е. почва не опасна для здоровья населения; при СПЗ 16-32 у.е. - приводит к некоторому заболеванию де­тей. На 25% площади Москвы СПЗ > 32 USD (32-128 cu). With SDR\u003e 128 c.u. very often adults and children get sick, and especially strongly the level of SDR affects the reproductive function of women.

6. Loss of soil

For sustainable development, a person needs to be aware of his negative impact on the soil and accept

measures to reduce this impact.

An increase in human population leads to more intensive land use. The nature of human activity is very diverse, and the following aspects can be conditionally distinguished:

a) agriculture and forestry;

b) various construction;

c) mining activities.

Agriculture and forestry includes agriculture, cattle breeding, drainage of wetlands, irrigation, watering of lands, plowing of virgin lands, deforestation, etc. Various construction also reduces the amount of arable land - the construction of large reservoirs, canals, dams, hydroelectric power plants, industrial complexes, cities, railways, settlements, communications. Mining operations, such as the development and operation of mineral raw materials, the extraction of minerals, including oil and groundwaterare also removing large areas of arable land from natural and agroecosystems. As a result of the destruction of natural ecosystems, soil is lost.

The most destructive effect on the soil is erosion, that is, the process of trapping soil particles and their removal by water (water erosion) or by the wind (wind erosion). Runoff can be slow and weak when the soil is slowly blown out during wind erosion, and catastrophic when water erosion forms deep ravines after heavy rainfall. (gully erosion). Vegetation cover or natural opal (fallen leaves) protect the land from all types of erosion. Water erosion starts with drip erosion - actions of blows of raindrops; uniform washing of soil from the surface is called planar erosion. For the retention of water and nutrients in the soil, humus and clay are most important, the removal of which due to erosion leads to desertification of the soil.

The land fund of Russia has many inconvenient lands:

permafrost - 47-49%, sands, deserts, semi-deserts - 14-15%, wetlands and swamps - 9-10%, tundra - 8%, highlands - 3%, cities and towns - 3% and only 15% - arable land with an area of \u200b\u200babout 230 million hectares. Of these, 160 million hectares are prone to erosion (most of them are black soil and 137

red earth). The famous Voronezh chernozem, 1m 3 of which is stored in Paris as a standard of fertility, no longer gives the yield that was before (decreased by 1.5-3 times). Over the past 25 years, the area of \u200b\u200bagricultural land has decreased by 24%, and arable land - by 18%. Each inhabitant of Russia has 1.5 hectares of arable land, while per capita of the planet (only 10.4% of the total land is cultivated) the land accounts for less than 0.5 hectares, and this indicator tends to further decrease.

The reasons for soil loss are plowing, overgrazing, deforestation and soil salinization during irrigation.

Plowing out increases soil erosion, reduces its water-holding capacity, infiltration and aeration are also reduced.

Overgrazing destroys the grass cover. Due to these actions, 61% of the fertile lands of arid regions were desertified, in particular: South Africa - 80%, West and South Asia - 82-83%, Asian part the former USSR - 55%, etc. Every year 6 million hectares of natural soil turns into a desert.

Deforestation. The forest cover especially effectively protects the soil from erosion and retains soil moisture, as it absorbs the impact of raindrops and allows it to be absorbed into the loose, arable layer of soil covered with opal. In addition, forests efficiently assimilate nutrients released during the decomposition of detritus, that is, they recirculate them. Consequently, deforestation not only leads to soil erosion, but also depletes its biogenic composition. Deforestation occurs for three main reasons: the development of new territories for agricultural land, obtaining wood for construction and the paper industry, and using it as fuel.

It also leads to the loss of soil. irrigation - artificial water supply to arable land. Irrigation leads to a significant increase in agricultural production in regions where there is insufficient rainfall, but often leads to soil salinity (i.e., soil salinity beyond the limits of plant tolerance), since even very good irrigation water contains 500-600 mg / l of salts. When water evaporates from the soil and transports through plant leaves, salts dissolved in water remain in the soil. 30% of the irrigated land is already saline. Salinization of the soil leads to its desertification (the Asian part of the USSR is salinized by 30%, in the USA - by 22%, in China - by 30%). One of the reasons for the fall of the once richest Roman Empire was the salinization and desertification of previously rich arable land.

Weathering and soil formation processes strongly depend on the climate and composition of the parent rock. If the rate of erosion does not exceed the rate of soil formation, there will be no loss of soil. However, in most agroecosystems, this balance is disturbed, since the erosion rate is 2-10 times higher than the permissible one.

Soil erosion is gaining momentum as population growth and economic hardship force people to cut down forests, plow mountain slopes and unsuitable arid areas, and use intensive farming methods that briefly increase yields through additional erosion.

7. CONTROL METHODS IN SOIL MONITORING

The soil cover accumulates information about ongoing processes and changes, that is, the soil is a kind of indicator not only of the momentary state of the environment, but also reflects past processes. Therefore, soil (agroecological) monitoring is of a more general nature and opens up great opportunities for solving predictive problems. The main indicators that are assessed in the process of agroecological monitoring are the following: acidity, loss of humus, salinization, oil pollution.

The acidity of soils is estimated by the value of the pH value in the water extracts of the soil. The pH value is measured with a pH meter, ionomer, or potentiometer. Optimal pH ranges for plants are from 5.0 to 7.5. If the acidity, i.e. pH is less than 5, then they resort to liming the soil; at pH more than 7.5-8, chemical means are used to lower the pH.

At present, control over the content of humus is one of the priority tasks. The change in the amount of organic matter in the soil is not only associated with the change. soil properties and their fertility, but also reflects the influence of external negative processes that cause soil degradation.

The humus content is determined by the oxidizability of organic matter. An oxidizing agent (most often chromlik) is added to the soil sample and boiled. In this case, the organic matter that is part of the humus is oxidized to CO 2 and H 2 O. The amount of consumed oxidant is determined either by a titrometric method or by a spectrophotometric method. Knowing the amount of the oxidizing agent, the amount of organic matter is determined.

Recently, carbon analyzers have been used, in which dry combustion of organic matter in a stream of oxygen occurs, followed by determination of the evolved СО 2.

Anthropogenic soil salinization manifests itself in the case of insufficiently scientifically substantiated irrigation, construction of canals and reservoirs. Chemically, it manifests itself in an increase in the content of readily soluble salts in soils and soil solutions - these are NaCI, Na 2 SO 4, MgCI 2, MgS0 4. The simplest method for detecting salinity is based on measuring electrical conductivity. The determination of the electrical conductivity of soil suspensions, water extracts, soil solutions and soils itself is used. This process is controlled by determining the specific electrical conductivity of aqueous suspensions using special salt meters. When monitoring soil pollution with oil products, three main tasks are usually solved: the scale (area) of pollution is determined, the degree of pollution is estimated, and the presence of toxic and carcinogenic contaminants is revealed.

The first two problems are solved by remote sensing methods, which include aerospace measurement of the spectral reflectance of soils. By changing the color or density of blackening on aerial photographs, it is possible to determine the size of the contaminated area, the configuration of the contaminated area, and by reducing the reflection coefficient, estimate the degree of contamination. The degree of soil pollution can be determined by the amount of hydrocarbons contained in the soil, which is determined by chromatographic methods.

8. BIOTECHNOLOGY OF LAND PROTECTION

Soil pollution with inorganic ions and a lack of beneficial organic ions, an excess of pesticides and other harmful mineral additives lead to a decrease in the yield and quality of crops, as well as soil erosion and deflation. At the same time, traditional fertilizers and methods of applying them to the soil are very costly. (According to US experts, a glass of diesel fuel must be spent on the production of a glass of milk).

At the same time, there are endless, renewable fertilizer resources containing the necessary nutrients for crops and close, and sometimes even superior in quality, organic fertilizers (for example: sewage sludge from aeration plants). Their widespread use in agriculture is prevented by bacterial contamination and heavy metals. While the first obstacle (technically and organizationally) is generally solvable, the second one requires new approaches based on biotechnological techniques.

Currently, in Russia and abroad, a lot of work is being done on the selection and production of microorganisms by genetic engineering methods that, when introduced into the soil, together with precipitation, produce polymers that convert heavy metals into immobile forms, and simultaneously carry out the process of nitrogen fixation (assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen).

For more than a decade, he has experience in using the red Californian worm to obtain biologically valuable fertilizer (vermicompost) from fiber-containing and a wide range of organic waste, as well as to improve the structure of soils, aeration. The humus that has passed through the worm is enriched with all the necessary amino acids and trace elements.

One of the most common and persistent land pollution is oil. Natural microflora, adapting, is able to destroy this type of pollution. Mixing oil-contaminated soil with crushed pine bark accelerates by an order of magnitude the rate of oil destruction due to the ability of microorganisms existing on the surface of the bark to grow complex hydrocarbons that make up the pine resin, as well as the adsorption of oil products by the bark. This biotechnological technique is called "microbial recovery of oil-contaminated soil."

No less promising and effective is the bacterial drug "Putidoil", the industrial production of which has been mastered in the city of Berdsk, Sverdlovsk region. The drug is a lyophilized (dried at low temperatures under vacuum) and disintegrated cell mass of bacteria of the genus Pseudo - topaz. The specific parameters and technology for growing the bacterial cell mass are a trade secret, the authors' know-how, but the effect is enormous. The introduction of putidoil to polluted places (territories) with oil and oil products allows in 1-3 days to completely destroy pollution to end products (water and carbon dioxide) and restore the natural properties of soils.

Conclusion

The soil cover of the Earth plays a decisive role in providing humanity with food and raw materials for vital industries. The use of ocean products, hydroponics or artificially synthesized substances for this purpose cannot, at least for the foreseeable future, replace the products of terrestrial ecosystems (soil productivity). Therefore, continuous monitoring of the state of soils and soil cover is a prerequisite for obtaining the planned products of agriculture and forestry.

At the same time, the soil cover is a natural base for human settlement, serves as the basis for the creation of recreational zones. It allows you to create an optimal ecological environment for life, work and rest of people. The purity and composition of the atmosphere, surface and ground waters depend on the nature of the soil cover, soil properties, chemical and biochemical processes in the soil. The soil cover is one of the most powerful regulators of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. The soil was and remains the main condition for the life support of nations and humanity as a whole. The preservation and improvement of the soil cover, and, consequently, of the main vital resources in the context of the intensification of agricultural production, the development of industry, the rapid growth of cities and transport is possible only with well-established control over the use of all types of soil and land resources.

The soil is the most sensitive to anthropogenic impact. Of all the shells of the Earth, the soil cover is the thinnest, the thickness of the most fertile humus layer, even in chernozems, does not exceed, as a rule, 80-100 cm, and in many soils of most natural zones it is only 15-20 cm. Loose soil body with the destruction of perennial vegetation and plowing is easily subject to erosion and deflation.

With insufficiently thought-out anthropogenic impact and violation of balanced natural ecological ties in soils, undesirable processes of humus mineralization rapidly develop, acidity or alkalinity increases, salt accumulation increases, recovery processes develop - all this sharply worsens the properties of the soil, and in extreme cases leads to local destruction of the soil cover. High sensitivity and vulnerability of the soil cover are due to the limited buffering capacity and resistance of soils to the effects of forces that are not ecologically characteristic of it.

More and more, soil pollution with heavy metals and oil products is manifested, the influence of nitric and sulfuric acids of technogenic origin is increasing, leading to the formation of technogenic deserts in the vicinity of some industrial enterprises.

The restoration of damaged soil cover requires a long time and large investments.

LIST OF REFERENCES

1. NATURE MANAGEMENT. Textbook. Arustamov E.A. Publishing House "Dashkov and Co". M - 2000.

2. BASICS OF ECOLOGY. V.D. Valova. Publishing house "Dashkov and Co" M - 2001.

From time immemorial, land resources were considered one of the most important types of material assets. Nevertheless, at present, the soil cover has a significant load. In the following material, one of the most important problems of our time will be considered: land pollution.

Main reasons

Soil pollution and depletion is currently a special type of land degradation. At the same time, there are two main reasons for such negative changes. The first is natural. The composition and can change as a result of global natural phenomena. For example, due to the movement of constant exposure to significant air masses or water elements. In connection with all of the above reasons for natural destruction, the solid gradually changes its appearance. Anthropogenic impact can be named as the second factor resulting in soil pollution and depletion. Currently, it is precisely this that causes the greatest damage. Let's consider this destructive factor in more detail.

Human activities as a cause of soil degradation

The negative often arises as a result of agricultural activities, the operation of large industrial facilities, the construction of buildings and structures, transport links, as well as the household needs and needs of humanity. All of the above are the causes of negative processes called "Pollution and soil depletion". Among the consequences of the impact on land resources of an anthropogenic factor are the following: erosion, acidification, destruction of the structure and change in composition, degradation of the mineral base, waterlogging or, conversely, desiccation, dehumification, and so on.

Agriculture

Perhaps, it is this type of anthropogenic activity that can be considered key in the question of what causes pollution and soil depletion. The reasons for such processes are often related. For example, first there is intensive land development. As a result, deflation develops. In turn, plowing is capable of activating water-erosion processes. Even additional irrigation is considered a negative impact factor, since it is this that causes salinization of land resources. In addition, soil pollution and depletion can occur in connection with the introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers, haphazard grazing of farm animals, destruction of vegetation, and so on.

Chemical pollution

The planet's soil resources are significantly influenced by industry and transport. It is these two directions of development that lead to the pollution of the earth with all kinds of chemical elements and compounds. Oil products and other complex organic substances are considered to be especially dangerous. The emergence of all of the above compounds in the environment is associated with the operation of industrial plants and internal combustion engines, which are installed in most vehicles.

Soil pollution and depletion: solutions to the problem

Of course, initially it is necessary that each person understands the extent of his responsibility for a favorable ecological situation on the planet. In addition, restrictions on business activities should be established even at the legislative level. An example of such measures can be considered an increase in green spaces, as well as the establishment of control and systematic checks on the rational use of land.

4.3 / 5 (votes: 6 )

Soil depletion is a gradual degradation of the land associated with the deterioration of its properties: a decrease in the content of useful trace elements and a decrease in fertility. On depleted land, it is difficult to grow crops and it is almost impossible to get crops.

Since soil is a non-renewable natural resource in its own right, the entire responsibility for the suitability of the soil rests with humans. ANO Center for Ecological Expertise conducts soil studies aimed at identifying its main properties and characteristics.

The main reasons that subsequently lead to soil erosion, deflation (wind erosion of soil), dehumification (loss of humus), water erosion (destruction of land under the influence of water flows), gully erosion (contributes to the destruction of agricultural land, creating a dismembered relief) are:

• Surface soil contamination with mineral fertilizers, chemicals, pesticides, oil products, industrial waste, vehicle exhaust gases.
• Soil salinization (occurs with excessive watering of soils in dry weather).
• Waterlogging of lands (accompanied by degradation processes in the soil and biocenosis, as a result of the accumulation of residues on their surface that are not subject to decomposition).
• Subsidence (long-term absence of plants and microorganisms in large land areas). In some cases, these processes can lead to the destruction of the biosphere and as a result of the transformation of lands into a desert.
• The use of agricultural machinery. Regular mechanical stress leads to compaction, depletion of the soil and destruction of its structure, due to which the characteristics of the land deteriorate, which eventually becomes unsuitable for growing crops.

The soil is an invaluable natural resource that provides people with the necessary food resources. Nothing can replace the soil cover: without this colossal natural object, life on earth is impossible. At the same time, today one can observe improper use of the soil, which leads to an increase in its pollution and, as a result, to a decrease in its fertile properties.

Already now, mankind must seriously think about the problem of soil pollution and take the necessary measures to protect it. What are the main causes and sources of soil pollution?

The main cause of soil pollution is human activity, sometimes illiterate and careless. As a result of the influence of the anthropogenic factor, in particular the improper use of land, a considerable share of the fertile layer is lost annually, which is subject to erosion. So, over the past 100 years, the erosion process has captured 27% of the total area of \u200b\u200bland occupied by agricultural land.

Soil pollution is called the ingress of various chemicals, waste into it in quantities exceeding the norm necessary for participation in the biological cycle of soil ecosystems.

Sources of pollution

The main soil contaminants are classified as follows:

Residential buildings and public utilities

These are various food residues; fragments of building materials; waste remaining after repair work, etc.

All this is taken to landfills, which have become the scourge of our time.

The simple incineration of this waste in landfills leads to a double problem: first, the clogging occurs huge territories, and secondly, the soil is saturated with poisonous substances formed as a result of combustion.

Industrial enterprises

Any industrial enterprise produces many different types of waste. The most dangerous among them are toxic substances that, getting into the soil, negatively affect living organisms. For example, the activities of metallurgical enterprises are accompanied by the discharge of heavy metal salts, and the machine-building industry is accompanied by cyanides, arsenic and beryllium compounds. Lead, mercury and cadmium are the three most dangerous metals. Contamination with heavy metals is dangerous because they accumulate in humans and animals. generates waste that contains phenol, benzene, and during the production of synthetic rubber, harmful waste of catalysts gets into the soil, settling on the soil and plants.

The problem of oil and oil products pollution is especially worth highlighting. Massive oil spills are already called environmental disasters.

Also, accidental emissions are possible, which are accompanied by the settling of harmful toxic substances, this is how

Transport

The growing number of vehicles increases emissions of nitrogen oxides, lead, hydrocarbons... Once in the soil, these substances are involved in the cycle, which is associated with food chains. In addition, transport significantly reduces the total area of \u200b\u200bland used, including fertile areas. The process of soil erosion is accelerating, and it will take a hundred years to restore a fertile layer 1 cm deep.

Agriculture

The source of pollution of agricultural land is mineral fertilizers, pesticides, some of which contain mercury and other heavy metals.

Also, for several decades, various pesticides have been used to control pests and weeds in agriculture, which accumulate in the soil and remain there for a long time.

Plowing land leads to an increase in the process of soil erosion, overgrazing destroys the grass cover, which, in turn, leads to land desertification.

About 6 million hectares of natural soil are transformed into a desert every year. Deforestation contributes to the depletion of the biogenic composition of lands and erosion.

Regular irrigation also negatively affects the soil: it becomes salinized.

Soil protection

For many years people have used the land without thinking that they are destroying it.

The desire to get the maximum of its capabilities from the soil eventually led to the beginning of the degradation of the soil fertile composition.

Today, people must seriously think about land protection, take measures to protect it and correct the consequences of technological progress. It is impossible to rely only on self-cleaning of the soil: this is a long process.

It is necessary to help our land return to natural balance and natural balance. Environmental problems of the soil will primarily harm the person himself.

Control

For the cultivation of agricultural products, an assessment of soil contamination with chemicals is required. There are four grades of assessment: Acceptable, Moderately Dangerous, Highly Dangerous, Extremely Dangerous. The same assessment of the degree of pollution is carried out for soils allocated for settlements.

The hazard class of chemicals that pollute the soil is also assessed. General control is exercised by Rosprirodnadzor.

Monitoring can be carried out by licensed organizations; it consists in determining indicators that have a certain permissible rate.

Samples are taken and the degree of contamination is determined by laboratory means. After that, an appropriate act is drawn up.

Measures

Measures are already being taken to protect soil. In particular, to combat degradation, measures are taken to protect soil from waterlogging and salinization:

• drainage works to lower the level of groundwater (installation of drainage structures, open canals, water intake facilities, etc.);
• flushing irrigated areas in compliance with irrigation norms.

To combat soil erosion, a number of different measures are envisaged:

• consolidation of the soil by means of the root system of vegetation, the formation of a closed vegetation cover, the alternation of various types of vegetation on the slopes;
• plowing of land across the slope, terracing of slopes;
• planting of protective forest belts that reduce the wind speed in the surface layer;
• minimization of tillage (for example, plowing without turning);
• striped crop rotation;
• consolidation of the soil with vegetation.

In order not to harm the soil by overuse of pesticides, it is necessary to apply natural methods of pest control. For example, a ladybug feeds on aphids and insects; some weeds can be controlled with herbivorous insects. The most important thing is to minimize the introduction of pesticides into the soil.

Land reclamation is a comprehensive measure to restore land plots whose structure has been disrupted as a result of mining, construction or waste storage.
Main methods of reclamation:

1. Preparation of land for recreation of farmland (creation of arable land, gardens, hayfields).
2. Preparation of land for planting forests.
3. Formation of recreation and sports zones, parks, camp sites, etc.
4. Conducting sanitary and hygienic measures in those areas that are unsuitable for use in the national economy.

To prevent land desertification, it is necessary to optimize the use of natural resources, improve the structure of sown areas, normalize the use of pastures, expand water resources, and stimulate nature-protecting production.

The most important type of natural resources is land resources. These include all land, regardless of the purpose, category and form of ownership. The value of lands as a resource is diverse and can be considered as a territory, subsoil with a set of minerals, soil resources, the spatial basis for the needs of production, ecosystems, property and means of production.

The anthropogenic impact on agricultural land is increasing over time. Already in antiquity, intensified agricultural activity repeatedly led to their degradation, which entailed the death of entire civilizations and the transformation of previously fertile lands into a desert - as in North Africa. All types of human economic activity - agriculture, construction, industry and transport - have an impact on land.

The deterioration of the state of the soil cover can be associated with both natural and anthropogenic factors. The main consequences of human economic activity include: soil erosion, pollution, depletion and acidification of soils, their alkalinization, waterlogging and gleying, degradation of the mineral base of soils, their depletion in minerals and dehumification.

The main activity causing negative changes in the state of the soil cover is agriculture. Intensive land development has led to the development of deflation, and plowing along the slope activates water-erosion processes. Irrigation often causes secondary soil salinization. Insufficient application of organic fertilizers, which does not compensate for the loss of organic matter, leads to dehumification, and irrational use of pesticides leads to soil pollution. Excessive application of mineral fertilizers can cause acidification, and haphazard grazing of livestock can lead to the destruction of vegetation cover, intensification of wind and water erosion, and soil contamination with manure.

Contamination of the soil and vegetation cover with heavy metals, benzo (a) pyrene, oil products and complex organic matter associated with emissions from industrial enterprises and transport. Typically, areas of significant contamination have a small area along highways, near industrial enterprises and airfields. Pollution and acidification of soils is also associated with transboundary transport of heavy metals, sulfur oxides and nitrogen.

Anthropogenic impacts usually affect all components of the geosystem. The state of land is negatively affected by a decrease in the area occupied by natural plant formations, which are replaced by agrocenoses. Plowing leads to the destruction of vegetation, a change in the components of the water balance; due to an increase in the share of surface runoff, erosion processes intensify, the structure of the soil changes, and its water-physical properties deteriorate. Heavy metals pollute not only soils, but also the vegetation growing on them, through which they enter the body of animals and humans, causing diseases. The state of land resources is associated with the state of all natural complex, since "soils are a mirror of the landscape."

Soil erosionin many regions of Russia is the most serious problem of agriculture. It includes water and wind (deflation) erosion. G.I. Schwebs distinguishes agricultural, pasture and technical erosion. The intensity of erosion processes is determined by the magnitude of the slope runoff, the granulometric composition of soils, the steepness of the surface, its sodding, the depth of groundwater and the basis of erosion, and the conditions of water infiltration. Water erosion is a process of interaction of flowing streams and soil, depends on the nature of the runoff, its transport capabilities, it is closely related to water content, morphological conditions of the surface and the properties of the underlying rocks. Its initial stage is surface-slope erosion.

Water droplets falling on the soil surface cause the destruction of soil aggregates, that is, erosion of the soil structure. Due to the force of the impact of the drops, the smallest soil particles move down the slope. In the absence of significant slopes of the surface, the movement of soil particles along the slope does not occur.

Plane washout is associated with the laminar movement of water down the slope. In this case, the transfer of soil particles and their redeposition in the lower part of the slope in the form of a deluvial cloak is carried out. Flushing activity increases with increasing surface slope. Transitional from flat to linear washout is the formation of erosion furrows, that is, many parallel washouts on the slopes.

According to G.I. Schwebs, gully-channel erosion is divided into erosion associated with the activity of temporary streams (gully) and permanent streams (channel). The greatest impact on land resources is exerted by ravine (linear) erosion, which is actively proceeding in the steppe and forest-steppe zones. Linear erosion occurs according to the following scheme: erosion gully - erosion pothole - ravine - gully.

The intensity of the flush is not the same on different surfaces. So, according to A.P. Shaposhnikov, there is no washout from the loosened steam at a slope of up to 30, at 60 it is 0.01 t / ha, at 90 - 1.28 t / ha. ... There is more washout from old arable lands due to the deterioration of the water-physical properties of the soil cover. The smallest washout is recorded on soddy slopes, since vegetation holds soil particles together, improves soil absorption, increases slope roughness and slows down the speed of water movement. With dense sod, the speed of the slope runoff is usually no more than 0.0015-0.010 m / s. At this speed, plane washout does not occur. The intensity of erosion is also determined by the erosion resistance of soils, which, according to S.I. Selvestrov, decreases from powerful chernozems to ordinary and leached chernozems, gray forest-steppe and podzolic soils.

According to M.A. Glazovskaya, much more chemical elements are removed from arable lands with surface and subsurface runoff than from virgin watersheds. Tillage reduces particle cohesion and hence erosion resistance.

However, the traditional view of the problem of soil erosion has recently been questioned. So, according to A.I. Skomorokhova and R.A. Kravchenko, the development of ravines is a cyclical process, that is, periods of incision and filling are constantly alternating. The active growth of ravines is often interrupted by accumulation, which can continue until they completely disappear, or be interrupted by a new outbreak of erosional activity.

Wind erosion, or deflation, as well as water erosion, leads to the destruction of the soil cover. The most important conditions for its development are: the presence of strong and constant winds; climatic conditions with insufficient moisture during the year or season; destruction of natural vegetation, leading to the fact that easily fluttered soil comes to the surface. Deflation is typical for deserts, semi-deserts, steppes and forest-steppe. In the Voronezh region, it sometimes manifests itself in the spring, when the soil is plowed and devoid of vegetation.

Waterlogging of lands also in places is an important problem. Its diagnostic features according to A.B. Akhtyrtsev and B.P. Akhtyrtsev are: 1) the presence of a flat undrained gently-concave relief; 2) lack of surface runoff; 3) the presence of a confining layer at a shallow depth; 4) long stagnation of water; 5) development of surface or subsurface gleying; 6) variegated soil cover; 7) moisture-loving vegetation; 8) the presence of swamps.

The causes of waterlogging are complex. First, the presence of flat, poorly drained areas with difficult surface runoff. Climatic and hydrogeological conditions contribute to the preservation of melted snow and rainwater on such an area, activating the rise of groundwater. Waterlogging usually develops in the case of closeness to the surface of poorly water-permeable rocks, for example, clays or heavy loams, which predetermine a high level of water flow. High plowing of the territory and changes in soil water permeability, construction of reservoirs, development of irrigation in flat watersheds, and the creation of a network of forest belts can also lead to this. A significant role in this is played by the formation of the subcutaneous sole formed by heavy agricultural machinery. As a result, a layer with reduced water permeability appears at a depth of about 40 cm, and the filtration of surface water into the underlying horizons slows down.

Land pollutionoccurs as a result of the penetration of substances uncharacteristic for it into the soil. Sources of pollution are: industry (organic and inorganic waste, heavy metals); transport (petroleum products, benz (a) pyrene, heavy metals); municipal services (solid and liquid waste); agriculture (pesticides, mineral fertilizers in excess, livestock waste).

The most dangerous land pollutant is heavy metals. Their entry into the soil occurs through the atmosphere along with atmospheric precipitation, from the parent rocks, as a result of anthropogenic transfer. The accumulation of heavy metals in chernozems occurs mainly in the upper part of their profile due to the presence of a geochemical barrier here. Due to biogenic accumulation, it accumulates: Mg, Na, Sr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, Co, As, Hg, Ba, Pb and other microelements. The main intake of heavy metals occurs with emissions from vehicles and industry, as well as fertilizers and pesticides. In the last decade, the leading place in this belongs to motor transport, since industrial production in our country is in a state of crisis, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture has significantly decreased.

Significant negative impact the soil is affected by pollution with organic and organometallic compounds associated with technogenic emissions, as well as with the widespread use of pesticides. Many of them persist in soil for a long time (from several months to tens of years), remaining toxic and even forming more toxic metabolites.

Some organic components of man-made emissions (3,4-benz (a) peren, etc.), which are carcinogenic compounds, are also extremely dangerous.

It should be borne in mind that soil contaminated with toxicants and their metabolites becomes a source of pollution of plant and animal products, the atmosphere and natural waters.

Soil contamination with radioactive substances is mainly due to testing in the atmosphere of atomic and nuclear weapons, which has not been terminated by individual states today. Falling out with radioactive fallout, 90 Sr, 137 Cs and other nuclides, entering plants, and then into food and the human body, cause radioactive contamination due to internal radiation.

Local radioactive contamination of soils can occur in emergency situations at nuclear power plants. By selecting crops, applying mineral fertilizers, plowing the topsoil to a depth of 40-50 cm and other agrotechnical methods, it is possible to eliminate the adverse effects of radioactive products entering the soil.

Overconsolidation of soils, that is, a decrease in its inter-aggregate and aggregate porosity and an increase in density to 1.4 g / cm 3. The main reason for this is the use of heavy agricultural machinery in the fields, which leads to the formation of a sub-sole with increased density. This prevents free infiltration of moisture in the soil and leads to waterlogging.

Exhaustion soil is associated with a decrease in the availability of elements of mineral nutrition of plants - biophiles: K, Mg, Ca, P and some trace elements.

Dehumification- the process of reducing the content of humus, especially humic acids, which occurs mainly as a result of erosion.

Acidificationsoil occurs when an excessive amount of mineral fertilizers is applied to the soil or acid precipitation falls.

Gleyingsoil becomes more active during stagnation of water and leads to the accumulation of reduced forms of Fe and Mn.

Alkalization occurs with an increase in the proportion of sodium in the soil absorbing complex. In this case, the degree of peptizing of colloids and silty matter increases. The process is associated with the supply of salts from soil-forming rocks, ground and surface waters during irrigation

Degradation of the mineral base of soils- the process of destruction of soil aggregates and irreversible changes in the mineral composition of soils. It occurs as a result of the loss of natural plant nutrients, removal of fine particles from the soil, and agro-loss.

Significant damage is also associated with alienation of land for non-agricultural needs is associated with the construction and expansion of cities and towns, industrial enterprises, roads, various types of overpasses, etc. The scale of this alienation is very great. At present, there are about 60 million hectares under enterprises, settlements, transport facilities and communications.

List of references.

1. Akhtyrtsev A.B. Local waterlogging as a factor of land degradation in the Chernozem center / A. B. Akhtyrtsev, B. P. Akhtyrtsev // Natural resources Voronezh region, their reproduction, monitoring and protection. - Voronezh: Petrovsky Square, 1995 .-- S. 39-42.
2. Glazovskaya M.A.Geochemistry of natural and technogenic landscapes of the USSR / M.A.Glazovskaya. - M.: graduate School, 1988 .-- 327 p.
3. Ignatov V.G., Kokin A.V. Ecology and nature management / V.G. Ignatov. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2003 .-- 512 p.
4. Kravchenko R. A. The stage of accumulation in the development of gully systems and protection of lands from erosion / R. A. Kravchenko / Kursk. state un-t. - Kursk, 2003 .-- 119 p.
5. Perelman A.I. Geochemistry of the landscape: textbook. manual for students geogr. and a geologist. specialist. un-tov / A.I. Perelman. - 2nd ed. - M.: Higher school, 1975 .-- 342 p.
6. Khabarov A.V., Sklaban V.D. scientific. tr. / ed. A.V. Khabarov and V.D. Skalaban. - M.: Papyrus PRO, 2000 .-- S. 6-23.
7. Shvebs G. I. Formation of water erosion of sediment runoff and their assessment (on the example of Ukraine and Moldova) / G. I. Shwebs. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1974 .-- 184 p.