What are the two state events of the era of enlightened absolutism. The era of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II: reforms, events

The era of enlightened absolutism in Russia is called the period of government CatherineII. What are the features of such a government? What new features are characteristic of the absolute monarchy, which is called enlightened? Let's figure it out.

Enlightened absolutism - This is a form of politics that took shape in some European countries and in Russia in the middle of the 18th century. This is the policy of preserving the old, better forms of government, while simultaneously modernizing the entire system of government, this is the formation of the foundations of a new bourgeois society.

Purpose of the policy

to bring the activities of the ruler as close as possible to the trends of the times, taking into account all the changes taking place in the country;
to achieve the "common good" from above, through the reforms carried out by the monarch.

Tasks

Strengthening absolute power through the use of modernized forms of government, rejection of outdated power systems.

The transformation of the nobility into a privileged estate, granting it the maximum of rights and freedoms, because it is the nobility that is the mainstay of the royal power.

Alleviating tension in society while strengthening the power of the landowners over the peasants.

Pursuing a policy of "economic liberalism", that is, the development of the economy through reforms from the top, the development of entrepreneurship in the country.

Dissemination of knowledge, development of culture.

Ideological basisEnlightenment - the ideas of the Western enlighteners (ideologist - Thomas Hobbes), who condemned violence, advocated freedom, equality, the right to private property. They considered the principle of separation of powers and the rule of law to be mandatory in the country.

ABOUTwith new signs of enlightened absolutism

At the head of the state is an "enlightened", intelligent monarch who issues fair laws that contribute to the development of society. It is such a monarch who is able to achieve the ideal of the "common good", economic and cultural prosperity of the country.

Modernization of the country, all of its spheres, since objective conditions have developed for this in society. Without this, further effective development of both trade and the economy as a whole is impossible.

Implementation of political reforms, improvement of the management system, which would keep up with the times and at the same time contribute to the strengthening of the absolute monarchy.

The adoption of measures that would help reduce social tensions in the country, prevented popular riots and indignations.

In the politics of both the monarch and the top of society, the main thing is word, conviction, and not gross violence.

Great attention is paid to the development of culture, especially education, the creation of a system public education for all categories of the population.

Catherine II strove with all her activities to prove that her reign was the era of the Enlightenment in Russia. You can read what specific events she held on the page dedicated to the historical portrait of Catherine II on my website poznaemvmeste. ru

Introduction

Different historians have different assessments of the reign of Catherine II. And this is no coincidence. Catherine's contribution to Russian history is very contradictory, for her time was marked by the strongest tightening of serfdom, the impoverishment of the people, the monstrous, ruinous for the country extravagance of the ruling elite, the tone of which was set by the empress, who spent fantastic sums on her lovers. This is a time of a fall in morals, a devaluation of moral values, a time of absurd political zigzags that buried many promising undertakings and was caused by the influence of successive favorites on Catherine.

But on the other hand, this is the era of the country's military might, strengthening the authority and security of the Russian state, significant internal political transformations and an unprecedented flourishing of cultural life.

There are many conflicting opinions about the empress herself. Some consider her feigned, dissolute, easily amenable to other people's influence, while others see her as an integral nature, a highly educated, businesslike, energetic, unusually efficient, self-critical person who knows her weaknesses and strengths.

And although more than two centuries have passed since the reign of Catherine II, and during this period many works have been written about that era, the relevance of this topic does not diminish. Because, the more we manage to learn about this unusual and mysterious woman, the more incomprehensible and inexplicable appears.

Enlightened absolutism - what is it?

Catherine II pursued a policy called "enlightened absolutism." In the second half of the 18th century, in many European states, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe French enlighteners about the "union of sovereigns and philosophers" becomes popular. During this period, abstract categories were transferred to the sphere of concrete politics, which assumed the rule of a "wise man on the throne", patron of the arts, benefactor of the entire nation. This was a whole stage in the history of society, and not only Russian, but all European. The enlightened monarchs were the Swedish king Gustav III, the Prussian - Frederick II, the Austrian emperor Joseph II, the Russian empress Catherine II. The policy of enlightened absolutism was expressed in carrying out reforms in the spirit of the ideas of the Enlightenment, led by an enlightened monarch who was able to transform social life on a new, reasonable basis. It was the time of timid reforms that did not touch the foundations of the feudal-absolutist system, the time of the liberal flirting of governments with philosophers and writers. But then came the French bourgeois revolution, and European monarchs immediately abandoned the ideas of enlightened absolutism.

There is a certain uncertainty in understanding the essence and goals of the policy of enlightened absolutism. One can argue about the exact meaning of the term "enlightened absolutism", but the general character of that era is easily recognizable. It was the Age of Enlightenment (the 18th century in the history of European culture) that had a special vision of the world, which had a strong influence on all subsequent social development. Russia together with Europe experienced the Enlightenment: the medieval consciousness was replaced by the consciousness of the New Age. The worldview of the Russian nobleman (namely, the educated nobility became the main bearer of the ideas of the European Enlightenment) was typologically similar to the consciousness of his contemporary, a European. One can speak of a general enthusiasm for the ideas of the Enlightenment: they were shared by representatives of almost all strata of Russian society. The most popular were Voltaire, Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius. Thus, almost all of Voltaire's works were translated into Russian; those works that could not pass the censorship were distributed in manuscripts.

The era of "enlightened absolutism" was characterized by a certain ideology. Let's highlight its characteristic features:

the idea of \u200b\u200bequality of all people,

the state is created as a result of a social contract, the consequence of which is the mutual obligations of the monarch and subjects;

it is the state that is the main means of creating a society of general prosperity;

all reforms based on fair laws must come from above, from the state, which is based on the principle: "Everything for the people, and nothing - through the people";

education is one of the most important functions of the state and at the same time a way of educating conscientious citizens from among its subjects;

recognition of freedom of speech, thought, self-expression.

Catherine herself gave an example of her enthusiasm for the European Enlightenment. She not only read the works of French enlighteners, but also consisted with them, especially with Voltaire and Diderot, in lively correspondence. Voltaire called her nothing less than "the great Semiramis of the North", and in a letter to one Russian addressee he wrote: "I idolize only three subjects: freedom, tolerance and your empress." In her letters to Voltaire, Catherine II did not skimp on liberal phraseology and even resorted to outright lies in depicting Russian reality.

Enlightened absolutism is a policy generated by the time of the disintegration of the feudal system and the maturation of capitalist relations in its depths, aimed at the elimination of obsolete feudal systems by peaceful means. Enlightened absolutism differed from ordinary despotism by declaring the observance of laws that were the same for all subjects. The theoretical foundations of enlightened absolutism were developed by the outstanding figures of the French enlightenment Montesquieu, Voltaire, d "Alambert, Diderot and others. These educators of the moderate wing called for an evolutionary, without upheaval, change in socio-economic relations, which suited the monarchs of Europe and contributed to the emergence of a union of kings and philosophers , capable, as the kings believed, to prevent a threat to their thrones.

The time has come for the implementation of large-scale reforms in the spirit of the ideas of the Enlightenment. This was facilitated by two favorable conditions: after the death of Ivan Antonovich, Catherine felt more confident on the throne than before; Confidence that he would cope with a grandiose idea was also added by sufficient awareness of the works of the enlighteners. At the end of 1766, she began to carry out the most important action of her reign - the convening of a commission to draw up a new Code.

Plan
Introduction
1 Time
2 Foundations of enlightened absolutism
3 How enlightened absolutism was met
4 Countries
5 Monarchs involved in enlightened absolutism

Introduction

Enlightened absolutism is a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchist countries in Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations.

The chronological boundaries of enlightened absolutism include the period from 1740 to 1789, that is, from the accession to the throne of the most prominent representative of the century, the Prussian king Frederick II, to the French Revolution. Brought up on the ideas of the philosophy of the 18th century, the absolute monarchs strove for the "common good" that is achieved in the state.

2. Foundations of enlightened absolutism

The theory of "enlightened absolutism", of which Thomas Hobbes is considered to be the founder, is fully imbued with the rationalistic philosophy of the age of "enlightenment". Its essence lies in the idea of \u200b\u200ba secular state, in the desire of absolutism to put the central government above everything. Until the 18th century, the state idea, the expression of which was absolutism, was understood in a narrowly practical way: the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Firmly holding on to the views developed by tradition, enlightened absolutism at the same time introduced a new understanding of the state, which already imposes on the state power, which enjoys rights, and duties. The consequence of this view, influenced by the theory of the contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a number of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for "state benefits", concerns about the general welfare were put forward. The "educational" literature of the 18th century, which set itself the task of a complete criticism of the old order, found itself warm support in absolutism: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians agree that reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the alliance of monarchs and philosophers who wanted to subordinate the state to pure reason.

3. How enlightened absolutism was met

In literature, "enlightened absolutism" was met with enthusiasm. The entire political outlook of the leader of the century, Voltaire, is enlightened absolutism. The school of physiocrats, with Quesnay, Mercier de la Riviera and Turgot at the head, held the same point of view. Guided by the principles and interests of the state benefit, enlightened despots were very distrustful of social forces, not yielding anything from their power to the people. Transformations come exclusively from the top. That is why enlightened absolutism could not sympathize with the aspirations for political freedom, which limited supreme power... From here comes the duality that, in general, characterizes enlightened absolutism, and that anti-historical direction of it, which distinguished the 18th century, proclaiming natural law instead of historical.

The process of enlightened absolutism swept all the countries of Europe, except England, Poland and France: England had already achieved what enlightened absolutism aspired to, in Poland there was no royal absolutism and the gentry dominated, and Louis XV and Louis XVI who reigned in France were not able to take took on the role of initiators of the reform, as a result of which the previous system was destroyed by the revolution.

5. Monarchs involved in enlightened absolutism

The central figures in this era were Frederick II the Great (from 1740 to 1786) and Joseph II of Austria (from 1780 to 1790). Other representatives of enlightened absolutism:

In Spain - Minister Aranda under Charles III (1759-1788)

In Portugal - Pombal (1760-1777) under Joseph Emanuel

In Naples - Minister Tanucci under Charles III and Ferdinand IV

In Tuscany - Leopold I (1765-1790)

In Denmark - Christian VII (1766-1807) with Minister Struensee (1769-1772)

In Sweden - Gustav III (1771-1792)

In Baden - Karl Friedrich

· In Poland - Stanislav Poniatowski (1764-1795)

In Russia - Catherine II

This also includes Karl-August of Weimar, Joseph-Emmerich, Elector of Mainz, Clement of Saxon, Karmer, compiler of the Prussian code of laws, Bernsdorf, the successor of the Struensee cause, Zedlitz and Herzberg in Prussia, House - Friedrich's mediator in Germany in Paris, Goltz - his representative , Montgela, who dreamed of reviving Bavaria, Prince-Archbishop Jerome von Colloredo in Salzburg, Furstenberg in Münster, Stadium in Mainz, Abel in Stuttgardt, Filangieri in Naples, Schlettwein - minister in Baden, Villarminici, Samboloucca in Szamboucca, T , Manfredini in Tuscany, Aranda, Grimaldi, Florida Blanca, Campomanes in Spain, Baron Kreutz and Baron Stahl in Sweden.

The activities of all these reformers were largely imitations of the transformations of Frederick II and Joseph II, who embodied two directions that complement each other and fully characterize enlightened absolutism. Frederick was a conservative and in many ways only continued the old Hohenzollern policy, which he wanted to illuminate with the philosophical ideas of the century. Joseph II, more of a theoretician, a “revolutionary on the throne,” broke with the policies of his predecessors and made a bold attempt to radically transform the entire structure of Austria in the spirit of the philosophy of the 18th century. In his activities, as well as in the activities of Frederick II, there are many contradictions that the new state idea introduced into the traditional policy of absolutism. The nature of the transformation of P. absolutism was the same in all countries, changing only depending on local conditions; but it was significantly different in Protestant countries (Prussia) and Catholic (Austria).

In not all countries, the reform initiative came from kings. In Portugal, Spain and Naples, ministers played the role of enlightened despots, and the same happened in Denmark during Struensee. A common feature that distinguishes representatives of P. absolutism is despotism in carrying out their reforms, arrogance and often thoughtlessness, and inconsistency.

All the reforms of enlightened absolutism, which sought to destroy Catholic-feudal relations, were carried out not only in view of state considerations, but also contributed to the emancipation of the individual. However, the enlightened despots bypassed one of the major flaws state life XVIII century. - imperfection of the legislative activity of the state and did not develop the correct order of legislation. Everything depended on the absolute monarch or his minister. Reforms of P. absolutism seized the area of \u200b\u200badministration, finance, court, mental life, the church, and finally - the area of \u200b\u200bclass relations and peasant life.

In the administration of Poland, absolutism strove for bureaucratic centralization, for the displacement of social forces by the bureaucracy, and for the suppression of the interests of the nobility. P. absolutism was hostile to popular representation and tried to destroy local particularism. Joseph II violated the constitutions of the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, Frederick II deprived in 1741 the zemstvo officials of Silesia of their right to vote taxes.

The economic activity of P. absolutism stemmed from the sympathy of enlightened despots with mercantilism, which placed above all trade and industry, which were under the tutelage of the state. Striving to replenish state revenues, to retain gold and silver in the country, P. absolutism patronized the development of industry, protected and improved at the same time agriculture... At the same time, P. absolutism paid special attention to the distribution of taxes and streamlining of government spending.

Great service was rendered to P. absolutism of the judicial system and legislation. "One law for all" - this is the principle that guided P. absolutism. Torture has been eliminated in criminal justice, the death penalty has been limited and justice has been improved. An example of judicial reform was Prussia under Frederick II, who transformed the judiciary and legal proceedings, established the correct order instead of arbitrariness. The task of enlightened absolutism was not only to separate the court from the administration and to create the independence of judges, but also to draw up a code of laws that was distinguished by simplicity, clarity and brevity. Samuel von Coczei, von Karmer and Suarez in Prussia undertook the compilation of a general code (Allgemeines Landrecht), which vividly reflected the influence of the philosophy of the 18th century. In Austria, already under Maria Theresa, the judicial section was separated from the administration. Joseph II worked very energetically to draw up a code of laws, issued several private statutes. The body of laws issued in Portugal by Pombal attracted the attention of the then scholarly world. These reforms were imbued with humanity, respect for the human person and a sense of justice.

Serious measures were also taken to spread education. The mere admiration of the kings for the philosophers gave the press more freedom. On the other hand, the monarchs were indifferent to the press, since public opinion was forgotten. Therefore, the era of enlightened absolutism is characterized by greater freedom of the press, especially where political issues were not touched upon. Censorship constraints were limited (in Austria - the censorship charter of Joseph II in 1781), but in relation to the Catholic clergy they retained special severity.

Enlightened absolutism represents an era of strong antagonism between spiritual and secular power. Together with "enlightenment", absolutism reacted negatively to the traditions of Catholicism, defending the rights of the secular state from clerical tutelage and seeing a dangerous enemy in the Roman curia and clergy. The struggle against Catholicism (in Catholic countries) was fought stubbornly and often brutally. The power of the church was especially strong in Portugal, Spain, Naples, which opened a campaign against the claims of medieval Catholicism. The legal significance of the papal bulls was taken away from the papal bulls, if they were not approved by the king, the clergy was subordinated to secular courts, the inquisitorial courts were closed, many monasteries were destroyed, and their estates were transferred to the treasury, the clergy were imposed with taxes, etc. In Portugal, Pombal set an example of the expulsion of the Jesuits, the order of which blows are struck from everywhere. In 1759 the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1764 - from France, then, in 1767-68, from Spain, Naples, Parma, until in 1773 the order was completely destroyed. Church reforms were taken to the extreme by Joseph II, who not only wanted to limit the papal influence in Austria, to weaken the power of the clergy, subordinating them to secular power, but even intervened in the ritual side of the faith, which aroused the masses against himself.

It was understood in a narrowly practical way: the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Firmly holding on to the views developed by tradition, enlightened absolutism at the same time introduced a new understanding of the state, which already imposes on the state power, which enjoys rights, and duties. The consequence of this view, influenced by the theory of the contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a number of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for "state benefits", concerns about the general welfare were put forward. The "educational" literature of the 18th century, which set itself the task of a complete criticism of the old order, found itself warm support in absolutism: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians agree that the reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the union of monarchs and philosophers who wanted to subordinate the state to pure reason.

In literature, "enlightened absolutism" was met with enthusiasm. The entire political outlook of the leader of the century, Voltaire, is enlightened absolutism. The school of physiocrats, with Quesnay, Mercier de la Riviera and Turgot at the head, held the same point of view. Guided by the principles and interests of state benefits, enlightened despots were very distrustful of public forces, not yielding anything from their power to the people. Transformations come exclusively from the top. That is why enlightened absolutism could not sympathize with the aspirations for political freedom, which limited the supreme power. From here comes the duality that, in general, characterizes enlightened absolutism, and that anti-historical direction of it, which distinguished the 18th century, proclaiming natural law instead of historical.

The central figures in this era were Frederick II of Prussia (from 1740 to 1786) and Joseph II of Austria (from 1780 to 1790). Other representatives of enlightened absolutism:

in Spain - Minister Aranda under Charles III (1759-1788)
in Portugal - Pombal (1760-1777) under Joseph Emanuel
in Naples - Minister Tanucci under Charles III and Ferdinand IV
in Tuscany - Leopold I (1765-1790)
in Denmark - Christian VII (1766-1807) with Minister Struensee (1769-1772)
in Sweden - Gustav III (1771-1792)
in Poland - Stanislav Poniatowski (1764-1795)

This also includes Karl-August of Weimar, Joseph-Emmerich, Elector of Mainzky, Clement of Saxon, Karmer, compiler of the Prussian code of laws, Bernsdorf, the successor of the Struensee case, Zedlitz and Herzberg in Prussia, House - Friedrich's mediator in Germany in Paris, Goltz - his representative , Mongela, who dreamed of reviving Bavaria, Furstenberg in Münster, Stadium in Mainz, Abel in Stuttgardt, Filangieri in Naples, Schlettwein - minister in Baden, Villarmina, Sambucca, Caracciolo - in Sicily, Neri, Tavanti, Manfredini - in , Florida Blanca, Campomanes in Spain, Baron Kreutz and Baron Steel in Sweden.

All the reforms of enlightened absolutism, which sought to destroy Catholic-feudal relations, were carried out not only in view of state considerations, but also contributed to the emancipation of the individual. However, enlightened despots bypassed one of the major shortcomings of state life in the 18th century. - imperfection of the legislative activity of the state and did not develop the correct order of legislation. Everything depended on the absolute monarch or his minister. Reforms of P. absolutism seized the area of \u200b\u200badministration, finance, court, mental life, the church, and finally - the area of \u200b\u200bclass relations and peasant life.

The economic activity of P. absolutism stemmed from the sympathy of enlightened despots with mercantilism, which placed above all trade and industry, which were under the tutelage of the state. Striving to replenish state revenues, to retain gold and silver in the country, P. absolutism patronized the development of industry and protected and improved agriculture at the same time. At the same time, P. absolutism paid special attention to the distribution of taxes and streamlining of government spending.

An enormous merit was rendered to P. by the absolutism of the judicial system and legislation. "One law for all" - this is the principle that guided P. absolutism. Torture has been abolished in criminal justice, the death penalty has been limited and justice has been improved. An example of judicial reform was Prussia under Frederick II, who transformed the judiciary and legal proceedings, established the correct order instead of arbitrariness. The task of enlightened absolutism was not only to separate the court from the administration and create the independence of judges, but also to compile a code of laws that was distinguished by its simplicity, clarity and brevity. Samuel von Coczei, von Karmer and Suarez in Prussia undertook the compilation of a general code (Allgemeines Landrecht), which vividly reflected the influence of the philosophy of the 18th century. In Austria, already under Maria Theresa, the judicial section was separated from the administration. Joseph II worked very energetically to draw up a code of laws, issued several private statutes. The body of laws issued in Portugal by Pombal attracted the attention of the then scholarly world. These reforms were imbued with humanity, respect for the human person and a sense of justice.

Serious measures were also taken to spread education. The mere admiration of the kings for the philosophers gave the press more freedom. On the other hand, the monarchs were indifferent to the press, as public opinion was forgotten. Therefore, the era of enlightened absolutism is characterized by greater freedom of the press, especially where political issues were not touched upon. Censorship constraints were limited (in Austria - the censorship charter of Joseph II in 1781), but in relation to the Catholic clergy they remained especially strict.

Enlightened absolutism represents an era of strong antagonism between spiritual and secular power. Together with "enlightenment", absolutism reacted negatively to the traditions of Catholicism, defending the rights of the secular state from clerical tutelage and seeing a dangerous enemy in the Roman curia and clergy. The struggle against Catholicism (in Catholic countries) was fought stubbornly and often brutally. The power of the church was especially strong in Portugal, Spain, Naples, which opened a campaign against the claims of medieval Catholicism. The legal significance of the papal bulls was taken away from the papal bulls, if they were not approved by the king, the clergy was subject to secular courts, the inquisitorial courts were closed, many monasteries were destroyed, and their estates were transferred to the treasury, the clergy were taxed, etc. In Portugal, Pombal set an example of the expulsion of the Jesuits the order of which blows are struck from everywhere. In 1759 the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1764 - from France, then, in 1767-68, from Spain, Naples, Parma, until in 1773 the order was completely destroyed. Church reforms were taken to the extreme by Joseph II, who not only wanted to limit the papal influence in Austria, to weaken the power of the clergy, subordinating them to secular power, but even intervened in the ritual side of the faith, which aroused the masses of the people against him.

In the field of estate relations in general and the peasant question in particular, P. absolutism also did a lot. And here, in the name of state benefit, the rulers fought against the remnants of feudalism, tried to reduce aristocratic privileges and limit the rights of nobles and clergy. Pombal acted quite sharply in Portugal, constraining the nobility. In Naples, the courts of nobility were stripped of their power by the fact that they could be appealed to the royal court. In Sweden and Denmark, Gustav III and Struensee oppressed the nobility and armed them against themselves. In Austria, Joseph II provoked strong opposition from the clergy and nobility by wanting to abolish the tax privileges of the nobles and introduced a land tax.

In the same era, the peasant question was first put on the agenda. This was greatly facilitated by the physiocrats, who, in their political views, were on the side of enlightened absolutism, and many leaders of enlightened absolutism were supporters of the physiocrats. Condemning the feudal rights that gravitated over the landowners, the literature of the XVIII century. demanded the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom. As a result, in the era of P. absolutism, attention was drawn to the position of the rural masses, on which the enrichment of the treasury depended, and along with the patronage of the manufacturing industry, enlightened absolutism also patronized peasant labor. In Prussia, Frederick II was the least of all the rulers to submit to physiocracy, but even here attention was paid to improving the life of the peasants. In Austria, the peasant question was raised by Joseph II, who formally abolished serfdom. It was the same in the Savoy under Charles-Emmanuel III.

Enlightened absolutism, which conceived so many state and social reforms, evoked a reaction everywhere that soon destroys liberal acquisitions, while french revolution did not finish the liquidation of the old order begun by enlightened absolutism.

In Russia, the implementation of the policy of Enlightened Absolutism was not caused internal reasons, similar to Western European ones. In Russia, the church practically did not interfere in the affairs of state power, did not engage in witch hunts and did not establish the Inquisition. Accordingly, the attack on the church in the 18th century only led to the destruction of the moral values \u200b\u200bof Russian society that had developed over the centuries. The liberation of power from the influence of the church with the simultaneous division of society into enlightened nobles and unenlightened peasants split the people and undermined the barely formed monarchical system (which was expressed in the 75-year period of coups and fictitious reigns of queens after the death of Peter I). The enlightened class spoke first in german, then switched to French, and at the same time deeply despised the uneducated Russian-speaking peasants, considering them exclusively as the subject of the use of absolute power. Considerations of morality, humanity and justice were forgotten along with church prejudices, while the positive program of the Enlightenment was carried out in an extremely narrow circle of selected nobles and only in their interests. Therefore, the result of the Enlightenment in Russia was serfdom, which turned into pure slavery under Catherine II, as well as the formation of a self-sufficient bureaucratic system, the traditions of which still make themselves felt.

Age of Enlightenment
Outstanding people of the era by country
Austria	Joseph II \| Leopold II \| Maria Theresa
France	Pierre Baile \| Fontenelle \| Charles Louis Montesquieu \| François Köhne \| Voltaire \| Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon \| Jean Jacques Rousseau \| Denis Diderot \| Helvetius \| Jean D "Alambert \| Holbach \| Marquis de Sade \| Condorcet \| Lavoisier \| Olympia de Gugues \| see also: French Encyclopedists
Germany	Erhard Weigel \| Gottfried Leibniz \| Frederick II \| Immanuel Kant \| Gothold Efraim Lessing \| Thomas Abbt \| Johann Gottfried Herder \| Adam Weishaupt \| Johann Wolfgang Goethe \| Friedrich Schiller \| Karl Friedrich Gauss \| Moses Mendelssohn
Great Britain	Thomas Hobbes \| John Locke \| Isaac Newton \| Joseph Addison \| Richard Steele \| Samuel Johnson \| David Hume \| Adam Smith \| John Wilkes \| Edmund Burke \| Edward Gibbon \| James Boswell \| Jeremy Bentham \| Mary Wollstonecraft \| see also: Scottish Enlightenment
Italy	Giambattista Vico \| Cesare Beccaria
Netherlands	Hugo Grotius \| Benedict Spinoza
Poland	Stanislav Konarsky \| Stanislav August Ponyatovsky \| Ignacy Krasicki \| Hugo Kollontai \| Ignacy Potocki \| Stanislav Stashits \| Jan Snyadetsky \| Yulian Ursyn Nemtsevich \| Andrzej Snyadecki
Russia	Peter I \| Catherine II \| Ekaterina Dashkova \| Antioch Cantemir \| Mikhail Lomonosov \| Nikolay Novikov \| Alexander Radishchev \| Ivan Betskoy \| Ivan Shuvalov \| Mikhail Shcherbatov
Spain	Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos \| Nicholas Fernandez Moratin
USA	Benjamin Franklin \| David Rittenhouse \| John Adams \| Thomas Payne \| Thomas Jefferson
Capitalism \| Civil rights \| Critical Thinking \| Deism \| Democracy \| Empiricism \| Enlightened absolutism Free Markets \| Humanism \| Natural Philosophy \| Rationality \| Reason \| Sapere aude \| Science \| Secularization \| Physiocracy \| Haskala

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See what "Enlightened Absolutism" is in other dictionaries:

Designation of the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the 2nd half. 18th century, which was expressed in the transformation of the most outdated social institutions (the abolition of some class privileges, the subordination of the church to the state, reforms ... ... Large encyclopedic Dictionary

The policy of a number of European absolutist states (see Absolutism) in the second half of the 18th century, which took the form of following the ideas of the Enlightenment (see Enlightenment); was expressed in the implementation of reforms that destroyed some of the most obsolete ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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A special policy of a number of Europe. absolutist state in the 2nd floor. 18 century, outwardly received the form of following the ideas of the Enlightenment and expressed in a series of reforms that destroyed some of the most obsolete feuds. institutes (and sometimes taking a step into ... ... Soviet Historical Encyclopedia

Enlightened absolutism - second policy half of the 18th in. in a number of European states with a monarchical form of government Russia, Denmark, Prussia and the weak development of capitalist relations in the economy. The governments of these states have carried out such activities that ... Philosophy Dictionary for Medical, Pediatric and Dental Students

Enlightened absolutism - the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the 2nd half. XVIII century. It was expressed in the destruction of the most obsolete feudal institutions from above and in the implementation of a number of liberal reforms in the spirit of the ideas of the French enlighteners of the 18th century. In Russia I received ... ... A short dictionary of historical and legal terms

- (absolutism) Originally (1733) theological concept according to which salvation is completely dependent on the will of God. Later, this term was extended to a political regime in which the ruler has the legal right to accept any ... ... Political science. Dictionary.

A characteristic in the development of a number of European countries and which came to Russia by the second half of the eighteenth century - enlightened absolutism - brought into the moribund feudal society transformations that descended on the states from above, that is, from the rulers of the renewed states. Outdated institutions like estate privileges, censorship prohibitions, subordination to the state of the church gradually changed their appearance.

Philosophizing princes

Enlightened absolutism modernized the judiciary, education and many other areas of public life by the hands of monarchs. The sovereigns' advisers relied entirely on the teachings of the French philosophers of the eighteenth century - Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire. In social and political spheres conservatism reigned, strengthening the position of the nobility, which served as a support for absolutism. On the other hand, enlightened absolutism is seen as a policy of social demagogy, which slyly uses the slogans of the enlighteners to preserve the old order.

Nevertheless, the new lifestyle and its order were fully and completely supported by Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II in Prussia, Catherine the Great in Russia and partly her son Paul. Enlightened absolutism left a bright and favorable mark on russian historydespite the fact that the first few years of the reign of Catherine the Great were marked by sovereign uncertainty, she was still not a direct heiress and could not help but feel a certain precariousness of her throne. Catherine was only the wife of Peter III, the grandson of Peter the Great. She comes from Germany, bore the surname Anhalt-Tserbskaya with a name, in German, long, Sophia-Augusta-Frederica-Emilia.

The path to the throne

She arrived in a foreign country at the age of sixteen and treated the new rituals and customs with exceptional respect: she quickly and efficiently learned the language, was baptized into Orthodoxy like Catherine, read a lot, engaged in self-education, was attentive to state affairs... And outwardly, like no one else, she was worthy of the Russian crown. The policy of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II in the light of all of the above could not fail to receive support from all sectors of society. With a regal gait, the white-skinned and black-eyed Catherine not only gained confidence, but also won the great love of the Russian people.

However, for some reason Tsar Peter III did not like his wife, threats fell on her, among which the least terrible was imprisonment in a monastery. He did not like to rule the country and did not want to, the nobility and the guards were extremely irritated by this. But his wife, with her incredible desire to become a Russian, was very much to the liking of those around her, she had not just favorites, but people who could give their lives for her. Here, on the advice of the Orlov brothers, the atrocity was committed, which put an end to the era of palace coups, although it itself was nothing more than a coup. The Izmailovo guards stood up like a mountain for the future Empress, and Peter was killed imprisoned in his estate. And the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II began.

Manifestos and temporary workers

Literally immediately after the coup d'etat, Catherine published the imperial manifesto, where even the very structure of the Russian state was exposed as evil, since the autocracy almost always did not differ in human-loving and good qualities, and all the harmful consequences were always the reason for this absence. With a manifesto, the queen promised to bring legality into the life of the state, including into the state power itself. This is how the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II began well.

But apparently, the time has not yet come to create a truly legal state. Nevertheless, in the very first years of her reign, Count Panin drew up a wonderful project designed to restrain autocratic power with the help of the Imperial Council. However, it was never realized. The only thing that was done within this project was the division of the Senate into departments. Central management was carried out for the most part by temporary workers and favorites, such as Prince Potemkin and Count Orlov. The enlightened absolutism of Catherine II nevertheless, albeit with a creak, but penetrated into the life of different layers of Russian society.

Influenced by Voltaire

The Empress actively corresponded with Voltaire, wrote a lot herself, since she was forever and deeply seized by the ideas of enlightenment that dominated Europe. She recognized in herself an exclusively republican soul, even continuing to reign unanimously in the throne room. Catherine wrote that the most important thing for the country is the laws. In twelve voluminous volumes of her works, there were studies not only on law, but also on philosophy, history, even comparative linguistics. At the same time, the tsarina was closely and directly engaged in legislative activity: she made decrees, commissions for composing a new code, where deputies worked not only from the nobility, but also ordinary townspeople, peasants and the Cossacks.

The cathedral code of 1649 is very outdated, so there is an urgent need to draw up a new code of laws. Under the influence of Montesquieu, the empress drew up a mandate for the new Legislative Commission on freedom and equality of citizens, on religious tolerance, on mitigating serfdom, on the foundations of a real constitutional monarchy. The deputies were so impressed that they showered her with the titles of the Wise, Great and Mother of the Fatherland, which did not prevent them from fulfilling their task and not drawing up a new code. Because in fact, Catherine strengthened the autocracy in every possible way, expanded serfdom: Little Russia also became slave, it was forbidden to complain about the masters. This was the peak of the development of serfdom in Russia.

Privileges to the nobility and the birth of the bourgeoisie

Church lands were secularized, Catherine turned them into state property. On the other hand, the nobility was granted new estate advantages by means of a letter of gratitude, where the freedom and liberties of the nobles were confirmed, their service to the state ceased to be mandatory, they could become subject only to their own estate court, and were not subject to corporal punishment. Estates were decided by provincial noble assemblies and personally the leader of the nobility. So the enlightened absolutism of the 18th century. created a class organization of the Russian nobility.

Also, cities, where the possibility of emergence as a class of the Russian bourgeoisie, arose, received their letters of honor. The population in the cities was divided into six categories. Named citizens of the highest category - the owners of land and houses in cities, merchants by guild (even the lowest, third guild merchants had a capital of at least a thousand rubles, the less wealthy remained in the rank of merchants, that is, bourgeois). There were also townspeople, guild craftsmen and lower ones - unskilled workers. However, the internal politics of enlightened absolutism was quite able to provide cities with self-government. The City Duma was elected by all six strata of the population, the executive body was a six-head Duma - each category of townspeople had its own representative. The elections were based on the property qualification, respectively, the emerging class of the bourgeoisie constituted the majority among the elect.

Contradictions

Enlightened absolutism in Europe and Russia had the same roots, although its development in different states was significantly different from each other. Catherine's policy was characterized by both the strengthening of autocracy and serfdom, and a departure from totalitarianism and the formation of strata of the population that were not completely dependent on the central government. Here all the contradictions of enlightened absolutism, inherent, however, also in other European countries, showed themselves.

The international activities of Catherine the Great developed under the same slogans of freedom and equality, however, the eastern issue was resolved by Catherine harshly: two successful wars with Turkey gave Russia access to the Black Sea, annexed Taganrog, Ochakov and Azov, destroyed the Turkish fleet in the Chesme Bay, which served as the right the passage of ships through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, the independence of the Crimea was recognized for the first time, annexed together with the Kuban to the Russian Empire, and Georgia was also under the patronage of Russia. The time of enlightened absolutism significantly expanded the territory of the country and its external relations.

Conservatism

All the monarchs of Europe, pursuing the goals of enlightened absolutism, understood that the basic foundations of the old order require certain changes in order to be inviolable. All the rulers of that time from Austria, Prussia and other countries were conservative reformers. The transformations were approximately the same: trade was encouraged, education developed, the scope of activity of individual shop structures was limited, attempts were made to optimize public administration and finance. The latter, as well as the modernization of agrarian relations, were touched upon with extreme caution, with an almost imperceptible result.

The elite changed their outlook on life. The features of enlightened absolutism were superimposed on the entire society and state. The hierarchy of values \u200b\u200bwas transformed, since they were operated by the entire environment of enlightened monarchs. If earlier church dogmas prevailed, defining the norms of relationships in everyday lifejustifying the principle state structure, now there is a desire to substantiate and explain the life of society from all sides. The arts and sciences received unprecedented patronage, and this was considered good form. Thus, during the period of enlightened absolutism, a gradual transition to civil society began.

European civilization

In the countries of Europe, views on the essence of the state began to change, their interests from the middle of the seventeenth century were subjected to harsh criticism, and in the process of forming a new concept, systemic principles were strengthened international relations, individual countries rallied into one complex, which developed common norms and strengthened legal principles. The ideas of enlightened absolutism flexibly used the slogans of the enlighteners and social demagogy, but they stood guard over the preservation of the old order, that is, they served as one of the stages in the evolution of the monarchy, which led Europe to the creation of a single civilizational system.

Philosophers

Enlightenment ideology dominated the philosophical premises for absolutism, when the main provisions of this concept in social development were formulated.

The Englishman Thomas Hobbes presented his own theory to the world, according to his hypothesis, the state arose as an executor of a social contract, which is designed to protect people in the aggression of competitive struggle.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was convinced that the citizens of the state, which protects their rights, should promote its welfare, subordinate their own interests to universal laws, and he also substantiated the theory of the superiority of the republican state over the monarchical, since the former provides governance according to democratic postulates.
Charles Montesquieu outlined the features of enlightened absolutism according to the principle of separation of powers. He also formulated the postulate of the preservation of freedom, which is based on the law, it was a completely new concept for that time. Enlightened absolutism implied the separation of the judicial, executive and legislative powers, their complete independence.
Denis Diderot all his life struggled with the dominance of the church, because he considered its requirements for a person not too reasonable, and therefore not fair enough.
John Locke substantiated the most important human rights: the right to property (the result of labor), the right to freedom and the right to life.

The ideas of enlightened absolutism, which were present in all theories, were based on the belief in the omnipotence of reason: equality before the law of all citizens without exception, regardless of their position in society, the right to appeal to governing bodies of any level, deprivation of the church's rights to manage secular power, humane criminal law, inviolability of property, support for science and technology from the state, freedom of the press, agrarian reforms, fair taxation. Philosophers have relied on the wise men who sit on thrones. This was the main mistake of the educators.

Decline of absolutism

Already in the second half of the eighteenth century, the absolutism that had taken root in Europe, which gave the monarchs unlimited power, gradually began to decline. In England, the king ceased to be the grace of God, it was the grace of parliament. In France, the strengthened bourgeoisie ceased to be content with concessions to the feudal aristocracy, leading to a bloody denouement. The rest of the European countries have not yet exhausted the possibilities of absolutism, the nobles dominated even during the formation of capitalism.

This happened in Prussia, Austria, Denmark, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Portugal. The vigorous activity of the autocracy was characteristic of all these countries, but it was aimed at the law that consolidated serfdom, at strengthening the privileges of the nobility, at expanding state borders, at patronizing trade and industry, at the cruelty of suppressing popular uprisings. And, as usual, contradictions persisted between the reactionary feudal politics and the official liberal ideology.

Absolute pluses

An obvious paradox: the ideas of enlightenment, fundamentally hostile to absolutism, were constantly used to justify it. Both the sovereigns and the ministers without exception were carried away by the philosophical treatises of the enlighteners, where pictures of a new society, reasonable, with a monarch-reformer, who consulted with court philosophers, were outlined. Voltaire, for example, was close friends with the Prussian Frederick, corresponded with the Russian Catherine. That is, the philosophers wanted transformations without shedding blood, smart reforms from above. The monarchs were naturally satisfied with this point of view.

Thanks to the educators, the most urgent reforms were carried out in states with an absolute monarchy. Estates' privileges were partially eliminated (taxes began to be levied on the nobles as well), serfdom was abolished in Austria, agrarian reforms took place in many other countries, the church parted with its lands and fell under state control. Monastic orders were closed. In Portugal, the Jesuits have been expelled from the country and their vast wealth confiscated. Monasteries have reduced the number. Secular education began. Tolerance was inculcated in the society. The monstrous torture of the Middle Ages was gradually eradicated from judicial practice. The "witch hunt" has ended.

The end of absolutism in Europe

This policy was seriously undermined by the revolution in France. The governments of all European countries were extremely frightened, many even partially or completely closed their borders to the revolutionary infection. And still, by the end of the eighteenth century, the time of enlightened absolutism was practically over. It became extremely difficult to live in the old way, to keep the situation under control. Neither the state apparatus that grew to an incredible size, nor the privileges that bought the loyalty of the aristocracy, nor the increase in the army - nothing could stop the course of history.

More and more money was required, and only a developed economy with market principles could provide their inflow, and the pettiness of the old order could not provide a leap towards socio-economic well-being. Individual reforms of enlightened absolutism did not bring the desired result. However, the public consciousness was politicized, which contributed to the revolutionary mood.