Sergey Fedorovich Platonov
Complete course of lectures on Russian history
Essay on Russian historiography
Review of the sources of Russian history
PART ONE
Preliminary historical information The most ancient history of our country Russian Slavs and their neighbors The initial life of the Russian Slavs Kievan Rus Formation of the Kievan principality General remarks about the early days of the Kievan principality Baptism of Rus Consequences of the adoption of Christianity by Rus Kievan Rus in the XI-XII centuries Colonization of Suzdal-Vladimir Rus Influence of Tatar power on specific Russia Specific life of Suzdal-Vladimir Russia Novgorod Pskov Lithuania Moscow principality until the middle of the 15th century The time of Grand Duke Ivan III
PART TWO
The time of Ivan the Terrible Moscow state before the Troubles Political contradiction in Moscow life in the 16th century Social contradiction in Moscow life in the 16th century Troubles in the Moscow state The first period of troubles: the struggle for the Moscow throne The second period of troubles: destruction of state order The third period of troubles: an attempt to restore order The time of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) The time of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) Internal activities of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich Church affairs under Alexei Mikhailovich Cultural change under Alexei Mikhailovich The personality of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Key moments in the history of Southern and Western Russia in the 16th-17th centuries The time of Tsar Fedorovich Alekseevich (1676-1682)
PART THREE
The views of science and Russian society on Peter the Great The position of Moscow politics and life at the end of the 17th century The time of Peter the Great Childhood and adolescence of Peter (1672-1689) Years 1689-1699 Peter's foreign policy since 1700 Peter's internal activities since 1700 The attitude of contemporaries to Peter's activities Family relations of Peter The historical significance of Peter's activities Time from the death of Peter the Great to Elizabeth's accession to the throne (1725-1741) Palace events from 1725 to 1741 Government and politics from 1725 to 1741 The time of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) Management and politics of Elizabeth's time Peter III and the coup of 1762 The time of Catherine II (1762-1796) The legislative activity of Catherine II Foreign policy of Catherine II The historical significance of the activities of Catherine II The time of Paul I (1796-1801) The time of Alexander I (1801-1825) The time of Nicholas I (1825-1855 ) A brief overview of the time of Emperor Alexander II and the great reforms
These "Lectures" owe their first appearance in print to the energy and work of my students at the Military Law Academy, I. A. Blinov and R. R. von-Raupach. They collected and put in order all those "lithographed notes" that were published by students in different years of my teaching. Although some parts of these "notes" were compiled by the texts I submitted, however, in general, the first editions of the "Lectures" did not differ in either internal integrity or external decoration, representing a collection of educational records of different times and different quality. Through the works of I. A. Blinov, the fourth edition of "Lectures" acquired a much more serviceable form, and for the next editions the text of "Lectures" was revised by me personally. In particular, in the eighth edition, the revision mainly concerned those parts of the book that are devoted to the history of the Moscow principality in the XIV-XV centuries. and the history of the reigns of Nicholas I and Alexander II. To strengthen the factual side of the presentation in these parts of the course, I used some excerpts from my "Textbook of Russian History" with the corresponding changes in the text, just as in previous editions inserts were made from there into the department of the history of Kievan Rus up to the XII century. In addition, in the eighth edition, the characterization of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was re-presented. In the ninth edition, the necessary, generally small, corrections are made. For the tenth edition, the text has been revised. Nevertheless, even in its present form, the "Lectures" are still far from the desired serviceability. Live teaching and scientific work have a continuous influence on the lecturer, changing not only the particulars, but sometimes the very type of his presentation. In "Lectures" you can see only the factual material on which the author's courses are usually built. Of course, there are still some oversights and errors in the printed transmission of this material; likewise, the structure of the exposition in the "Lectures" quite often does not correspond to the structure of oral exposition, which I have adhered to in recent years. It is only with these reservations that I dare to publish this edition of "Lectures".
S. Platonov
Introduction (summary summary)
It would be appropriate to begin our studies in Russian history by defining what exactly should be understood by the words historical knowledge, historical science.
Having understood for ourselves how history is understood in general, we will understand what we should understand by the history of one particular people, and consciously begin to study Russian history.
History existed in ancient times, although then it was not considered a science.
An acquaintance with ancient historians, Herodotus and Thucydides, for example, will show you that the Greeks were right in their own way in classifying history as an art. They understood history as an artistic story about memorable events and people. The historian's task was to convey to listeners and readers, along with aesthetic pleasure, and a number of moral edifications. Art pursued the same goals.
With this view of history as a fictional story of memorable events, ancient historians adhered to the appropriate methods of presentation. In their narrative, they strove for truth and accuracy, but they did not have a strict objective measure of truth. The deeply truthful Herodotus, for example, has many fables (about Egypt, about the Scythians, etc.); in some he believes, because he does not know the limits of the natural, while others, and not believing in them, he brings into his story, because they seduce him with their artistic interest. Moreover, the ancient historian, true to his artistic tasks, considered it possible to decorate the narrative with conscious fiction. Thucydides, whose veracity we do not doubt, puts into the mouths of his heroes speeches composed by himself, but he considers himself right in virtue of the fact that he faithfully conveys in an invented form the real intentions and thoughts of historical figures.
Thus, the pursuit of accuracy and truth in history was to some extent limited by the desire for artistry and amusement, not to mention other conditions that prevented historians from successfully distinguishing between truth and fable. Despite this, the desire for accurate knowledge already in antiquity requires pragmatism from the historian. Already in Herodotus, we observe the manifestation of this pragmatism, that is, the desire to connect facts with a causal link, not only to tell them, but also to explain their origin from the past.
So, at first, history is defined as an artistic and pragmatic story about memorable events and people.
Such views on history, which demanded from it, in addition to artistic impressions, practical applicability, also go back to the times of deep antiquity.
Even the ancients said that history is the teacher of life (magistra vitae). They expected from historians such a presentation of the past life of mankind, which would explain the events of the present and the tasks of the future, would serve a practical guide for public figures and a moral school for other people.
This view of history was held in full force in the Middle Ages and has survived to our times; on the one hand, he directly brought history closer to moral philosophy, on the other, he turned history into a "tablet of revelations and rules" of a practical nature. One writer of the 17th century. (De Rocoles) said that "history fulfills the duties inherent in moral philosophy, and even in a certain respect may be preferred to it, since, giving the same rules, it adds examples to them." On the first page of Karamzin's "History of the Russian State" you will find an expression of the idea that history must be known in order "to establish order, to agree the benefits of people and to grant them the happiness possible on earth."
With the development of Western European philosophical thought, new definitions of historical science began to form. In an effort to explain the essence and meaning of human life, thinkers turned to the study of history either with the aim of finding a solution to their problem in it, or with the aim of confirming their abstract constructions with historical data. In accordance with various philosophical systems, the goals and meaning of history itself were determined in one way or another. Here are some of these definitions: Bossuet (1627-1704) and Laurent (1810-1887) understood history as an image of those world events in which the ways of Providence, guiding human life for its own purposes, were expressed with particular vividness. The Italian Vico (1668-1744) considered the task of history as a science to be the depiction of those identical states that all peoples are destined to experience. The famous philosopher Hegel (1770-1831) saw in history an image of the process by which the "absolute spirit" achieved its self-knowledge (Hegel explained his entire world life as the development of this "absolute spirit"). It would not be a mistake to say that all these philosophies require from history essentially the same thing: history should not depict all the facts of the past life of mankind, but only the basic ones that reveal its general meaning.
S.
Introduction (summary summary)
It would be appropriate to begin our studies in Russian history by defining
what exactly should be understood by the words historical knowledge, historical
the science. Having understood for ourselves how history is understood in general, we will understand that we
should be understood by the history of any one people, and deliberately
let's get down to the study of Russian history.
History existed in ancient times, although then it was not considered
science. Acquaintance with ancient historians, Herodotus and Thucydides, for example,
will show you that the Greeks were right in their own way in attributing history to the area
arts. By history, they understood an artistic story about memorable
events and persons. The historian's task was to convey
listeners and readers, together with aesthetic pleasure and a number of moral
edification. Art pursued the same goals.
With this view of history as an artistic story about
memorable events, ancient historians adhered to the appropriate techniques
presentation. In their narrative, they strove for truth and accuracy, but
they did not have a strict objective measure of truth. Deeply truthful
Herodotus, for example, has many fables (about Egypt, about the Scythians, etc.); in some he
believes because he does not know the limits of the natural, while others, and not believing in
them, enters into his story, because they seduce him with their
artistic interest. Not only that, an ancient historian, faithful to his
artistic tasks, considered it possible to decorate the narrative with a conscious
fiction. Thucydides, whose veracity we do not doubt, puts in his mouth
his heroes are speeches composed by himself, but he considers himself right in virtue of
that which faithfully conveys in an invented form the real intentions and
thoughts of historical figures.
Thus, the pursuit of accuracy and truth in history was before
somewhat limited by the desire for artistry and
amusement, not to mention other conditions that prevented historians from
success in distinguishing truth from fable. Despite this, the pursuit of accurate
knowledge already in antiquity requires pragmatism from the historian. Already at Herodotus we
we observe the manifestation of this pragmatism, i.e. desire to connect facts
causal connection, not only to tell them, but also to explain them from the past
origin.
So, at first, history is defined as
artistic and pragmatic story about memorable events and persons.
Such views on history also go back to the times of deep antiquity,
which demanded from her, in addition to artistic impressions, practical
applicability. Even the ancients said that history is the teacher of life
(magistra vitae). Historians expected such a presentation of a past life
humanity, which would explain the events of the present and the tasks of the future,
would serve as a practical guide for public figures and
moral school for other people. This view of history in full force
held out in the Middle Ages and survived to our times; he is, on the one hand, straight
brought history closer to moral philosophy, on the other - turned history into
"a tablet of revelations and rules" of a practical nature. One writer XVII
in. (De Rocoles) said that "history fulfills the duties inherent in
moral philosophy, and even in a certain respect may be preferred to it,
because, giving the same rules, she adds examples to them. "
the first page of "History of the Russian State" Karamzin will find
the expression of the idea that history must be known in order "to establish
order, to agree the benefits of people and to grant them the happiness possible on earth. "
With the development of Western European philosophical thought, new
definitions of historical science. Seeking to explain the essence and meaning of life
of humanity, thinkers turned to the study of history or with the aim of finding in
her solution of her task, or in order to confirm with historical data
their abstract constructions. According to various philosophical systems,
in one way or another, the goals and meaning of the story itself were determined. Here are some of
similar definitions: Bossuet [correct - Bossuet. - Ed.] (1627-1704) and
Laurent (1810-1887) understood history as a depiction of those world events in
which with particular vividness expressed the ways of Providence, leading
human life for their own purposes. Italian Vico (1668--1744) by the problem
history, as a science, considered the image of those identical states that
all peoples are destined to experience. The famous philosopher Hegel (1770-1831) in
history saw a picture of the process by which the "absolute spirit" achieved
his self-knowledge (Hegel explained throughout world life how the development of this
"absolute spirit"). It would not be wrong to say that all these philosophies require
from history is essentially the same: history should not depict everything
facts of the past life of mankind, but only the basic ones that reveal its general
meaning.
This view was a step forward in the development of historical thought - a simple
a story about the past in general, or a random set of facts from different times and
places for proving edifying thought did not satisfy anymore.
There was a desire to unite the presentation with a guiding idea,
systematizing historical material. However, the philosophical history
rightly reproached for the fact that she is the guiding ideas of historical exposition
took outside of history and systematized facts arbitrarily. From this the story is not
became an independent science, and turned into a servant of philosophy.
History became a science only at the beginning of the 19th century, when from Germany to
counterbalance to French rationalism, idealism developed: as opposed to
French cosmopolitanism, the ideas of nationalism spread, actively
studied national antiquity and began to dominate the belief that life
human societies occurs naturally, in this order of natural
sequence that cannot be broken or changed by any
by chance, not by the efforts of individuals. From this point of view, the main
the study of non-random external phenomena began to be of interest in history and
not the activities of outstanding personalities, but the study of social life in
different stages of its development. History began to be understood as the science of laws
the historical life of human societies.
This definition has been formulated differently by historians and thinkers. Famous
Guizot (1787-1874), for example, understood history as a doctrine of the world and
national civilization (understanding civilization in the sense of the development of civil
hostel). The philosopher Schelling (1775-1854) considered national history
a means of cognition of the "national spirit". From here a widespread
definition of history as a path to national self-awareness. Came further
attempts to understand history as a science that must reveal general laws
development of social life outside their application to a certain place, time and
to the people. But these attempts, in essence, appropriated the tasks of another science to history.
- sociology. History is a science that studies concrete facts in conditions
time and place, and its main purpose is recognized as a systematic
depicting the development and changes in the life of individual historical societies and
of all mankind.
Such a task requires a lot to complete successfully. In order to
to give a scientifically accurate and artistically integral picture of any era of folk
life or the complete history of the people, it is necessary: \u200b\u200b1) to collect historical
materials, 2) to investigate their reliability, 3) to restore exactly individual
historical facts, 4) indicate a pragmatic connection between them, and 5) reduce
them into a general scientific review or into an artistic picture. The ways in which
historians achieve these particular goals, they are called scientific critical
receptions. These techniques are improved with the development of historical science, but before
so far, neither these methods, nor the science of history itself have reached their full
development. Historians have not yet collected and studied all the material subject to
their conduct, and this gives reason to say that history is a science that has not reached
even those results that have been achieved by other, more precise sciences. And yet,
no one denies that history is a science with a broad future.
Since the study of the facts of world history began to be approached from
the consciousness that human life develops naturally, is subordinated
eternal and unchanging relationships and rules - since then the ideal of the historian
was the disclosure of these permanent laws and relationships. Behind a simple analysis
historical phenomena intended to indicate their causal sequence,
a wider field was opened - a historical synthesis, which has the goal of re-creating
the general course of world history as a whole, indicate in its course such laws
developmental sequences that would be justified not only in the past,
but also in the future of humanity.
This broad ideal cannot be directly guided by the Russian
historian. He studies only one fact of world historical life - life
their nationality. The state of Russian historiography is still such that
sometimes imposes on the Russian historian the duty of simply gathering facts and
give them an initial scientific treatment. And only where the facts are already
collected and illuminated, we can rise to some historical
generalizations, we can notice the general course of one or another historical
process, we can even make a bold
attempt - to give a schematic representation of the sequence in which
the basic facts of our historical life developed. But further such a general
The Russian historian cannot follow the scheme without leaving the boundaries of his science. For
in order to understand the essence and significance of this or that fact in the history of Russia,
he can look for analogies in universal history; obtained results he can
serve the universal historian, put your own stone in the foundation
general historical synthesis. But this also limits his connection with the general
history and influence on it. The ultimate goal of Russian historiography is always
what remains is the construction of a system of local historical process.
The construction of this system also allows another, more practical
the task of the Russian historian. The old belief is known that
national history is the path to national identity. Really,
knowledge of the past helps to understand the present and explains the tasks of the future.
The people, familiar with their history, live consciously, sensitive to the surrounding
reality and knows how to understand it. The task, in this case, you can
put it - the duty of national historiography is to
show society its past in its true light. In this case, there is no need to enter into
historiography any preconceived points of view; subjective idea
is not a scientific idea, but only scientific work can be useful to social
self-awareness. Remaining in the strictly scientific sphere, highlighting those dominant
the beginning of social life, which characterized the various stages
Russian historical life, the researcher will reveal to society the most important
moments of his historical existence and by this he will achieve his goal. He will give
society has reasonable knowledge, and the application of this knowledge no longer depends on it.
So, both abstract considerations and practical goals set the Russian
historical science has the same task - a systematic representation of the Russian
historical life, the general scheme of the historical process that led
our nationality to its present state.
Essay on Russian historiography
When did the systematic depiction of the events of the Russian
historical life and when did Russian history become a science? Back in Kievskaya
Rus, along with the emergence of civic consciousness, in the XI century. appeared with us
the first annals. These were lists of facts, important and not important, historical and
not historical, interspersed with literary legends. From our point
view, the most ancient chronicles do not represent a historical work; not
speaking about the content - and the very techniques of the chronicler do not correspond to the present
requirements. The rudiments of historiography appear in our country in the 16th century, when
for the first time, historical legends and chronicles began to be compared and brought into one
whole. In the XVI century. Moscow Rus was formed and formed. Rallying in
a single body, under the rule of a single Moscow prince, the Russians tried
explain to yourself and your origin, and your political ideas, and your
relations to the states surrounding them.
And in 1512 (apparently, by the elder Philotheus) a chronograph was compiled,
those. review of world history. Most of it included
translations from Greek and only as additions were made by Russians and
Slavic historical legends. This chronograph is short, but it gives sufficient
stock of historical information; quite Russian chronographs appear behind it,
representing the processing of the first. Together with them, they arise in the 16th century.
annalistic vaults, compiled according to ancient chronicles, but not representing
collections of mechanically juxtaposed facts, and works connected by one
general idea. The first such work was the "Book of Degrees", which received
such a name because it was divided into "generations" or "degrees",
as they were called then. She conveyed in chronological, sequential,
those. the "gradual" order of the activities of Russian metropolitans and princes,
starting with Rurik. Metropolitan Cyprian was mistakenly believed to be the author of this book;
it was processed by Metropolitans Macarius and his successor Athanasius
under Ivan the Terrible, i.e. in the XVI century. The "Book of Degrees" is based on
the trend is both general and particular. The general is visible in the desire to show that
the power of the Moscow princes is not accidental, but successive, with one
on the side, from the southern Russian, Kiev princes, on the other - from the Byzantine kings.
The private tendency was manifested in the respect with which invariably
tells about spiritual power. "Book of Degrees" may be called
historical work due to the well-known system of presentation. At the beginning of the XVI century. was
compiled another historical work - "Resurrection Chronicle", more
interesting for the abundance of material. It was based on all the previous chronicles,
"St. Sophia's time" and others, so that the facts in this chronicle really
a lot, but they are bonded purely mechanically. Nevertheless, "Voskresenskaya
chronicle "seems to us the most valuable historical work of
everyone, modern or earlier, since it was composed without any
tendencies and contains a lot of information that is not found anywhere else.
She could not like her simplicity, the artlessness of her presentation could
seem wretched to connoisseurs of rhetorical techniques, and now she was subjected
revision and additions and made, by the middle of the XVI century, a new vault,
called "Nikon's chronicle". In this set we see a lot of information,
borrowed from Greek chronographs, on the history of Greek and Slavic
countries, the chronicle is about Russian events, especially about the later centuries, although
detailed, but not entirely reliable - the accuracy of the presentation has suffered from
literary revision: correcting the ingenuous syllable of previous annals,
unwittingly distorted the meaning of some events.
In 1674 appeared in Kiev and the first textbook of Russian history -
"Synopsis" by Innokenty Gisel, very widespread in the era of Peter
Great (he is often found now). If next to all these
by revising the chronicles, we will remember a number of literary legends about
certain historical facts and eras (for example, the Legend of Prince Kurbsky,
the story of the Time of Troubles), then we embrace the entire stock of historical works, with
which Russia lived up to the era of Peter the Great, until the establishment of the Academy of Sciences in
Petersburg. Peter was very concerned about the compilation of the history of Russia and entrusted it
business to various persons. But only after his death, scientific development began.
historical material and the first figures in this field were scientists
Germans, members of the St. Petersburg Academy; of these, first of all, it should be mentioned
Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738). He began by studying the tribes inhabiting
Russia in antiquity, especially the Varangians, but this did not go further. Bayer left
after myself there are many works, of which two are quite capital works
written in latin and now do not matter much for
history of Russia is "Northern Geography" and "Studies of the Varyags" (their
translated into Russian only in 1767). Much more fruitful were the works
Gerard Friedrich Miller (1705-1783), who lived in Russia under the empresses
Anna, Elizabeth and Catherine II and already had such a good command of in Russian,
that he wrote his works in Russian. He traveled a lot in Russia
(lived 10 years, from 1733 to 1743, in Siberia) and studied it well. On
literary historical field, he acted as the publisher of a Russian magazine
"Monthly Writings" (1755-1765) and a collection in German "Sammlung
Russischer Gescihchte ". Miller's main merit was the collection of materials
on Russian history; his manuscripts (the so-called Millerov portfolios) served and
serve as a rich source for publishers and researchers. And research
Miller were important - he was one of the first scientists interested in
later epochs of our history, his works are dedicated to them: "The experience of the latest
history of Russia "and" News of the Russian nobles. "Finally, he was the first
scientific archivist in Russia and put in order the Moscow archive of the Foreign
college, the director of which he died (1783). Among the academicians of the XVIII century.
[M. V.] Lomonosov,
who wrote an educational book of Russian history and one volume of "Ancient Russian
history "(1766). His works on history were conditioned by controversy with
academicians - Germans. The latter took Rus Varangians from the Normans and
Norman influence was attributed to the origin of citizenship in Russia,
which, before the advent of the Varangians, was represented as a wild country; Lomonosov
Varangians recognized for the Slavs and thus considered Russian culture
original.
Named Academics, Collecting Materials and Researching Selected Issues
our history, did not have time to give a general overview of it, the need for which
felt by Russian educated people. Attempts to give such an overview
appeared outside the academic environment.
The first attempt was made by V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750). Catching up
geographic issues, he saw that it was impossible to resolve them
without knowledge of history, and, being a comprehensively educated person, became himself
collect information on Russian history and started compiling it. During
for many years he wrote his historical work, revised it more than once,
but only after his death, in 1768, did its publication begin. For 6 years
4 volumes were published, the 5th volume was accidentally found already in our century and published
"Moscow Society of Russian History and Antiquities". In these 5 volumes
Tatishchev brought his history to the troubled era of the 17th century. In the first volume, we
get acquainted with the views of the author himself on Russian history and with sources,
which he used in compiling it; we find a number of scientific
sketches about ancient peoples - the Varangians, Slavs, etc. Tatishchev often
resorted to other people's labors; so, for example, he used the study "About
Varyags "Bayer and directly included it in his work. This story is now,
of course, it is outdated, but it has not lost its scientific significance, since (in the XVIII
c.) Tatishchev possessed such sources that now do not exist, and therefore,
many of the facts he cited can no longer be restored. It excited
suspicion as to whether some of the sources to which he referred existed, and
Tatishchev was accused of dishonesty. Especially distrusted
of the "Joachim Chronicle" cited by him. However, the study of this chronicle
showed that Tatishchev only failed to take her critically and turned on
her as a whole, with all her fables, into her story. Strictly speaking, labor
Tatishchev is nothing more than a detailed collection of chronicle data,
set out in chronological order; heavy his tongue and absence
literary processing made him uninteresting for his contemporaries.
The first popular book on Russian history was written by Catherine
II, but her work "Notes on Russian history", brought to an end
XIII century, has no scientific value and is interesting only as the first attempt
tell the public easy tongue his past. Much more important in scientific
the attitude was "Russian History" of Prince M. [M.] Shcherbatov (1733-1790),
which was later used by Karamzin. Shcherbatov was not a man
strong philosophical mind, but read a lot of educational literature XVIII
in. and entirely formed under her influence, which was reflected in his work, in
which brought in a lot of preconceived ideas. In historical records, he is up to
to such an extent did not have time to figure it out that sometimes he forced his heroes
die 2 times. But despite such major flaws, history
Shcherbatov is of scientific importance due to its many applications that include
historical documents. Particularly interesting are diplomatic papers XVI and
XVII centuries. His work has been brought to the era of trouble.
It happened that under Catherine II, a certain Frenchman Leclerc, absolutely not
who knew no Russian state system, neither the people, nor his life, wrote
insignificant "L" histoire de la Russie ", and there were so many slanders in it that
she aroused general indignation. I.N.Boltin (1735-1792), amateur
Russian history, compiled a number of notes in which he discovered ignorance
Leclerc and which he published in two volumes. In them, he partly touched Shcherbatov.
Shcherbatov took offense and wrote an Objection. Boltin responded with printed letters and
began criticizing Shcherbatov's "History". Boltin's works revealing in
him a historical talent, interesting for the novelty of views. Boltin is not quite
as if they are sometimes called "the first Slavophile", because he noted many dark
sides in blind imitation of the West, an imitation that has become noticeable in our
after Peter, and wished Russia to keep the good beginnings of the past
century. Boltin himself is interesting as a historical phenomenon. He served the best
proof that in the XVIII century. in society, even among non-specialists in
history, there was a keen interest in the past of their homeland. Views and interests
Boltin was shared by N.I. Novikov (1744-1818), a well-known zealot of the Russian
education, collected "Ancient Russian Vivliofica" (20 volumes), an extensive
collection of historical documents and research (1788-1791). At the same time with
him, as a collector of historical materials, was the merchant [I. I.] Golikov
(1735-1801), who published a collection of historical data about Peter the Great under
the title "Acts of Peter the Great" (1st ed. 1788-1790, 2nd 1837). So
Thus, along with attempts to give a general history of Russia, a
the desire to prepare materials for such a story. Beyond the initiative
private, the Academy of Sciences itself works in this direction, publishing chronicles
for general acquaintance with them.
But in everything that we have listed, there was still little scientificity in our
sense: there were no strict critical techniques, let alone
lack of integral historical ideas.
For the first time, a number of scientific and critical techniques in the study of Russian history were introduced
foreign scientist Schletser (1735-1809). Getting to know the Russians
chronicles, he was delighted with them: not a single nation did he meet
such a wealth of information, such a poetic language. Having already left Russia and
as a professor at the University of Göttingen, he worked tirelessly on
those extracts from the chronicles that he managed to take out of Russia.
The result of this work was the famous work, published under the title
"Nestor" (1805 in German, 1809-1819 in Russian). This is a whole series
historical sketches about the Russian chronicle. In the preface, the author gives a short
an overview of what has been done in Russian history. He finds the position of science in
Russia is sad, treats Russian historians with disdain, believes
his book is almost the only suitable work on Russian history. AND
indeed, his labor far left behind all others in degree
scientific consciousness and methods of the author. These techniques have created a kind of school for us.
students of Schletser, the first scientific researchers, such as M.P. Pogodin. After
Schletzer, strict historical research became possible with us, for which,
however, favorable conditions were created in another environment, at the head of which
stood Miller. Among the people he collected in the Archives of the Foreign Collegium
Shtritter, Malinovsky, Bantysh-Kamensky were especially prominent. They created
the first school of scholarly archivists, who brought the Archives into full
order and which, in addition to the external grouping of archival material,
made a number of serious scholarly investigations on the basis of this material.
So, little by little, conditions ripened that created the possibility of serious
stories.
At the beginning of the XIX century. finally, the first integral view of the Russian
the historical past in the famous "History of the Russian State" by N. M.
Karamzin (1766-1826). Possessing a whole worldview, literary
talent and techniques of a good scholarly critic, Karamzin throughout Russian
historical life saw one major process - the creation of a national
state power. Russia was led to this power by a number of talented
figures, of which two main - Ivan III and Peter the Great - by their
activities marked the transitional moments in our history and became
borders of its main eras - ancient (before Ivan III), middle (before Peter
Great) and new (until the beginning of the 19th century). His system of Russian history Karamzin
presented it in a language that was fascinating for its time, and he founded his story
on numerous studies, which to this day keep
History has an important scholarly value.
But the one-sidedness of Karamzin's main view, which limited the
historian depicting only the fate of the state, and not society with its
culture, legal and economic relations, was soon noticed
already by his contemporaries. Journalist of the 30s of the XIX century. N. A. Polevoy
(1796-1846) reproached him for calling his work "History
of the Russian state ", ignored the" History of the Russian people ".
It was with these words that Polevoy entitled his work, in which he thought to depict
the fate of Russian society. He replaced Karamzin's system with his own system,
but not entirely successful, since he was an amateur in the field of historical knowledge.
Carried away by the historical works of the West, he tried purely mechanically
to apply their conclusions and terms to Russian facts, for example -
find the feudal system in ancient Russia. Hence the weakness of his
attempts, it is clear that the work of Polevoy could not replace the work of Karamzin: in him
there was no integral system at all.
Less harshly and with more caution opposed Karamzin
Petersburg professor [N. G.] Ustryalov (1805-1870), in 1836 wrote
"Discourse on the system of pragmatic Russian history". He demanded that
history was a picture of the gradual development of social life, an image
transitions of citizenship from one state to another. But he still believes
into the power of the individual in history and, along with the depiction of folk life,
also requires biographies of her heroes. Ustryalov himself, however, refused to give
a certain common point of view on our history and noticed that for this
the time has not come.
Thus, dissatisfaction with the work of Karamzin, which was also expressed in the scientist
the world, and in society, did not correct the Karamzin system and did not replace it
another. Above the phenomena of Russian history, as their connecting principle, remained
artistic picture of Karamzin and no scientific system was created. Ustryalov
was right in saying that the time had not yet come for such a system. The best
professors of Russian history who lived in an era close to Karamzin, Pogodin and
[M. T.] Kachenovsky (1775-1842), were still far from one common point
vision; the latter took shape only when Russian history became
take an active interest in the educated circles of our society. Pogodin and
Kachenovsky were brought up on Schletzer's learned methods and under his influence,
which had a particularly strong effect on Pogodin. Pogodin continued in many ways
Schletzer's research and, studying the most ancient periods of our history, did not go
further private conclusions and minor generalizations, with which, however, he was sometimes able
to captivate their listeners, who are not accustomed to a strictly scientific and independent
presentation of the subject. Kachenovsky took up Russian history when
has already acquired a lot of knowledge and experience in pursuing other branches of the historical
reference. Following the development of classical history in the West, which at that time
time was taken to a new path of researching Niebuhr, Kachenovsky was fond of
the denial with which they began to relate to the most ancient data on history,
for example, Rome. Kachenovsky transferred this denial to Russian history: everything
information relating to the first centuries of Russian history, he considered
unreliable; reliable facts, in his opinion, began only with
time, as we have written documents of civil life.
Kachenovsky's skepticism had followers: under his influence, it was founded as follows
called a skeptical school, not rich in conclusions, but strong in new,
skeptical reception of attitude to scientific material. This school belonged
several articles compiled under the guidance of Kachenovsky. When
undoubted talent of Pogodin and Kachenovsky, both of them developed
although large, but particular questions of Russian history; they were both strong
critical methods, but neither one nor the other has risen even to a sensible
historical worldview: giving a method, they did not give results, to
which could be obtained using this method.
Only in the 30s of the XIX century in Russian society there was an integral
historical worldview, but it developed not on scientific, but on
metaphysical ground. In the first half of the XIX century. Russian educated people all
with great and great interest they turned to history, both domestic and
Western European. Foreign campaigns 1813-1814 introduced our
youth with philosophy and political life of Western Europe. Exploring life
and the ideas of the West were generated, on the one hand, by the political movement of the Decembrists,
on the other, a circle of people who were carried away by a more abstract philosophy than
politics. This circle grew entirely on the basis of the German metaphysical
philosophy of the beginning of our century. This philosophy was slim
logical constructions and optimistic conclusions. In Germanic metaphysics, as in
German romanticism, the protest against dry rationalism affected
French philosophy of the 18th century. France's revolutionary cosmopolitanism
Germany contrasted the origin of the nationality and found it out in attractive
images of folk poetry and in a number of metaphysical systems. These systems have become
known to educated Russian people and fascinated them. In Germanic philosophy
educated Russian people saw a whole revelation. Germany was for them
"Jerusalem of the newest humanity" - as Belinsky called it. The study
the main metaphysical systems Schelling and Hegel united in a close circle
several talented representatives of Russian society and made them
turn to the study of their (Russian) national past. The result
this study had two completely opposite systems of Russian history,
built on the same metaphysical foundation. In Germany at this time
the dominant philosophical systems were those of Schelling and Hegel. By
Schelling's opinion, every historical people should carry out some
the absolute idea of \u200b\u200bgoodness, truth, beauty. To reveal this idea to the world -
the historical vocation of the people. Performing it, the people take a step forward by
the field of world civilization; having performed it, he leaves the historical stage.
Those peoples whose existence is not inspired by the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unconditional are the peoples
unhistorical, they are condemned to spiritual slavery by other nations. The same
the division of peoples into historical and non-historical is given by Hegel, but he,
developing almost the same principle, I went even further. He gave the big picture
world progress. All world life, according to Hegel, was a development
absolute spirit that seeks self-knowledge in the history of various
peoples, but reaches it finally in the Germanic-Roman civilization.
Cultural peoples Ancient East, the ancient world and Romanesque Europe were
placed by Hegel in a certain order, representing a staircase, according to
which the world spirit ascended. At the top of this staircase were the Germans, and they
Hegel prophesied eternal world supremacy. Slavs on this staircase are not
was absolutely. He considered them to be an unhistorical race and thus condemned them to spiritual
slavery in German civilization. Thus, Schelling demanded for his
people of only world citizenship, and Hegel - world supremacy. But,
despite such a difference of views, both philosophers equally influenced
Russian minds in the sense that they aroused the desire to look back at the Russian
historical life, to find that absolute idea that was revealed in
Russian life, to determine the place and purpose of the Russian people in the course of the world
progress. And then, in the application of the beginnings of German metaphysics to Russian
in fact, the Russian people dispersed among themselves. One of them,
Westerners believed that the German-Protestant civilization is
the last word of world progress. For them, ancient Russia, which did not know
Western, Germanic civilization and did not have its own, was a country
unhistorical, devoid of progress, condemned to eternal stagnation, country
"Asian", as Belinsky called it (in an article about Kotoshikhin). From the age-old
Asiatic inertness was brought out by Peter, who, having introduced Russia to the German
civilization, created for her the possibility of progress and history. Throughout Russian
history, therefore, only the era of Peter V [the Great] can have a historical
value. She is the main moment in Russian life; it separates Asiatic Russia from
European Rus. Before Peter, a complete desert, complete nothing; in ancient Russian
history does not make any sense, since in ancient Russia there is no culture of its own.
But not all Russian people in the 1930s and 1940s thought so;
some did not agree that the Germanic civilization is the upper
the stage of progress that the Slavic tribe is an unhistorical tribe. They are not
saw the reasons why world development should stop at the Germans. Of
Russian history, they endured the conviction that Slavism was far from stagnation,
that it could be proud of many dramatic moments in its past and
that it finally had its own culture. This doctrine was well stated by I.V.
Kireevsky (1806-1856). He says that Slavic culture in the foundations
its own was independent and different from the German. First, the Slavs
received Christianity from Byzantium (and the Germans from Rome) and their religious
life received other forms than those that developed among the Germans under the influence
Catholicism. Secondly, the Slavs and Germans grew up on a different culture:
the first in Greek, the second in Roman. While the Germanic
culture has developed personal freedom, the Slavic communities are completely
enslaved her. Thirdly, the state system was created in different ways.
Germany developed on Roman soil. The Germans were an alien people; defeating
native population, they enslaved him. The struggle between the vanquished and
victors, which formed the basis of the state system of Western
Europe, later passed into the antagonism of the estates; the Slavs have a state
created by a peace treaty, voluntary recognition of power. Here
the difference between Russia and Zap. Europe, the difference of religion, culture,
state system. So thought the Slavophiles, more independent
followers of Germanic philosophical teachings. They were convinced that
independent Russian life has reached the greatest development of its beginnings in
the era of the Muscovy. Peter V. grossly violated this development,
through a violent reform brought to us alien, even opposite principles
Germanic civilization. He turned the right course of folk life on
the wrong way of borrowing, because he did not understand the precepts of the past, did not
understood our national spirit. The goal of the Slavophiles is to get back on the path
natural development, smoothing out the traces of the violent Peter's reform.
The common point of view of the Westernizers and Slavophiles served them as the basis for
interpretation not only of the meaning of our history, but also of its individual facts: you can
count many historical works written by Westerners and especially
Slavophiles (of the Slavophil historians, mention should be made of Constantine
Sergeevich Aksakov, 1817-1860). But their labors were much more
philosophical or journalistic than actually historical, and
the attitude to history is much more philosophical than scientific.
The strictly scientific integrity of historical views was first created by
us only in the 40s of the XIX century. The first carriers of new historical ideas
there were two young professors of Moscow University: Sergei Mikhailovich
Soloviev (1820-1879) and Konstantin Dmitrievich Kavelin (1818-1885). Their
views on Russian history at that time were called "the theory of family life",
and later they and other scientists of their direction became known under
the name of the school of history and law. They were brought up under the influence
German historical school. At the beginning of the XIX century. historical science in Germany
has made great strides. Figures of the so-called German historical school
introduced into the study of history extremely fruitful guiding ideas and new
research methods. The main thought of German historians was the idea that
that the development of human communities is not the result of accidents or isolated
the will of individuals: the development of society takes place as the development of an organism,
according to strict laws, which neither historical
chance, no personality, no matter how brilliant it is. The first step to this
opinion was made at the end of the 18th century by Friedrich August Wolf in
the work "Prologomena ad Homerum", in which he studied
the origin and composition of the Greek epic "Odyssey" and "Iliad". Giving in his
a rare example of historical criticism, he argued that Homeric
the epic could not be the work of an individual person, but was gradually,
an organically created work of the poetic genius of an entire people. After
work of Wolf, such an organic development began to be sought not only in monuments
poetic creativity, but also in all spheres of public life, was also sought in
history and law. Signs of organic growth of ancient communities were observed
Niebuhr in Roman history, Karl Gottfried Miller in Greek. Organic
the development of legal consciousness was studied by legal historians Eichhorn (Deutsche
Staatsung Rechtsgeschichte, in five volumes, 1808) and Savigny (Geschichte
des ro mischen Rechts in Mittelalter, in six volumes, 1815-1831). These
works bearing the stamp of a new direction by the middle of the 19th century. created
in Germany, a brilliant school of historians, which has not yet survived
quite their ideas.
Our scientists of the historical and legal school grew up in its ideas and methods.
Some have learned them by reading, like, for example, Kavelin; others - directly by listening
lectures, as, for example, Soloviev, who was a student of Ranke. They learned to themselves
the entire content of the German historical direction. Some of them
carried away by the German philosophy of Hegel. In Germany, precise and strict
the actual historical school did not always live in harmony with the metaphysical
the teachings of Hegelianism; nevertheless, both historians and Hegel agreed in
the main view of history as a natural development of human
societies. Both historians and Hegel equally denied it was accidental, therefore
their views could get along in one and the same person. These views were
were first applied to Russian history by our scientists Soloviev and Kavelin,
who thought to show in it the organic development of those principles that were given
the original way of life of our tribe and which were rooted in the nature of our
people. They paid less attention to cultural and economic life than
on the external forms of social unions, since they were convinced that the main
the content of Russian historical life was precisely the natural change of some
laws of community by others. They hoped to notice the order of this shift and in
it is necessary to find the law of our historical development. This is why their historical
the treatises are of a somewhat one-sided historical and legal nature. Such
one-sidedness did not constitute the individuality of our scientists, but was brought
by them from their Germanic mentors. German historiography considered the main
its task is to study precisely legal forms in history; the root of this
view lies in the ideas of Kant, who understood history, "as a way
mankind "to the creation of state forms. Such were the grounds for
which built the first scientific and philosophical outlook on Russian
historical life. It was not a simple borrowing of other people's conclusions, it was not
only the mechanical application of other people's ideas to poorly understood material, -
no, it was an independent scientific movement in which views and scientific
the methods were identical with the German ones, but the conclusions were by no means a foregone conclusion and
depended on the material. It was scientific creativity, going in the direction
of his era, but independently. That is why every figure in this movement
retained his individuality and left behind valuable monographs, and all
School of History and Law has created such a scheme for our historical
development, under the influence of which Russian historiography still lives.
Based on the idea that the distinctive features of the history of each nation
created by its nature and its original setting, they turned
attention to the original form of Russian social life, which, according to their
opinion, was determined by the beginning of family life. All Russian history was represented
they are like a consistent organically harmonious transition from blood
social unions, from family life - to state life. Between
the era of blood alliances and the state is an intermediate period, in
which was the struggle between the beginning of the blood and the beginning of the state. IN
the first period, the personality was unconditionally subordinated to the genus, and its position
was determined not by individual activity or abilities, but by place in
kind; the blood principle prevailed not only in the princely, but in all
in other respects, it determined the entire political life of Russia.
Russia in the first stage of its development was considered clan property
princes; she was divided into volosts, according to the number of members of the prince
houses. Ownership was determined by generic accounts. The position of everyone
the prince was determined by his place in the family. Violation of seniority generated
feuds, which, from the point of view of Solovyov, are not fought for the volosts, not
for something specific, but for violation of seniority, for an idea. Over time
the circumstances of princely life and work changed. In the north-east
The princes of Russia were the complete masters of the land, they themselves called on the population, they themselves
built cities. Feeling like the creator of a new region, the prince presents to
her new requirements; due to the fact that he himself created it, he does not consider it
generic, but freely disposes of it and transfers it to his family. From here
the concept of family property arises, the concept that caused the final
the death of the family life. The family, not the clan, became the main principle; princes even
began to look at their distant relatives as strangers, enemies
your family. A new era is coming, when one beginning has decayed, the other
has not yet been created. Chaos ensues, a struggle of all against all. Out of this chaos
an accidentally strengthened family of Moscow princes grows up, who
put above others in strength and wealth. In this domain, little by little
the beginning of one inheritance is being developed - the first sign of a new
state order, which is finally established by the reforms of Peter
Great.
Such, in the most general outline, is the view of S.M.Soloviev on the course of our
history, a view developed by him in two of his dissertations: 1) "On the relationship
Novgorod to the Grand Dukes "and 2)" The history of relations between the princes of Rurikov
at home. "Soloviev's system was talentedly supported by KD Kavelin in
several of his historical articles (see volume 1 of the "Collected Works of Kavelin"
ed. 1897). In only one essential aspect, Kavelin disagreed with
Solovyov: he thought that even without a chance confluence of favorable
circumstances in the north of Russia, the princely family life was to decompose and
go to the family, and then to the state. Inevitable and consistent
he depicted the change of beginnings in our history in such a short formula: "Genus and
common ownership; family and estates or individual property; face and
state ".
The impetus given by the talented works of Soloviev and Russian Kavelin
historiography was very great. Slender scientific system, for the first time given
of our history, captivated many and caused a lively scientific movement. Many
monographs were written directly in the spirit of the historical and legal school. But a lot and
objections, more and more strong over time, were heard against
teachings of this new school. A number of heated scientific controversies, in eventually,
finally shattered the harmonious theoretical outlook of Soloviev and Kavelin
in the form in which it appeared in their first works. First objection
against the school of tribal life belonged to the Slavophils. In the person of K. S. Aksakov
(1817-1860) they turned to the study of historical facts (to them in part
Moscow professors [V. N.] Leshkov and [I. D.] Belyaev,
1810-1873); at the first stage of our history, they saw not a generic way of life, but
community and little by little created their own doctrine of the community. It met
some support in the works of the Odessa professor [F. I.] Leontovich,
who tried to define more precisely the primitive nature of the ancient Slavic
communities; this community, in his opinion, is very similar to the existing one
Serbian "zadruga", based partly on relatives, partly on
territorial relations. In the place of the genus, precisely defined by the school
family life, has become no less accurately defined community, and, thus,
the first part of the general historical scheme of Soloviev and Kavelin lost its
immutability. The second objection to this particular scheme was made
scientists, close in their general direction to Soloviev and Kavelin. Boris
Nikolaevich Chicherin (1828-1904), brought up in the same scientific
setting, like Soloviev and Kavelin, pushed the era out of history
blood clan alliances in Russia. On the first pages of our historical
of being, he had already seen the decomposition of ancient generic principles. The first form of our
the public, which history knows, in his opinion, was not built on
blood ties, but on the basis of civil law. In old Russian life
personality was not limited to anything, neither blood union, nor state
orders. All social relations were determined by civil deals -
contracts. From this contractual order naturally grew
subsequently the state. Chicherin's theory, set forth in his work "On
spiritual and treaty letters of the princes of the great and appanage ", received a distant
neck development in the works of prof. V.I.Sergeevich and in this last form already
completely departed from the original scheme, given by the school of family life. All
the history of social life in Sergeevich is divided into two periods: the first - with
the predominance of private and personal will over the beginning of the state, the second - with
the predominance of state interest over personal will.
If the first, Slavophil objection was based on considerations of
general cultural independence of the Slavs, if the second grew up on the basis of
the study of legal institutions, the third objection to the school of tribal life
done most likely from the point of view of historical and economic. The oldest
Kievan Rus is not a patriarchal country; her public relations
rather complex and built on a timocratic basis. It is dominated by
the aristocracy of capital, whose representatives sit in the princely duma. Such is
view of prof. V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) in his works "Boyar Duma
Ancient Rus "and" Course of Russian History ").
All these objections destroyed the harmonious system of family life, but did not
created any new historical scheme. Slavophilism remained
true to its metaphysical basis, and in later representatives departed from
historical research. The Chicherin and Sergeevich system deliberately considers
itself a system of only the history of law. A historical and economic point of view
has not yet been applied to explain the entire course of our history. Finally, in the writings
other historians, we do not find any successful attempt to give
grounds for an independent and integral historical worldview.
How does our historiography live now? Together with K. [S.] Aksakov, we
we can say that we now have no "history", that "we now have to
historical research, no more. "But, noting with this the absence of one
the dominant doctrine in historiography, we do not deny the existence of
our modern historians of common views, novelty and fruitfulness
which determine the last efforts of our historiography. These common
views arose in us at the same time as they appeared in the European
science; they concerned both scientific methods and historical concepts in general.
The desire that arose in the West to apply techniques to the study of history
natural sciences affected us in the works of the well-known [A. P.] Shchapova
(1831-1876). Comparative Historical Method Developed by the English
scientists [(Freeman) and others] and requiring that every historical phenomenon
studied in connection with similar phenomena of other peoples and eras, -
it was also applied in our country by many scientists (for example, V.I.Sergeevich). Development
ethnography has caused the desire to create a historical ethnography and from the point of
ethnographic view in general to consider the phenomena of our ancient history
(Ya. I. Kostomarov, 1817 - 1885). Interest in the history of economic life,
who grew up in the West, has affected many attempts to study
national economic life in different eras (V.O. Klyuchevsky and others). So
called evolutionism has its representatives in the person of
modern university teachers.
Not only that which was again introduced into the scientific consciousness moved forward
our historiography. Revision of old already developed questions gave new
conclusions that formed the basis of new and new research. Already in the 70s S.
M. Soloviev in his "Public Readings about Peter the Great" is clearer and
more convincingly expressed his old idea that Peter the Great was
a traditional leader and in his work as a reformer was guided by the ideals
old Moscow people of the 17th century. and used the means that were
prepared before him. Almost under the influence of the works of Solovyov
an active development of the history of Muscovite Rus began, showing now,
that pre-Petrine Moscow was not an Asian inert state and really
went to reform even before Peter, who himself took the idea of \u200b\u200breform from the surrounding
his Moscow environment. Revision of the oldest question in Russian historiography
- Varangian question [in the works of V. Gr. Vasilievsky (1838-1899), A.A.
Kunik (1814-1899), S. A. Gedeonov and others] illuminates the beginning of
our history. New research on the history of Western Russia opened before
us interesting and important data on the history and life of the Lithuanian-Russian
state [V. B. Antonovich (1834-1908), Dashkevich (b. In 1852) and
others]. These examples do not exhaust, of course, the content of the latest
works on our subject; but these examples show that modern
historiography works on very large topics. Before attempting a historical
synthesis, therefore, may be close.
In conclusion of the historiographic review, one should mention those works on
Russian historiography, which depicts the gradual development and
the current state of our science and which therefore should serve
preferred guides for acquaintance with our historiography: 1) K.
N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin "Russian History" (2 volumes, summary of facts and
scholarly opinions with a very valuable introduction about sources and historiography); 2) K.
N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin "Biographies and Characteristics" (Tatishchev, Shletser, Karamzin,
Pogodin, Soloviev, etc.). SPb., 1882; 3) S. M. Soloviev, articles on
historiography published by the Public Benefit Partnership in the book
"Collected Works of S. M. Soloviev" St. Petersburg; 4) O. M. Koyalovich "History
Russian self-awareness ". SPb., 1884; 5) V. S. Ikonnikov" Experience of Russian
historiography "(volume one, book one and two). Kiev, 1891;
6) P. N. Milyukov "The main currents of Russian historical thought" - in
"Russian thought" for 1893 (and separately).
Review of the sources of Russian history
In the broad sense of the word, a historical source is any remnant
antiquity, will it be a structure, an object of art, a thing of everyday
everyday life, printed book, manuscript or, finally, oral tradition. But in a narrow
sense, we call the source the printed or written remnant of antiquity, otherwise
speaking, of the era that the historian is studying. Only
remnants of the latter kind.
Sources can be reviewed in two ways: first, it can
be a simple, logically systematic listing of different types of historical
material, with an indication of its main publications; second, a review of sources
can be built historically and combine a list of material with
an overview of the movement in our archeographic works. The second way to get acquainted with
sources for us are much more interesting, firstly, because here we are
we can observe the emergence of archaeographic works in connection with how in
society developed an interest in handwritten antiquity, and, secondly, because also,
that here we will meet those figures who are collecting materials
for their native history have made themselves an eternal name in our science.
In the pre-Petrine era, the attitude towards manuscripts in literate layers
Moscow society was the most attentive, because at that time the manuscript
replaced the book, was a source of both knowledge and aesthetic pleasures and
was a valuable possession; manuscripts were constantly rewritten with
great care and were often sacrificed before death by the owners in
monasteries "to your liking": a donor for his gift asks a monastery or church for
eternal remembrance of his sinful soul. Legislative acts and everything in general
manuscripts of a legal nature, i.e. what we would call now
official and business papers, too, jealously guarded. Printed
statutes, except for the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, then not
existed, and this handwritten material was, as it were, the code of the acting
law, the leadership of the then administrators and judges. Legislation
then it was written, as it is now printed. In addition, on handwritten the same
charters, monasteries and individuals based their benefits and various kinds
the rights. It is clear that all this written material was dear in everyday life.
life of that time and that he should have been valued and preserved.
In the XVIII century. influenced by new cultural tastes, with the spread
the printed book and printed regulations, the attitude towards old manuscripts is very
changes: a decline in the sense of their value is noticed in us throughout everything
XVIII century. In the XVII century. the manuscript was very much appreciated by the then cultural class,
and now in the XVIII century. this class gave way to new cultural layers that
the handwritten sources of antiquity were treated with contempt as if they were old
worthless trash. The clergy also ceased to understand the historical and
the spiritual value of their rich manuscript collections and related to them
casually. The abundance of manuscripts passed from the 17th century. in the 18th century, contributed to
the fact that they were not appreciated. The manuscript was still, so to speak, a thing of everyday life, but
not historical and little by little from the cultural elite of society, where before
rotated, passed into its lower layers, among other things, to the schismatics,
whom our archaeographer P. M. Stroyev called "the trustees of our manuscripts."
The old archives and monastic book depositories, which contained a lot of
jewelry, were left without any attention, in complete disregard and
decline. Here are examples from the 19th century that show how ignorant
handwritten antiquity was handled by its owners and curators. "In one monastery
piety, to which at the end of the XVII century. more than 15 others were attributed
monasteries, - wrote P.M.Stroyev in 1823, - its old archive was located in
a tower where there were no frames in the windows. Snow covered a pile of books and
columns heaped indiscriminately, and I rummaged through it, as in the ruins
Herkulan. This is six years old. Consequently, the snow covered these six times.
manuscripts and the same amount melted on them, now there is surely one rusty
dust ... "The same Stroyev in 1829 informed the Academy of Sciences that the archive of the old
the city of Kevrola, after the abolition of the latter was transferred to Pinega, "rotted there
in a dilapidated barn and, as I was told, the last remnants of it not long before
sim (ie until 1829) thrown into the water. "
A well-known amateur and researcher of antiquity, Metropolitan Eugene of Kiev
(Bolkhovitinov, 1767-1837), being a bishop in Pskov, wished to inspect
rich Novgorod-Yuriev monastery. "He made it known ahead of time about his arrival,
- the biographer of Metropolitan Evgeny Ivanovsky writes, - and by this it goes without saying
made the authorities of the monastery make a little fuss and bring some of
monastery premises in a more specious order. He could go to the monastery
one of two roads: either the upper, more carriageway, but boring, or the lower,
near Volkhov, less comfortable, but more pleasant. He drove the bottom. Near
of the monastery itself, he met with a cart, traveling to Volkhov, accompanied by
monk. Wanting to know what the monk was taking to the river, he asked. The monk replied that he
carries various rubbish and rubbish, which you cannot simply throw into a dung heap, but
must be thrown into the river. This piqued Eugene's curiosity. He came up in
cart, ordered to raise the mat, saw torn books and handwritten sheets and
then he ordered the monk to return to the monastery. Were in this cart
precious remnants of writing even of the XI century. "(Ivanovsky" Met. Eugene ",
pp. 41-42).
This was our attitude towards ancient monuments even in the 19th century. In the XVIII
in. it was, of course, no better, although it should be noted that next to this with
the beginning of the XVIII century. are individuals who are consciously related to
antiquity. Peter I himself collected old coins, medals and other remains
antiquity, according to Western European custom, as extraordinary and curious
items like a kind of "monsters". But collecting curious material
remnants of antiquity, Peter wanted at the same time "to be in charge of the state of the Russian
history "and believed that" it is necessary to work first about this, and not about the beginning of the world
and other states, much has been written about this before. "
Peter's work on the composition of Russian history (XVI and XVII centuries) was worked by the then
scientist figure of the Slavic-Greek-La-Tino Academy Fedor Polikarpov, but the work
Peter did not satisfy him, and remained unknown to us. Despite, however,
such a failure, Peter until the end of his reign did not leave the thought of a complete
Russian history and took care of collecting material for it; in 1720 he
ordered the governors to revise all the wonderful historical documents
and annalistic books in all monasteries, dioceses and cathedrals, to compile them
inventory and deliver these inventory to the Senate. And in 1722 the Synod was instructed on these
Inventories, select all historical manuscripts from the dioceses to the Synod and make from them
lists. But the Synod did not succeed in putting this into effect: the majority
diocesan authorities responded to requests from the Synod that they did not have such
manuscripts, and in total up to 40 manuscripts were sent to the Synod, as can be judged
according to some sources, and of them only 8 are actually historical, while the rest
spiritual content. So Peter's desire to have a historical narrative about
Russia and collect material for this crashed on ignorance and negligence of it
contemporaries.
Historical science was born with us later than Peter, and scientific processing
historical material began with the appearance of German scientists in our country;
then, little by little, the significance of the handwritten material for
our history. In this latter respect, invaluable services to our science
provided by already known to us Gerard Friedrich Miller (1705-1785). Conscientious
and hardworking scientist, cautious research critic and at the same time
a tireless collector of historical material, Miller
activity deserves the name of "the father of Russian historical science",
what our historiographers give him. Our science still uses
material collected by him. In the so-called "portfolios" of Miller, stored in
Academy of Sciences and in the Moscow Main Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
there are more than 900 issues of various kinds of historical papers. These portfolios
and now for the researcher they constitute a whole treasure, and new
historical works often draw their materials from them; So,
the archaeographic commission until recently filled it with material
some of their publications (Siberian Affairs in additions to "Acts
historical "). Miller collected written monuments not only in one
European Russia, but also in Siberia, where he spent about 10 years (1733-1743).
These surveys in Siberia yielded important results, because only here
Miller managed to find a lot of valuable documents about the unrest, which were then
published in the Collection of State Letters and Treaties in Volume II. When
Empress Catherine II Miller was appointed head of the Collegium Archive
Foreign Affairs and was instructed by the Empress to compose a collection
diplomatic documents following the example of Dumont's Amsterdam edition (Corps
universel diplomatique du droit des Gens, 8 volumes, 1726-1731). But Miller was
is already old for such a grandiose work and, as the head of the archive, only managed to
start parsing and organizing archival material and prepare an entire school
their students, who, after the death of the teacher, continued to work in this archive
and fully deployed their forces later in the so-called "Rumyantsev era".
Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750) acted next to Miller. He
intended to write the geography of Russia, but understood that geography without history
impossible and therefore decided to write history first and turned to collecting and
study of handwritten material. Collecting materials, he found and was the first to appreciate
"Russian Pravda" and "Tsar's Code of Laws". These monuments, like the very "History
Russian "Tatishchev", were published after his death by Miller.
the actual historical works Tatishchev compiled instructions for collecting
ethnographic, geographical and archaeological information about Russia. This
the instruction was accepted by the Academy of Sciences.
Since the time of Catherine II, the collection and publication of historical
material has evolved a lot. Catherine herself found leisure time to practice Russian
history, was keenly interested in Russian antiquity, encouraged and evoked
historical works. With this mood of the Empress, Russian society became
be more interested in your past and be more conscious about the leftovers
of this past. Under Catherine as a collector of historical material
acts, by the way, Count A.N. Musin-Pushkin, who found "The Word of the Regiment
Igor "and trying to collect from the monastic libraries in the capital all
handwritten annals in the form of their best storage and publication. Under Catherine
numerous editions of chronicles began in the Academy of Sciences and at the Synod,
publications, however, are still imperfect and not scientific. And in society something begins
the same movement in favor of the study of antiquity.
In this case, Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov takes the first place
(1744-1818), better known to our society for the publication of satirical
magazines, Freemasonry and concerns about the dissemination of education. According to their
personal qualities and humane ideas, this is a rare person in his century, a bright
a phenomenon of its time. He is already known to us as a collector and publisher.
"Ancient Russian Vivliofika" - an extensive collection of old acts of various
family, chroniclers, old literary works and historical articles.
He began publishing his in 1773 and in 3 years he published 10 parts. In the preface to
Vivliofike Novikov defines his publication as "an outline of the morals and customs
ancestors "in order to know" the greatness of their spirit, adorned with simplicity. "
note that the idealization of antiquity was already strong in the first satirical
Novikov's journal "Truten", 1769-1770) The first edition of "Vivliofika"
now forgotten for the sake of the second, more complete, in 20 volumes (1788-1791).
Novikov in this edition was supported by Catherine II herself both with money, and
by allowing him to study in the archives of the Foreign Collegium, where he
old man Miller was very helpful. According to its content, "Ancient
Russian Vivlifika "was an accidental collection of material that came across.
published almost without any criticism and without any scientific methods, as we
understand now.
In this respect, the "Acts of Peter the Great" of the Kursk merchant is even lower.
Yves. Yves. Golikov (1735-1801), who from childhood admired the deeds of Peter,
had the misfortune of getting on trial, but was released by manifesto on the occasion
opening of the monument to Peter. On this occasion, Golikov decided all his life
devote to work on the biography of Peter. He collected all the news that only
could get, indiscriminately of their merits, Peter's letters, anecdotes about him, etc.
At the beginning of his collection, he placed a brief overview of the 16th and 17th centuries. To work
Golikova drew attention to Ekaterina and opened the archives for him, but this work
devoid of any scientific significance, although due to the lack of the best materials they
use it now. For its time, it was a major archaeographic
fact (1st edition in 30 vols. 1778-1798. 11th edition in 15 vols. 1838).
In addition to the Academy and individuals, she turned to the ancient monuments
activities of the "Free Russian Assembly", a scientific society,
founded at Moscow University in 1771. This society was very
actively in helping individual scientists, giving them access to archives, constructing
scientists ethnographic expeditions, etc., but published a little
monuments of antiquity: in 10 years it published only 6 books of its "Proceedings".
This, in the most general terms, is the activity of the second half of the past.
century for collecting and publishing materials. This activity was distinguished
random nature, captured only the material that, if possible
so to speak, he went into his own hands: worries about those monuments that were in
provinces did not appear. Miller's Siberian Expedition and Collection
chronicles, according to Musin-Pushkin, were separate episodes
exceptional character, and the historical wealth of the province remained
so far without evaluation and attention. As for historical publications of the past
centuries, they do not withstand even the most condescending criticism. Besides
various technical details, we now demand from the learned publisher,
so that he revises, if possible, all known lists of the published
monument, chose from them the oldest and best, i.e. with the most correct text,
one of the best based the edition and printed its text, leading to it
all versions of other serviceable lists, avoiding the slightest inaccuracies and
typos in the text. The publication should be preceded by a check of the historical
the value of the monument; if the monument turns out to be a simple compilation, it is better
publish its sources than the compilation itself. But in the 18th century. looked at the case
not this way; considered it possible to publish, for example, a chronicle according to one of its lists
with all the errors, so now, out of need, using some of the editions
for lack of the best, the historian is constantly in danger of making a mistake, of making
inaccuracy, etc. Only Schletzer theoretically established the methods of the scientist
criticism, yes Miller in the edition of the "Book of Degrees" (1775) observed some
from the basic rules of a scientific publication. In the preface to this chronicle, he says
about his methods of publishing: they are scientific, although not yet developed; but in
he cannot be blamed for this, - the complete development of critical techniques appeared in
us only in the 19th century, and Miller's students contributed most of all to it.
Aging, Miller asked Empress Catherine to appoint after his death
the head of the Archives of the Foreign Collegium of one of his students. Request
he was respected, and after Miller, the Archive was managed by his students: first I.
Stritter, then N.N.Bantysh-Kamensky (1739-1814). This last one,
composing a description of the affairs of his archive, on the basis of these cases he was engaged and
studies, which, unfortunately, are far from all published. They are very
helped Karamzin a lot in compiling the History of the Russian State.
{!LANG-282141312d1eae92cac6d0a5b8d23a44!}
{!LANG-946680e2d0feee122680332f95e215de!}
{!LANG-e1102b008e856c63ee5951ec86d8596c!}
{!LANG-cd654a2bb93b3db36937e434d020c2c2!}
{!LANG-00b08cb884c1e1daadab470c45f42cd4!}
{!LANG-1c98d0ff434e1d76848d694b6fe4e62c!}
{!LANG-6ad19d31cf5eaeb5995cd8e79979e475!}
{!LANG-2dc915e26a2ba089a1db3c48e952ca16!}
{!LANG-289cf9cd7c88e7b20553d29d92b003c9!}
{!LANG-0b8dccafd346d91d24a32f8f4be944e7!}
{!LANG-8e349f0189f43ba1a229788a0ace15cf!}
{!LANG-fdc9e044bb4a9abee4fe516ca625f171!}
{!LANG-9e236cb96354241864fb7bc4b85ad982!}
{!LANG-98c7c6f19420be936e7b57760c6d178b!}
{!LANG-509e94a3b078bab77e3e5543f581e8f6!}
{!LANG-57066d441b302cb46a1e5ac55ee7deb0!}
{!LANG-202aed99142f6d2e50d050f4fc9207e8!}
{!LANG-a788a003678083b7d56d0f651bd6009a!}
{!LANG-a1630f0a5b319cd19fe0e853192fdf32!}
{!LANG-82fb878ad85a8cd3b1b707a581d4bbe7!}
{!LANG-ffa00cb045b82c54964b3353815507b9!}
{!LANG-bd0b899ef98ec77c42503e36e52f36c3!}
{!LANG-fc4d044d981ba2c8e39ea3e4a171abd2!}
{!LANG-cd4d1881fbff176e7528b23257e1f939!}
{!LANG-7c86936622abcabdd9b0a895af288524!}
{!LANG-702f2ea47e59a78d06a43e0792e3deee!}
{!LANG-13e0d83734c5bb19d683d6287b285086!}
{!LANG-ab0489425b3d009c37f4aff0b0a2ad45!}
{!LANG-afe5e11746dc4d5d82a38501135fd6f1!}
{!LANG-031d78964eb629f47f2dc828348a238c!}
{!LANG-5ce090ce5b862d1d5f3f6ac6d0765bc0!}
{!LANG-522934bf93e2f06e0c7c310d79b74fd2!}
{!LANG-ca49891c2b169c846516f224e05985ee!}
{!LANG-31c4f46a49a3b31444566e75e635c49e!}
{!LANG-2299b2cc61950fd5ddf8de66856ade1a!}
{!LANG-1d2ee20a2111d8f890324f32826cf2ef!}
{!LANG-6abe43c8905a3ad8bd008cb50ff9aa1b!}
{!LANG-084eb7dd61a6995481902478fe935c69!}
{!LANG-c0de121e04b7eb4df3a26c3a4e4194ce!}
{!LANG-e59b417de74371a8a5456fe9aaf4aef0!}
{!LANG-a261165443e7dc144b3eadd1c8424285!}
{!LANG-747aad843cee15459bd3f1db791e3cd4!}
{!LANG-4a198970f11c54ac61be3be7932f35a7!}
{!LANG-8ade76ce06d92095428478f9c2f12f39!}
{!LANG-4fa335c97fa6b0c230382fb5bc2f1142!}
{!LANG-031405eeda285924365270d273260f21!}
{!LANG-8a467109c77f6f3e80ff2c6ec5d1f87f!}
{!LANG-33c41590f5608df227e2fbb88c653a41!}
{!LANG-92a8329d706c0b9f41b5c572a839604f!}
{!LANG-8b9d0c71f4a3422a3fda23d0dff7857b!}
{!LANG-2ccc766871cdaf8481deebe665390ee6!}
{!LANG-5789d114cb5fb0a2b61dffbf98934e9d!}
{!LANG-0564e17548ac34544f2095d7a0d780bd!}
{!LANG-a61b82c5860829ba35e21c2a8a0b060d!}
{!LANG-5ea271520640b799b17d8c11d48878f0!}
{!LANG-725661a83d6ae7fce45699dd20023a1f!}
{!LANG-ccd5ae81416eb2c838c2e6444db35f52!}
{!LANG-8dab88adb856c498c31befd0d76dd867!}
{!LANG-8378f1c15d9290c9c194602010d73c1c!}
{!LANG-eb39037aabf33ed9d8be9ba4146f9918!}
{!LANG-c61278a33b0fbcb567fe09d635881bab!}
{!LANG-89a225e0225339d6e2addb2c84dddabf!}
{!LANG-4be6cfe4d4b7671a99338299d275c4d2!}
{!LANG-de315456fe35a89ef7fedc52db4a05e9!}
{!LANG-f48069ac259b47b23a8e6c4c8d77d2be!}
{!LANG-c824f845daf8b8e9b65b8c1538fff233!}
{!LANG-cab21cea66ae97b7b6685010c35d211b!}
{!LANG-486723a0c04f2e2cddbcfaeb9a097226!}
{!LANG-9e656c6cde8bd2c95f04e865210f0ef6!}
{!LANG-0ad0655467d28772b7d6e72367c0e966!}
{!LANG-3ec14617b4f73008af134c981810c2aa!}
{!LANG-45774c0853ef279811bf07972264ba72!}
{!LANG-9e5f780f4f64af6bf2feb115abe822d3!}
{!LANG-c8bdc170c4d30e441067b8568f2f00b3!}
{!LANG-cf46156a335c1b3207feff4e33b665be!}
{!LANG-ca2951662ea7bda556793ab697541fac!}
{!LANG-83c19e852adb5470b3606674e09c50c8!}
{!LANG-61b51597c40e78e4d20f9fbc7347a9d6!}
{!LANG-fab3b44a219f0ed56082f9978eaef73a!}
{!LANG-1f6cbb3fcafa5be71ec320f1daa4c88b!}
{!LANG-0642da15c3deaedc254bbdd4d6bee7c7!}
{!LANG-317384a68a8dc3cc1e4ca31d5748ec41!}
{!LANG-f27a81fced828d389fe8ee2322e7c476!}
{!LANG-d8acd7ae426bcbdcdb9b1395189abf15!}
{!LANG-0fbbdc5680706b26174f4e1103be180b!}
{!LANG-d7a6ea10c8ca4ba75d733332601531e2!}
{!LANG-c78f74351b191805e95c6eb7bb6d2ebf!} {!LANG-80f22da5abb112c3bacea9230afdee9a!}{!LANG-f3f358ae9a1813efadbc46c8a52bb61a!}
{!LANG-44dd9829c409c9eb0ba3ac0886f897af!}
{!LANG-e3cbbb8cde4bacc2f1b92c2424f6614c!}
{!LANG-a72d9c3ecd5512004f8711c269d80aee!}
{!LANG-39fde6cde5b92f148b9d2161096f1e94!}
{!LANG-3f701fef9597929e8be7b3c170b70b78!}
{!LANG-751d8952823d8fab38289af9d710851b!}
{!LANG-a4ff28cbe5ec8562c6c0779ad3e55fa9!}
{!LANG-0c93829bfdf0e78605f008ba525406f4!}
{!LANG-c74e7eb17645b8ae6ca604e935e21fc2!}
{!LANG-90639d84a8cee3dd3432ccb2862b2dd0!}
{!LANG-1978466efd1a951b0be913508cc28857!}
{!LANG-2b64dc755242372c337ed84b55330cbb!}
{!LANG-0ff322105a63b7ed1c36b9cb2bc31a96!}
{!LANG-a808b9903ad30c3427121a789c19671b!}
{!LANG-4ada3fd3c1b55369432d5f3323940774!}
{!LANG-1307456723db5b5e60c5a0e80d7b4ff0!}
{!LANG-8e855cbdcc1ced3b2e2688fb64d13d40!}
{!LANG-b15526c35ccdb6a604b9753413f9b8fe!}
{!LANG-4c8cc1fe05c5012efcbad275ce95946c!}
{!LANG-41453f246c432235e270b6e8e3e598c4!}
{!LANG-c7b56dd17d80aa44ab6461f78cdaf1c6!}
{!LANG-84f1a0e69fc25f3fbff1a85e2361daad!}
{!LANG-66d8fea5f6f6491489b24db45d0aa48f!}
{!LANG-37bbb0b6e44c34521ae717f1b66854f4!}
{!LANG-4f919da7274ff2c7252c383db1209a8a!}
{!LANG-ae21a368341b2580d08b7b84c3a12ef3!}
{!LANG-5fa22591e6c87a0865cd20f06e1502d7!}
{!LANG-839b3fe38d61234f3d1cb976a37f18cd!}
{!LANG-b7ff805316cd70a512a58f473881d37c!}
{!LANG-afa5b8e2b0f97e2100b0facbc1cf6aa2!}
{!LANG-c35412af73df1692c53e4452f3e8ff04!}
{!LANG-10a461acb4283d08c662e35db11c8add!}
{!LANG-9361e12ee358d1feeb4be9c3f18081f1!}
{!LANG-c0480e3e7c7aed5f9260300e0bfc72be!}
{!LANG-65b9e1d6888ae005916ee546eaa2617a!}
{!LANG-132a5abce807aeebe98c8202a911506c!}
{!LANG-25e6519ccf52ca25eafe74bb1ba65d42!}
{!LANG-74d8d426020a094eaf073411960cf683!}
{!LANG-7d6f34cfd640fabc5e42330e915d9389!}
{!LANG-9db01d1b63e5b70d6b1665dd3b3e5bdb!}
{!LANG-75c9f9eb8ce8d27dc3c3cc87f53b24bf!}
{!LANG-92b9e13521f4b1d1719bde0194dea901!}
{!LANG-9de1e68b3db64241de63388ba7fe9181!}
{!LANG-a038eb8d38d6e166c631ba6bed4926cb!}
{!LANG-224aca77ffb7ef9ce4838254caf54d6d!}
{!LANG-ad1155572724004fbe0c8feddc29de83!}
{!LANG-9b6de57b2d9b27639b133ce36e19d7f7!}
{!LANG-260c11ef8a452ab0796f4ff4bac93bfa!}
{!LANG-f67a4f409028d573b1c7b6c61d75c2c5!}
{!LANG-c3a9889f5be98d35b6a6edaf1b1063ea!}
{!LANG-bee0a62b7a1c5bc0059425608a2eae2c!}
{!LANG-f2092f799282054ae3b71d330044c5a6!}
{!LANG-89818cbecd11126939c5b90e337bfa5e!}
{!LANG-a9dafa1b6ab3060951394e185ccf5463!}
{!LANG-6ca77e726896507a53a8dc041c7bf252!}
{!LANG-51c80e6d05b5820dba905080148c3483!}
{!LANG-2130f4542ccc425cd57984e43e527910!}
{!LANG-f9c1be9a37e0822334b67c1f16877255!}
{!LANG-355e9946fa9e8a74939852ca22b1d20f!}
{!LANG-4bbe260d566452c378eb96fe7cdab544!}
{!LANG-a7a825f6fd49becac6fcf9846aeca1ae!}
{!LANG-634e52ed9c2707ba7b8a0a38d14f9225!}
{!LANG-6493141b939acf74c1287ff0a55301fb!}
{!LANG-08c87b2cad90888c3f5de552f25df7fc!}
{!LANG-77f1fd9ab96b7ccc078a0a647d69f4bf!}
{!LANG-90896694851e25092cb3ba08ead29212!}
{!LANG-e905484f0714b679385fe07efd854830!}
{!LANG-99cf464a24dbc07a89c18d0cd8e7d7cb!}
{!LANG-eea6e5a4b69028ffebc2c1ca1485aa78!}
{!LANG-e074dbf131b6bf35acc8e62f56841e77!}
{!LANG-6d4090e560aad20447abe94bf0433d86!}
{!LANG-f6c86572d81b87ce16b3f857aefc4812!}
{!LANG-f0694a75b3a81557c27582e71f46423c!}
{!LANG-612554d760378111d5b311c1f1ead031!}
{!LANG-53077daaec865f7e083d3a7421220cb0!}
{!LANG-3122f34c0f709cbd04e28d470274a3df!}
{!LANG-1f41f9d926834653e35e5ff335b9ad28!}
{!LANG-3e7a116b203407aad95d9a7b9f573eb7!}
{!LANG-75220240fbd82fc0fe9eacd399165be8!}
{!LANG-f514891ecb715a0fbfbaeaf6587bc09f!}
{!LANG-17a4473ba0b435acef85fa93f69541bd!}
{!LANG-13c72fa88aa4e4c8479b5a0aeb93face!}
{!LANG-789fdcfc9efc09e80caf3bb32479ca19!}
{!LANG-f3d3dc9717a9a1cda4620c16555fe7fe!}
{!LANG-3cb0da291094c1c0be4400c1a68796c0!}
{!LANG-74bf43a03b9deab50981e2fa6307b7fd!}
{!LANG-54bf45264d7af35db0b4bcfc919035e1!}
{!LANG-eca99da2a354eac4461969679eb47066!}
{!LANG-f45299c33e6ed1d75382f2767417c2b5!}
{!LANG-07eefbd477726e8542b0e20a2b9d08ce!}
{!LANG-07d2a0f992edd0c8806d4e82b1b57263!}
{!LANG-badc47ae49167e9ed1634d8246d11fc2!}
{!LANG-b9add9210b17e636002f6e259cb119be!}
{!LANG-dcb91dfd95d9923012901fe55f7fdf93!}
{!LANG-f071da07eb3ee5c1b755e7d9630690c1!}
{!LANG-4bb4d193e8a6f43b0269fc9edc0cdba6!}
{!LANG-3d35fc95d7599c87c6ca68437a3ce1a2!}
{!LANG-99bbce5f71cce00df82cd66a849efc2a!}
{!LANG-13e48b025672f5484315bf59860b5a50!}
{!LANG-2a3913e73366bef0782a36f3dbd9fec1!}
{!LANG-2883cdfab7344aa71daf4f18aab117ed!}
{!LANG-c323a2d2845c4e062359c81d5f1013e6!}
{!LANG-6f0b5a577147b5d61a4e99527ca85a56!}
{!LANG-c991bf03b19ca2362d3943ec4d746e77!}
{!LANG-4c0178be944ca4ddf9fbf645c39184c8!}
{!LANG-070dde7fba0d017b28cf3873af931d83!}
{!LANG-2ceb19e5725d4aaade3d3cf492b8f28c!}
{!LANG-07cf068a05312e3923b7f9980b62e95e!}
{!LANG-f446228128c155587b3afab07dadde67!}
{!LANG-12de0ebb162c356d9f0c268baf2d2b07!}
{!LANG-255c4190e87d385898257b666df0f231!}
{!LANG-fa551dfb51d0aac64bdb4df771c79b9c!}
{!LANG-9f8cfd465ce59e99072361ab20009f7f!}
{!LANG-bfb2daa232fad3a943aae49ad17c1370!}
{!LANG-433a2b7eee4d5fb626014e483e009cbf!}
{!LANG-f060cc163eb309235b4211e0989984ec!}
{!LANG-6b4dc41734e0266a164f296a5405c614!}
{!LANG-17ba889b36d32403f21588b56d18737a!}
{!LANG-ed5797a7a1b209bec189f2ee92b3f1ca!}
{!LANG-8880f505eba2999a118b140bfa52d787!}
{!LANG-58c5805f45b6e97465bf8eb245722568!}
{!LANG-c1157dcd1c512560e0c939f4471c306f!}
{!LANG-45a1e2847a0f9fc778560547e93eeab1!}
{!LANG-b520b15de75a1eb59a6fa0e3d6c84fc7!}
{!LANG-5b76dca4d32b271db581fc94563bc86b!}
{!LANG-2956c3beb9eb7e69b82d299a85c5fa9f!}
{!LANG-da5428a33c2dc2175e3a72630603bfd8!}
{!LANG-ec08550b84ca9f158454704dcfc6d380!}
{!LANG-1b443c3082cb97cbcfe044060865b153!} {!LANG-1497e35eb86c9fd60645e29e4ebc7c08!}
{!LANG-dd1e4e53ce3050421421c9ae555d20df!}
{!LANG-edd00414589a6f66cf9f1cb4743ef486!}
{!LANG-3deb3c8121b1bcb18ba0754481459c19!}
{!LANG-7278231c0c20c4b3cce0206d5ccaab95!}
{!LANG-cb1d93a9bf096da0b5b434520faf5e94!}
{!LANG-448769a7b22f20b487baff4bb775d006!}
{!LANG-559046a1c8633013f6dbb8a23da09c5b!}
{!LANG-18539bdf1377fe60213c79e83e55cee9!}
{!LANG-93ca3b371f3608a2c254450a3413dbe6!}
{!LANG-42c9a031af4fcda3fb47cf1417c6edd7!}
{!LANG-54eb3e71c8175efea3bf756d0069c4cf!}
{!LANG-8d80ac528a2297fd39643c92430e31f8!}
{!LANG-dc37d591573314ab107bbf5989c29117!}
{!LANG-66baba587ef19f74cc29906a45380e7a!}
{!LANG-ea512112852273818e07015db9588847!}
{!LANG-7f1c455f1e65d30a3132a1c41bd3e9c5!}
{!LANG-582876b555c9003951420c26903c0962!}
{!LANG-a2e08c7f58501482ed136f5e503f12c6!}
{!LANG-a3d9a82dad5eff2532a78d6ec0dcfa18!}
{!LANG-7b14d71ef7a84dabcb006c1bab538514!}
{!LANG-031492c7083bc597c3f591ca4cfb1114!}
{!LANG-a749336bb1e9142cc0d059be3432f8a3!}
{!LANG-f6698732e6c2befa9711dbf98998fbaf!}
{!LANG-f4e878b5b287176a868c3c6e3658b16b!}
{!LANG-c1c40783920167fa089a550c3f94bcec!}
{!LANG-e238cbb2768f35a69782d288c02d368f!}
{!LANG-8fb9d9fc0e9f379d8169e7a974622ed5!}
{!LANG-d0305bdf83a53a169aea17a76a5af06a!}
{!LANG-a6ee045daf8a6263f8f61e04d1f2a964!}
{!LANG-12ada33865922e2b5f298df3d7337c04!}
{!LANG-baf806df4b6a3a9635d848de632b782d!}
{!LANG-d15b89c2c22da27808c90b9c74c366a7!}
{!LANG-018b8c093e73c011ca515e9f56795eae!}
{!LANG-6c21d45186e0784562d457321e6692f1!}
{!LANG-074ba935809444e9d4f80dbbb884bc80!}
{!LANG-001975db6575cf81275d9d727d5a77b6!}
{!LANG-9f3e4073671af6c4a6ffefcd3ca9aa51!}
{!LANG-24c5553f1d028dfd98c3b38969d47c34!}
{!LANG-6f97670ae188b15299d8f66f05400527!}
{!LANG-ea0f06974dcb53ec09d2ce809f6262ae!}
{!LANG-1b00c361a63ccae3d1bbe6d8fba9d972!}
{!LANG-c9a9fbc75490f5fa5e1ffdca2355deea!}
{!LANG-c6e55b8f1d245024746880b1a755bd02!}
{!LANG-46e300c46d5a4f22b2ff85392d6fa423!}
{!LANG-e6319df56e48548d8884c888466e6810!}
{!LANG-3427457f17746d7e19306da8e945ce3d!}
{!LANG-efb0cfc951df190bb1ea6691b09a9a97!}
{!LANG-5b1f1a1c2332bbc727a04ea0d5b4d695!}
{!LANG-c10fb4cc0204aba958e92312c662d412!}
{!LANG-0946f4b1a7b8e4c06c0b568650609421!}
{!LANG-221f71f6f58a013b38653425934b4856!}
{!LANG-65ffb853e68c176a364afcf4e69c4923!}
{!LANG-ef413c40adbfdda0ac6be86e9dae1757!}
{!LANG-2bcf333fd235893dceb3932fc680299e!}
{!LANG-00af8e9250a3b89413970d1845d62c8d!}
{!LANG-339f6bcfae375be14a9ff613bbaacfc4!}
{!LANG-6835cf89f04ef5e9e7e71cede3e21cbb!}
{!LANG-fdaae9ef2df222531a94277543973427!}
{!LANG-d82901a3afe82084823cbb398bc112b9!}
{!LANG-b987569fb5040ebc4c23a7c08ad21f49!}
{!LANG-f5bc71b38e9f6fdeefb5241df249147a!}
{!LANG-d22891ac2d7ddbfc16211710dcec69e7!}
{!LANG-ed49deb632999ab78c8ab562f6ff26a6!}
{!LANG-ebf1a87232410135f9d39a87fe9874d8!}
{!LANG-c9a5eb5e3c3e2021deccbe4810be000e!}
{!LANG-67bda6983feb443030d956dfc73cbb12!}
{!LANG-be53e1425d6d752f7b262ada2b57a289!}
{!LANG-d907e6bf29462510376e34b13d0100ac!}
{!LANG-781cf4b67d8961868ffddbd7a0c67f8d!}
{!LANG-ee389098669ac804398a149d0d73c25b!}
{!LANG-8875e5cb5787bb0de44482e1a2f49f45!}
{!LANG-27dbfb74bd516f08697997e9d4106b0a!}
{!LANG-b325bf61da2d7209b89a6552681b5074!}
{!LANG-f9fbd32fd0e99a20b2654d339251c857!}
{!LANG-897a5352d923ca4e16f2f520cf6a5aa7!}
{!LANG-e8ed1b05e97b0ac3ac6510dd83d860c6!}
{!LANG-b2bbb7178b29e7799c1a56738244d3a4!}
{!LANG-5d4ef567dad40409c2e2fcdeb89548ce!}
{!LANG-a64a6c5d32ce186af1f09e4da10673e7!}
{!LANG-685c8897c33d3e375b00bf07ec417558!}
{!LANG-16494fbb9b08118066e7b8a81d2671f8!}
{!LANG-2c91d5a33fa20b50d0ee17c4cf690987!}
{!LANG-a0f8bec941568e76966aa093b74d3af4!}
{!LANG-341814f2c09d572cae651c28ea3375b0!}
{!LANG-c2b2921048153aa7b8187bfec6382403!}
{!LANG-7c95e9812772404c88ab1124c66063ab!}
{!LANG-6eadaee2513b25ea578add50cec31e1f!}
{!LANG-4c48696fb09fa34bcad0ea035865bbe8!}
{!LANG-b49eba531050eb912e717443eaaf1986!}
{!LANG-a14638303635318e5b8306c28326f909!}
{!LANG-c2c65c75dcf8f2aa7c93373d975b3264!}
{!LANG-0b3f348d0e5a2ae7bf5172c397048e2a!}
{!LANG-828390acd81c1226bb29018c3c376268!}
{!LANG-64c7818d9af261bd2a5c6f3e6e37f294!}
{!LANG-beba542efbd373ee8673e384831c68fe!}
{!LANG-ed095254dc7db60c73b100da6788d735!}
{!LANG-fb51ff5e7085aa66842912ef59ec8eae!}
{!LANG-5b5361d939f951e46b4f605d69c14d59!}
{!LANG-4ce9e931a342b0e638962944571f1149!}
{!LANG-9f33bd4f2b9e767f3679b6cba9e4efe4!}
{!LANG-d6fb929f439795ddf760d72ef72fc30a!}
{!LANG-db45aab3bc7f9b5fc781b45e0c17856f!}
{!LANG-2041e26b630d06f2c6a1e44e5f2cb0c4!}
{!LANG-6623fffeb9cec23a8a36683454d3929f!}
{!LANG-b222d1fce6586ebd74905e7c21463134!}
{!LANG-e5ecbf9b5fdc176e7c1be17f5b61d6f5!}
{!LANG-dd9246bf01761af447851ec9f0c3d886!}
{!LANG-781f8d7eb7e1a2fa4165722d1ec1216f!}
{!LANG-a5b323b7083cf4d5d6ec267c5362889f!}
{!LANG-ba824d2597f46a12ee821f8796c462dd!}
{!LANG-b610f3d6d80db5c3377c5bc0504d0d43!}
{!LANG-0e42d87e238e7001b379ffb5ed62e00a!}
{!LANG-2db44b4afa5868a70344fdad1ce3dfb4!}
{!LANG-14ded64e4bd0543efd9c573ed8b68c98!}
{!LANG-7fb088fbd3ab0c5dba6e4a15a1b9b26b!}
{!LANG-7f5912548c21d53a090b5a38123a17a3!}
{!LANG-dd4fc2a9484a1e9a292bfcde92975921!}
{!LANG-8874fef657363feef40f366cfbd69b66!}
{!LANG-43e0801cbb2f6e050c5f0a9dcbbe3a32!}
{!LANG-94a6d2be1e7bbd13acfb93bbcf6a6a54!}
{!LANG-28e4c1d41ff64aaa807fe8ef196dd6c1!}
{!LANG-8f6e758f8c76a425a01433e691d46b0e!}
{!LANG-6d2443f66ffa5824d8b2b812b69e55dc!}
{!LANG-b2ab303ed3c4b013e71223a410270431!}
{!LANG-9ca767f1241091121152a545780465ee!}
{!LANG-03c36968a36857f29fce6748432c5259!}
{!LANG-5eeb56333a79002b7e9e99c7539af86b!}
{!LANG-c276b444b2300ea9c92214fe7b36a63a!}
{!LANG-36c96b481c9a56272ffd9040ceedfa11!}
{!LANG-ac5a76dd092aa57feb01680f2208faa7!}
{!LANG-040d792dc5943ee4662ade7aad52e0a5!}
{!LANG-2fef577164df06b0bda0148fddc6ef80!}
{!LANG-16902f92aabaf7603c1ea23d747c5f30!}
{!LANG-9a70c26709fe79904601153f74096745!}
{!LANG-43fc56d40cf8bce1073d15b4d8bbed09!}
{!LANG-b7785fd403df101b9babb533b593c2c1!}
{!LANG-5c6a959ea15ce12c6ec0f8e00515fe81!}
{!LANG-e14a9a0f48b32bd3790b525eaed36ead!}
{!LANG-67abd7d77ab876888014a963150baab7!}
{!LANG-5c97310d9274d5e34b88bc70072efcad!}
{!LANG-6c0008c9e235cd6f15a8de8ea5257c58!}
{!LANG-4682d4b9fc77192838c83b65f1809bd0!}
{!LANG-d4214e92e8b8c4994e2936f42244218f!}
{!LANG-1a8578d53f6a25570cd67e8d55b8cd9a!}
{!LANG-dee65aa4cb7ecbf53473d6e7a75f8998!}
{!LANG-9e0b91be0f1c3a4cc1aa1ea8a2664551!}
{!LANG-96edc2e94b25c034020cde6bb9a6fdf7!}
{!LANG-daac49ed4ae4c6fd812b3f54e70d7370!}
{!LANG-09fac4aa7d6dc9f260b164e97b8eb152!}
{!LANG-7b23889952faa3061d8d98357d6ab2ee!}{!LANG-e3b45a08141ed4328a990a0b2d1caee3!}
{!LANG-29ba87bc210b9d1e02ef338a45650090!}
{!LANG-80ac0ff4e8c8475e19066d281920a4f3!}
{!LANG-48c7b35bd7f4bb377a6930fe09bb45ef!}
{!LANG-a99e1144774e2f1dc0366db562b1ba37!}
{!LANG-437251bd62c7a623cda995a80b9bebd7!}
{!LANG-b678278577011420844f87762c802483!}
{!LANG-e35a8217de5bac17e3d53d91bce4b3b2!}
{!LANG-19ef7be033ebf30930883314e8a92957!}
{!LANG-adf9e76160ced0130ae949819968eaee!}
{!LANG-21a6dd9f468d9ce6a7a0cff8623f8b4c!}
{!LANG-d262fd934aaf4447e33a3694dee377ea!}
{!LANG-20074cd24ead5f2cafbac07408e62c64!}
{!LANG-ec2b5c8cec740ba4dee7576748888495!}
{!LANG-c3a4dbc077c3d8eef381cbde5e497ddf!}
{!LANG-122853e633fdfd35ad3af059e405e57d!}
{!LANG-ba0624a48e36e857e9d7d09e94a4a610!}
{!LANG-74ce96704af6d67b309075ddcf6c25b3!}
{!LANG-4dc8cfe855f765e1d64a624d0808a263!}
{!LANG-e96a5bf839e121803965a83da825e00e!}
{!LANG-d07ba9fe37a8038a47680b7a1b200f0e!}
{!LANG-0ce51280a759bdce3048298b92955b98!}
{!LANG-03453d9403acdef6a7828594c5de2933!}
{!LANG-7f3c5e2b8201b61121cd7efa2416b82d!}
{!LANG-1a7f4ad0bfa5c50a88cafa537c634583!}
{!LANG-04d6528aaad526b2222204db9203ddbf!}
{!LANG-b0cb1f03dfcde1df34ced9e7bffa370f!}
{!LANG-5133b82a53f6f908f1d22d5a43cb5e1e!}
{!LANG-edc15b4d51e11193d86dab6d2f07c996!}
{!LANG-0a99b8f38270314033dd8d9c04c1318d!}
{!LANG-1ffe58c32617a431c4bc78c46c6b6235!}
{!LANG-b8e77cc423b32a2de5d56d9fc093ce16!}
{!LANG-be8b808336607df692b2b04373e141e7!}
{!LANG-60da06f925f2038a6dec331de65b9ca0!}
{!LANG-b1277b045d2f7954d63e996d63b19449!}
{!LANG-70c9649b7a54acf1161f8723f40641ec!}
{!LANG-7e8438d5f981940a26bcbc7aa773604c!}
{!LANG-dd1472d9a25a8b5e1103f8f2cca436b5!}
{!LANG-d4107d0e9b78c8efc4f012af875a5909!}
{!LANG-d72296114128348bac09fd38802e67ea!}
{!LANG-41b278a3886c25bc28f5fc462d900754!}
{!LANG-08f8ed47a04f25c0bf5d44020f437559!}
{!LANG-5d63ea347aa7936301f0f60718b155c3!}
{!LANG-4d9c75907793be3539bbc25be000c8ed!}
{!LANG-730ecf5dd59661023ba6d1534005e54b!}
{!LANG-46e243d051132773bba31a5530eff98e!}
{!LANG-7004fbe7269642ca22afcbb1ff3c8707!}
{!LANG-8d9003c4a1b06b3a046c444ec1cdb476!}
{!LANG-ea344eb1a51938418a99aea725822470!}
{!LANG-adb60bb124901bcb12404376094af13b!}
{!LANG-ff2dfcb071ab52de5fd6f4b4e9185cc9!}
{!LANG-ea8a5100cb9bdac2fe4e3abe9dd4182e!}
{!LANG-316ecadcbc86b4069433d5ef96e73c5c!}
{!LANG-8fcbd773b321ae0654180c9ad0abe8d5!}
{!LANG-6326c889e499f682fe00d50a3ce49d47!}
{!LANG-84c9c93230895eb5d64f1325f3abaa9f!}
{!LANG-946d573a2f48b947cf082b01c33cb388!}
{!LANG-4c8b455ebf06f479a57ffd65b47736c5!}
{!LANG-4a47898d59511710468abc938a435f9e!}
{!LANG-9cbfe88670d41d02e62a56fcfad103e7!}
{!LANG-cf8a54b9d8f6d5f7d19e9829fb94f649!}
{!LANG-f4d81705eeb0ced8e0e479d9989369ce!}
{!LANG-bcd866c18d8d97f312371c064fbb1dec!}
{!LANG-4ad49d802ab732cd729760eec0deb5f5!}
{!LANG-60eecaa3b17f705c2a7559afa706429b!}
{!LANG-62cfffdecc96da88d9e88b9da208b952!}
{!LANG-234e6b1c2a723e65a009b52eb3e70b7c!}
{!LANG-32f48b59338c0cde2cac94e580f3cef6!}
{!LANG-3ed58869c34e9cd2afdf907e02bf00ba!}
{!LANG-2c2f3001712d308816294bd2bc3535af!}
{!LANG-eae330dbab521d9b0129099a57b6b4c9!}
{!LANG-d7d724c5a04c54359d2acd64433f5605!}
{!LANG-896d6f8ce0460e27f4bca1f085e2a8e5!}
{!LANG-1c3aad3b5333e6b4186263a6225f3511!}
{!LANG-6afde7d1f5fcd32a8ef54023c5224907!}
{!LANG-b44b9c280e095ed56613b2cb2f33024c!}
{!LANG-54473bb5093e9e6e74b456d4cfcdb62a!}
{!LANG-27bc67e9e0363f986f05a3524b73c09c!}
{!LANG-f017891e59227ce1c3b4d9800cef2b06!}
{!LANG-dfcdac726d07c018b0623dc2990d32cd!}
{!LANG-9758948a3e560ead248f4496f5a4b85c!}
{!LANG-21111662c1d693880073635f3ea12514!}
{!LANG-f82011bc9c46c70194b7f3ad83a01ec5!}
{!LANG-0b6edb8e1572bb11b566cdd89db45af6!}
{!LANG-01c7fd564df590c947910b09c049ddea!}
{!LANG-0bacc9607717bee8e55ff1e0dff36342!}
{!LANG-2c03d562bd95788245b2d46c191ca28e!}
{!LANG-0b4136f3c9b5190f4b1a3f503650d3cf!}
{!LANG-8af319f10a429bb028eacb547222f503!}
{!LANG-4bc8c06ad3eb1477e6bc478e04d62640!}
{!LANG-f345c45f7887b3099286e4186781eecf!}
{!LANG-dd369df058b861fc6fce1b4c7b9a1604!}
{!LANG-90b6414d71b55c1579f89150f987a07e!}
{!LANG-1e47cdc73be8ee0af2b68e1992bdb9c2!}
{!LANG-84a41ef488b89d1a1915f225a2baad26!}
{!LANG-7dd228df8709be660eb25dc6ca7f391b!}
{!LANG-853c5c9adbadf881ced6bb49dee90a2c!}
{!LANG-2c9f6a8aef156ee6c646d15bde0f310e!}
{!LANG-4426a6758899c67acd58cd04ce957ef7!}
{!LANG-89d4036f95f4511bf71670f1f2af3282!}
{!LANG-d9df9d70ff519fd38ec46deef4ec5d5a!}
{!LANG-d36156a6a5ac4cf09c409a87a24f71bd!} {!LANG-44b2d731d75d2554b7c3b9ac55b5de94!}{!LANG-9942e9f96c99217b2eb24817901c44b4!}
{!LANG-a1c9f36b5bf14d33a482f096cc760998!}
{!LANG-9d7f5edb15905e8bbf56c109c34667f9!}
{!LANG-8c76cf64c177b2434a0dc6e0252f9e86!}
{!LANG-4ee32aca01f90157a3d0c08c37ff87c1!}
{!LANG-32994dbef49185ebf2fa427d62ed5ad3!}
{!LANG-d8336c4fa70ed5422a6fb110635e825a!}
{!LANG-139383b6248c721242fa071c5cf0abfc!}
{!LANG-b5fa5edeab3106458ab9eaaf87536c49!}
{!LANG-24a2c635c31a144dfcbc320240730b31!}
{!LANG-50bb4897d5cc45734920ddd61971622b!}
{!LANG-083379ef5cdeb9d19ba397af677f9d94!}
{!LANG-d941699f770e5616aee31d865419d5b5!}
{!LANG-b14cfdd6edc0abc1400e77eeb7757b84!}
{!LANG-0ba5a1ae232c598cfe02f3133ff1c2cb!}
{!LANG-4035545ae9a08c70333335c647cd9cf3!}
{!LANG-4d8eaf4c819cfd423f9081a5e6b7a9ee!}
{!LANG-7446ef4db4e8da3e067f85aa996d5c10!}
{!LANG-267d3bc51ab4e607de03c3b64e6c4e35!}
{!LANG-84a6d2c8f7301bb0953f990d4c8b677b!}
{!LANG-d937b032ba3270dd420b22f549ee348a!}
{!LANG-2ca5b0eae021e02b218bffe07c960491!}
{!LANG-bb0de274f7e9175b573d27ca57b0ab25!}
{!LANG-f3e2c7d2e66882f76edd0165d59c2dc8!}
{!LANG-a011dda9b04975477e10d4bda6a6568a!}
{!LANG-8e09101b3c8ceef7cb2173c095bda693!}
{!LANG-8ce1976a554f84a7abaf4c3d449b37b7!}
{!LANG-b3002003ad5992ef21bdb3b433774465!}
{!LANG-f27366261bc79d4e62c75fb82711c450!}
{!LANG-487eee16ee529859f9b6444a6e7e75be!}
{!LANG-87a3595b8e7b55dba7526006e27dee4a!}
{!LANG-929392a34a7ba37437d32465e06174d4!}
{!LANG-7e1e8522823f8c7fd352d1856112c36f!}
{!LANG-158009c7280f0f70e3251bf8bec2b07b!}
{!LANG-7701d3bbf0bd8c24ae80975751b12b18!}
{!LANG-3899b7bd5a8acc59ce5a33b173506d45!}
{!LANG-7118a488ad758c8863583d64d763b973!}
{!LANG-b87a01f121c5621343eff770b027a954!}
{!LANG-0ff98fa3c871a984b866a7b2aba5a9db!}
{!LANG-6fc5fe479e5eb75e58661e01bcf38e0d!}
{!LANG-3f03c83514d3260b191a0f22a7f33f68!}
{!LANG-e45eb3550d560b50a269f84bba0bee66!}
{!LANG-8d6c3ea94e9ea805f0e444f2859c0d55!}
{!LANG-032eae6908ec6022d92f2f5e45563445!}
{!LANG-9e8fe08c2199295571a02763aa30e1e9!}
{!LANG-d11bdae50d9e91e8d8c30861ae5c6d05!}
{!LANG-31d9929f2b8f19b9db7d2a767e3e90a4!}
{!LANG-27ec9df1941b4223baaf2e4ced301665!}
{!LANG-420e49e7122aa3b63071ac3c152e2a7c!}
{!LANG-1d66abc7395fcaf17bb529e4c68f0994!}
{!LANG-2ed0c5381a9f75109ba83bdf830eb5ba!}
{!LANG-6a8ed641f590c4677513806b8a044dab!}
{!LANG-f3ec9ec606278ae00c9b2dea38595e41!}
{!LANG-3294098299337f57fbf6c93030a68fda!}
{!LANG-ae4142e3c04e842da851a969a9089f77!}
{!LANG-c024a885a57e79911cbc58644537731b!}
{!LANG-3ad0b7cf140dcb348648e9097e5fba33!}
{!LANG-f1aeaab95abcf998b8138452eef1f10c!}
{!LANG-b356cedc80185afe13f2c9eaf2a33637!}
{!LANG-316cdae90c73291094a6838d29033089!}
{!LANG-bd4f6ad11348b7c9c2269e6a69556699!}
{!LANG-53966ee52e37c93c25ed5af6cd87ba4c!}
{!LANG-2b01698a3828e8b6b1a39e740154c5b6!}
{!LANG-0280f64baf0faec510844c7e557fad64!}
{!LANG-a5df45535677d95634e985b63745b0be!}
{!LANG-f247ceaecc49fbe003208d307ec63277!}
{!LANG-b1dca3d5a39c1f101b376808c0f16b8c!}
{!LANG-4200b72d1d9e57b14507cdb42e5c2719!}
{!LANG-cddf576e35f8215bd57ab5f7c0be3af0!}{!LANG-2d73979c8d2a0de88639c42a0d662555!}
{!LANG-69f7808d76a4b4d6e1cf6f956fe45dd6!}
{!LANG-0175f314b174577c40de90bab6d33232!}
{!LANG-91461be97b7437afce6d87393547cdb0!}
{!LANG-e8fa2f14f92806381d69351eeef1b438!}
{!LANG-c6ce06baa82af74a964d668994dc073f!}
{!LANG-e160f590478061f976670b54c6229dc6!}
{!LANG-6ae7f2967dbf209f4a5f67e8a4a02b80!}
{!LANG-8f46fcaa381555b87f5e8078ffda7a17!}
{!LANG-df3b875743d3ea6035792a54fbff1069!}
{!LANG-6d0659d8a9337cb243fb07016adca6e1!}
{!LANG-4e237b71041dc75a2818794c5ae426a6!}
{!LANG-abc4076c27b8d4031bfa49f11a4702ca!}
{!LANG-35ba7ca23c79a030f77bf3e9cd0d9f1e!}
{!LANG-fdae4c1da48820cc7761a5889014a1e4!}
{!LANG-5d5dff580a8669139ab912159ffdcdc5!}
{!LANG-722f7445d2b8d6f0bc824c9538ea9a6f!}
{!LANG-aee352e37e7c0759ffc12d8dc56f00e5!}
{!LANG-aa8ca016b3ba0d282c3e9868cba3f1e8!}
{!LANG-e16ec94c8b7094917e85472182dc286a!}
{!LANG-68e72cb98a69983e665c83dc0d04c4b5!}
{!LANG-50c0808e6270854ca73423d6409de571!}
{!LANG-38d58545e7b6756628fea65896417818!}
{!LANG-1c73e01780d61cdfed45fcb3073f568f!}
{!LANG-25ee0bf0c9ea1d1423f5cbc6dd4c33f1!}
{!LANG-59c225a89ab8b8a1f7b3d24cb8c59c29!}
{!LANG-3efd978f010837827e877329759d99a9!}
{!LANG-d82199e72b43d9a0ee4d692569e1295f!}
{!LANG-1e270d10b9e23a64e1ed48302a19c54b!}
{!LANG-6ca1cdf329d13f54644df35764193b9c!}
{!LANG-5a2c2332ff7291cb81c9b51b4d67614e!}
{!LANG-5541c9317df6fc689d74e953441cec1b!}
{!LANG-f6630c9b3e5b8505b0634f758e28b795!}
{!LANG-9ed48a172d70a40e1fc06fc1e2858d89!}
{!LANG-15ad5c9aeb3c40eaea8af872e6931a28!}
{!LANG-e1b9f85fdc78e2037a9c3692ceaae9ab!}
{!LANG-09657f3084d53715c6032a135a2fdb2b!}
{!LANG-70c746804d17a9ba1d0c1438a094cd43!}
{!LANG-8e36cd042880a9ee20cde517da22fbb0!}
{!LANG-80bfb5ea661dbebf35c18fdf48a30c79!}
{!LANG-71ebf1dfec77997492167182db5a7afa!}
{!LANG-b4787f64ebef8df716598260d357c017!}
{!LANG-ba8aad1044a9bcaa53fdd53d1c5e1b00!}
{!LANG-44f8bad49ef80abb12608d86ebeb50cf!}
{!LANG-ef7931b2332c624ad232e8ffbd89e922!}
{!LANG-077bcd3f3f960016db45e06d30169dc7!}
{!LANG-e7cebf32e06b0f0afb571fe5ddc24746!}
{!LANG-d56d132ee5e1d58a730cc684625a2410!}
{!LANG-ab742ff8586daf8ca6fceb013f5b47eb!}
{!LANG-e0f87f218c4ebf09f02778bf4f924835!}
{!LANG-4259a955ee927d8e03f9b05ed6104c42!}
{!LANG-b2f037d35edebdb927e7ff60ece0ae77!}
{!LANG-bc5b04e84b115cf4dacafb63e58b8ffe!}
{!LANG-98ba7f01977a69506d24787cbb7ce5f5!}
{!LANG-bd3c5149126eec834a3b0587f3a95b66!}
{!LANG-6206e7dced9343a325cb67ee602d1c6f!}
{!LANG-845232d1883a9764ec6f724f33511c68!}
{!LANG-2c7b5a372eb880e44d5782705c8e9c12!}
{!LANG-8e2fbfcb73de4a07c21cd8c1525b6a40!}
{!LANG-09186d2b02d9f0cb564928364b6b5c72!}
{!LANG-c47d53a452d1941bff5fb42cda4f6243!}
{!LANG-f1abbad271a30c9c7e990ead69890085!}
{!LANG-4b805c456067003431fd49f4f23a3f91!}
{!LANG-c2370bf9dd37df31e062dbdf45018206!}
{!LANG-9aeed06b52256b7b853172724dd9b985!}
{!LANG-1c842e718b72a230ccf9fcc76bc41402!}
{!LANG-9f43e57834c33c5a49dee6117a341685!}
{!LANG-f954eb093612423dab39f17a6d58af9e!}
{!LANG-27e42c7c6cc6033eaf13a063e9fd6544!}
{!LANG-8cf62d9129c56b68c4b505f7b4f34e65!}
{!LANG-e588feb89b53e6545e2482e87f158ae4!}
{!LANG-b6f0b4e8b10ecb98917747aab3e00765!}
{!LANG-f23ca1f55bc269eb585a31c956f28618!}
{!LANG-ed3f75983dd538c6f2e57cba6f20f28c!}
{!LANG-9b82f32bf68175fada39400a57efd9cf!}
{!LANG-e0c5f7dd1a4c262dc113b973db0c5306!}
{!LANG-778f2c1c7b501ad947f1fa3c4cd507ae!}
{!LANG-55089286dd0c51c6735d958aae9576d5!}
{!LANG-98c1faea9252ebe3bd5f176ceb6d7349!}
{!LANG-88ceca1656936cb9e597b59368fc6de5!}
{!LANG-1f47ffe7a96b54fb68c1c3f0c4be9791!}
{!LANG-8f1ea91217d2a11b5a75ae4b7ff70b27!}
{!LANG-994115924f3702cd06acd06a7ad142d7!}
{!LANG-d68e1b6dfc6ffcd8c5fdcb8a765ac105!}
{!LANG-371d99a65ce3edcc830191aa43401475!}
{!LANG-4d3c6aceecc626b225aff5e656e81808!}
{!LANG-24ca4b655cd13c94ac7827496d3ecc2b!}
{!LANG-22cce048d9ef41001a7d4071c36d2af4!}
{!LANG-21aabe601b6a9a53dc70c03f0c3abdb8!}
{!LANG-cdcf9f18d7170d1fb5214d730eb6b014!}
{!LANG-c1fea788f10dae2dbbd7a1ad57832d10!}
{!LANG-13868dcc6380dabd36849111f10e6c8c!}
{!LANG-59c26f1fe1d0868fa4b545218c23b77f!}
{!LANG-7561c542e36998a836af9414421eadcc!}
{!LANG-0789d471b59dd0d900d1cbcf819af5eb!} {!LANG-8d70867bae12ba6c5f0c5205148ee928!}{!LANG-14940116a6127bb4ef799f4972169964!}
{!LANG-126d8df68561f98e114a007060517b51!}
{!LANG-70d21d06c4632e84e8fd571c3aedb25a!}
{!LANG-8ccb6648df7ff5354a40b128abdc34e1!}
{!LANG-9a607a938710d3a6f8502f6dc8b22c85!}
{!LANG-edf626dab42ad0a20a330441f00f5c5e!}
{!LANG-30699e352dcb9dd8c916b72d54fd9207!}
{!LANG-d85dd794afa667d1c6e1fbec249ed1e3!}
{!LANG-65312e5ec9ab2739df20f3bfb05c9fcc!}
{!LANG-e27b661046a4e7d61baac0f06f6378b0!}
{!LANG-9e88ad7855340b418bdf98abea8bee90!}
{!LANG-1b39d5b71e1e776b879e01e9f7e6db48!}
{!LANG-4f45f821958ce817f14c9802642e6581!}
{!LANG-1ce0999b51436861629de9208274ac94!}
{!LANG-4127f1b74ba5d2de3a1d4d81423079ac!}
{!LANG-0a8c41c59fbc2e6671ff2ea0c20b2047!}
{!LANG-97d450d9587948a497eadd4b461a4064!}
{!LANG-1565a9faf8b94254cb9948925dc9ca14!}
{!LANG-33b54fdf814d809467c7a486f16fb0f9!}
{!LANG-7f3ad161956189a88f41cf28f29e8eaf!}
{!LANG-6c6b0836cfc0c7e849b4839c1826b530!}
{!LANG-1987374aa554f6fa7a105209dcedd159!}
{!LANG-a91e3f0ceef1ba8a579539c3e91c46f2!}
{!LANG-59760fa7210eec0431181d142ee04031!}
{!LANG-6ac9f7ca78159ee52574302e33881105!}
{!LANG-066805e61169efd3fd680365b16c1f3f!}
{!LANG-f0d7fbaabf65b3b8dd266f368a12e92a!}
{!LANG-b3263c762d99367aa1c5927117fa047f!}
{!LANG-51acbd5566446517a6fef433145dfdd3!}
{!LANG-8dad17b945fb41cc69321759fffd765c!}
{!LANG-b2a473115f29c1a502219d9ff0a0ecb7!}
{!LANG-25a9fb5b1ee84dbcfa80b3b7ba3e1f76!}
{!LANG-279ac6b0430f221294bcffc68a58a0e0!} {!LANG-51a39c3f73dd60a619d5217ef879980d!}{!LANG-73862fbfdf58abc9ce83b6822c1f8ba9!}
{!LANG-28d647f9032a719387fb5dba1596fa1e!}
{!LANG-3ca2cd381e4d571cc0e026d93aca57e9!}
{!LANG-5ad3f95e7083b811017538dfa7294377!}
{!LANG-c50b1533b667f81bf432e63cd6cc8cf2!}
{!LANG-ccc3c19faaf26cc8e0966edd504fdb8b!}
{!LANG-6bbe8458b6c77886b7d3ca9b8bba11dc!}
{!LANG-437d065a6798dbf160f66a51e3d505a9!}
{!LANG-cbb498c827b2171fa0431e5254059ead!}
{!LANG-ed7867395e17c6912b347b7e29b3e0b6!} {!LANG-78d21f48c31c15a96fa5651291ed2730!}
{!LANG-fe0a64f170f7d944b76d8987da1733ba!}
{!LANG-2f7cc916600440f51768c0a0891dc0b0!}
{!LANG-c4f3518dbc7f37a905073b042293da3e!}
{!LANG-b12c81c04cf244bd2f2eb54f4cc66a7f!}
{!LANG-c080d10c278dc95ab5840fb28cb66271!}
{!LANG-f7c238e45edd950f367de4c386d09deb!}
{!LANG-6c4532975902aacaaaecdbb171a38b52!}
{!LANG-f15d5cdb5daa9f09be65b02f8cb9fe2e!}
{!LANG-94efb0605c4f282f3119ab5fbadadea1!}
{!LANG-3e50bb58fbbe854f1f8ef911788dfb97!}
{!LANG-3eb66393cbbfd49bd885c7125f46a66d!}
{!LANG-f53eeaaffea366d43d51f6e31f747e69!}
{!LANG-6274a5f04c0f318e1a64640337885782!}
{!LANG-587bba53ea9cdb760501bba87e5bd50b!}
{!LANG-89d3a45e4ff0900297e7ae5ab4541a68!}
{!LANG-d6b9170134fe7acc82b8eb628ce1fcd6!}
{!LANG-a59ecb3898dc10c029abdaf7bfd3b98d!}
{!LANG-0a1bd86d23ac72488024f187ac363ee0!}
{!LANG-573551d2b46ad823e846156421d8324c!}
{!LANG-d4d6bb5f969cc6050c1edfff7662d18a!}
{!LANG-1da4ff0d64cd4d0c01da0d8930de94e5!}
{!LANG-e11adba4f306b53f0684a3719a0244e0!}
{!LANG-f8997ab246225e4da6f1cf4eac965528!}
{!LANG-f20dafe6e131e5e487afb434d052cc4e!}
{!LANG-ec4f10800e0d916f2c7b5538efc11d19!}
{!LANG-e17697e7494229ed4e02810e46f256bc!}
{!LANG-7687774e3f14efba5ab4492cf6aa26a9!}
{!LANG-d7dcfb6e7e43086d8f42b9969a3444a5!}
{!LANG-fae8bc352f1f31d94bf65afaad19ec18!}
{!LANG-3a0e7d7c6a2998f595b8d8b9ae49bee6!}
{!LANG-cdc3a10aa23ea8f96099a2c851a9f431!}
{!LANG-0d20c66d1d06b6c5da2d720ad4fa7688!}
{!LANG-38012b8fcddb4c0fceb4fc019fc00e93!}
{!LANG-a1d7fac2d4767b10a264cdf0838678ca!}
{!LANG-5c909da72f193a1678e0a8b0e7eb5c85!}
{!LANG-3a1d86acacd7f940daec96150fea0f7c!}
{!LANG-7356dddb42381823150745242dd9560a!}
{!LANG-7c899ba5bcfd7cd6a5e1ec3acc6b2ce7!}
{!LANG-1e6c94ca66fb52f297f78b5fb01bb16b!}
{!LANG-afae1645add6fa5dd18d8271a735e0ff!}
{!LANG-c70a7bf986d2cbfa7005398a83df0b70!}
{!LANG-3e9742bf86ef41b8980567d5ed4ae8b7!}
{!LANG-f5ebb47c90fcfb71e550275ae8ab53ea!}
{!LANG-70b72425b6118d1e2a528c91c6a3f931!}
{!LANG-84624aa120ea4bc1e6cc26a1f054de29!}
{!LANG-c426fb8ee1d4cf6e71a6af1e3a500028!}
{!LANG-b1621d58f77e9d1234a84155c11bfa23!}
{!LANG-8a69607f239609669400b55cc342de07!}
{!LANG-2ab7f49628f859be170c9cc43b305e04!}
{!LANG-26564760d9c010d05544ecaba8854c4a!}
{!LANG-791d72956eb65acb64f7ca1b7405ebc1!}
{!LANG-272c7912ff559ba17a2a35c0895d3184!}
{!LANG-98f8264c78d5794f36687ec052f9ac08!}
{!LANG-28e3c5880f21351a6dd070f44d4995aa!}
{!LANG-5d4d26d94968a180b37104048c5ff373!}
{!LANG-b4376fbb333256f088081dcaf1cfaa78!} {!LANG-4fce5aefa4515704aec41b361f9dbe05!}{!LANG-2a66e2a33200fd8a5b4c7b40540e6c40!}
{!LANG-f16da8f894df5df9763a521ed1091bcb!}
{!LANG-19f8e495e64a0f64db24fba81f32bd96!}
{!LANG-aa4530c1641c2ad0f56f627a41ee7520!}
{!LANG-64ee2e6ff1f781452203a678001f6c08!}
{!LANG-10d6f666da8850f2f3b63e596c67468e!}
{!LANG-04abdd498a55526ffcc495d46d9fb79f!}
{!LANG-d8ab77e39050f87f00099902fe762903!}
{!LANG-29c94946d8f266a6aed018a8b3a797df!}
{!LANG-1c7ce18b60d994bd0c1aae161ac9655a!}
{!LANG-3d675305b5c2054e68e9f7ce0952c1c4!}
{!LANG-8239964d35278fa1a05e327980eb0a95!}
{!LANG-a27b09e1393878457c6e4b4241026627!}
Sergey Fedorovich Platonov
Complete course of lectures on Russian history
Essay on Russian historiography
Review of the sources of Russian history
PART ONE
Preliminary historical information The most ancient history of our country Russian Slavs and their neighbors The initial life of the Russian Slavs Kievan Rus Formation of the Kievan principality General remarks about the early days of the Kievan principality Baptism of Rus Consequences of the adoption of Christianity by Rus Kievan Rus in the XI-XII centuries Colonization of Suzdal-Vladimir Rus Influence of Tatar power on specific Russia Specific life of Suzdal-Vladimir Russia Novgorod Pskov Lithuania Moscow principality until the middle of the 15th century The time of Grand Duke Ivan III
PART TWO
The time of Ivan the Terrible Moscow state before the Troubles Political contradiction in Moscow life in the 16th century Social contradiction in Moscow life in the 16th century Troubles in the Moscow state The first period of troubles: the struggle for the Moscow throne The second period of troubles: destruction of state order The third period of troubles: an attempt to restore order The time of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) The time of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) Internal activities of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich Church affairs under Alexei Mikhailovich Cultural change under Alexei Mikhailovich The personality of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Key moments in the history of Southern and Western Russia in the 16th-17th centuries The time of Tsar Fedorovich Alekseevich (1676-1682)
PART THREE
The views of science and Russian society on Peter the Great The position of Moscow politics and life at the end of the 17th century The time of Peter the Great Childhood and adolescence of Peter (1672-1689) Years 1689-1699 Peter's foreign policy since 1700 Peter's internal activities since 1700 The attitude of contemporaries to Peter's activities Family relations of Peter The historical significance of Peter's activities Time from the death of Peter the Great to Elizabeth's accession to the throne (1725-1741) Palace events from 1725 to 1741 Government and politics from 1725 to 1741 The time of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) Management and politics of Elizabeth's time Peter III and the coup of 1762 The time of Catherine II (1762-1796) The legislative activity of Catherine II Foreign policy of Catherine II The historical significance of the activities of Catherine II The time of Paul I (1796-1801) The time of Alexander I (1801-1825) The time of Nicholas I (1825-1855 ) A brief overview of the time of Emperor Alexander II and the great reforms
{!LANG-dbcef67f2bbb6f005b9224111dae3914!}
S. Platonov
Introduction (summary summary)
It would be appropriate to begin our studies in Russian history by defining what exactly should be understood by the words historical knowledge, historical science.
Having understood for ourselves how history is understood in general, we will understand what we should understand by the history of one particular people, and consciously begin to study Russian history.
History existed in ancient times, although then it was not considered a science.
An acquaintance with ancient historians, Herodotus and Thucydides, for example, will show you that the Greeks were right in their own way in classifying history as an art. They understood history as an artistic story about memorable events and people. The historian's task was to convey to listeners and readers, along with aesthetic pleasure, and a number of moral edifications. Art pursued the same goals.
With this view of history as a fictional story of memorable events, ancient historians adhered to the appropriate methods of presentation. In their narrative, they strove for truth and accuracy, but they did not have a strict objective measure of truth. The deeply truthful Herodotus, for example, has many fables (about Egypt, about the Scythians, etc.); in some he believes, because he does not know the limits of the natural, while others, and not believing in them, he brings into his story, because they seduce him with their artistic interest. Moreover, the ancient historian, true to his artistic tasks, considered it possible to decorate the narrative with conscious fiction. Thucydides, whose veracity we do not doubt, puts into the mouths of his heroes speeches composed by himself, but he considers himself right in virtue of the fact that he faithfully conveys in an invented form the real intentions and thoughts of historical figures.
Thus, the pursuit of accuracy and truth in history was to some extent limited by the desire for artistry and amusement, not to mention other conditions that prevented historians from successfully distinguishing between truth and fable. Despite this, the desire for accurate knowledge already in antiquity requires pragmatism from the historian. Already in Herodotus, we observe the manifestation of this pragmatism, that is, the desire to connect facts with a causal link, not only to tell them, but also to explain their origin from the past.