What is mined in Ethiopia. Natural conditions and resources

ECONOMY Consumer agriculture plays a leading role in the Ethiopian economy. In the early 1990s, more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP) came from agricultural production. During the same period, the share of trade and services in GDP grew. From 1989-1990 to 1994-1995 fiscal years, the annual growth in the share of the service sector in GDP was 2.4%. In the 1993-1994 fiscal year, services accounted for 22% of GDP (data includes economic indicators for Eritrea). Until recently, Ethiopia was one of the poorest countries in the world, and its economy grew slowly. Between 1960 and 1974, the average annual production growth did not exceed 4%. The revolutionary upheavals led to the fact that this figure in 1974-1979 fell to 1.4%. Due to the rapid population growth, the per capita output in 1985–1995 declined by an average of 0.3% annually. During this decade, the population growth rate averaged 2.6% per year. Severe droughts and civil war also contributed to the deterioration of living conditions. In the early 1990s, there were signs of economic recovery. From 1989-1990 to 1994-1995, the average GDP growth rate was 1.9%. In the 1996-1997 financial year, GDP increased by 7%. Main improvement factor economic situation became foreign loans and financial assistance.

Agriculture.A temperate climate, fertile soils and abundant atmospheric precipitation in most of the Ethiopian Highlands create favorable conditions for the development of agriculture. The main crops are wheat, which is grown at higher altitudes in cooler climates, corn, millet and grains grown at lower altitudes, as well as crops such as durro (a variety of sorghum), teff (a variety of millet with small grains, used to bake bread) and dagussa (from which black bread is baked). Coffee is an important export crop. In the 1994-1995 fiscal year, its share in export earnings was 66%. A significant part of the coffee harvest is harvested on the plantations of the state of Kefa. Other crops are cotton, date palm, sugarcane, beans and peas, oilseeds, chat (whose leaves contain a drug), castor oil plants, fruits and vegetables.

Agriculture is a vital industry for Ethiopia. In 1996 it employed 85% of the working-age population, and agricultural products accounted for more than 50% of GDP. Most of the peasants run a consumer economy, many of them are nomadic herders. At least half of the country's land is suitable for farming, including the vast unused land in the south. In early 1975, the military government nationalized all the land in the countryside, promising to distribute it among the peasants. The area of \u200b\u200ba private individual land plot should not exceed 10 hectares, the use of hired labor was prohibited. Peasant associations were established by government decree to carry out land reform. One such association united an average of 200 peasant households, initially the associations were given the right to decide all land issues. Later, their powers were significantly expanded, including judicial functions (minor administrative and criminal offenses), maintaining order, and exercising local self-government. In 1979, the government announced plans to transform peasant associations into collective agricultural production associations.

Derg's 17 years of rule have had a detrimental effect on the agricultural sector. Labor productivity has plummeted due to the regime's attempts to carry out forced collectivization and set low government procurement prices for agricultural products. The implementation of programs for the creation of new villages and the forced resettlement of peasants disorganized social and economic life in the Ethiopian village. The RDFNE, which overthrew the dictatorial regime of Mengystu Haile Mariam in May 1991, abolished state control over prices for agricultural products. The transitional government gave the peasants the right to establish minimum guaranteed prices for the crops grown. However, the authorities retained public ownership of land.

Most of the territory of the Ethiopian plains, due to the lack of irrigation, is suitable only for pasture cattle breeding. Herds of cattle (mainly zebu), sheep and goats, as well as horses, donkeys and mules (the latter are highly valued as a vehicle for transporting goods and people), accompanied by shepherds, roam from place to place in search of food. Even though the quality of the workmanship is mediocre, hides and skins are important exports. In 1996 in Ethiopia, there were approx. 30 million head of cattle, 22 million sheep, 16.7 million goats, 5.2 million donkeys, 2.75 million horses, 630 thousand mules and 1 million camels.

Mining industry. The bowels of Ethiopia are poorly studied. Gold mining, mainly from poor deposits in the south and west, has long been a by-product of the local population. Since the late 1960s, the development of rich gold deposits near Kybre-Mengyst (Adola) in Sidamo state has boosted the production of this metal. In the 1970s, gold production declined, but in 1986 it was 923 kg. Recently, a gold deposit was discovered in Laga Dambi in the Wollega area with a capacity of approx. 500 tons. Iron ore is mined and processed on a modest scale. Significant deposits of iron ore and coal have been found in the Wolleg, Illubabor and Shoah areas, but the development has not yet come to fruition. There are reports that in the bowels of Ethiopia, primarily in Ogaden and Gambel, there are significant reserves of oil and gas, and geological exploration work has been carried out there since the late 1980s. Table salt is mined in the country, but it is not enough to meet domestic needs. Deposits have been explored or other minerals are being mined on a small scale: copper, sulfur, potassium salt, platinum, oil, marble, mica, cinnabar and manganese.

The manufacturing industry in Ethiopia is underdeveloped, and in the 1993-1994 fiscal year, its share in GDP was only 7%. Mainly there are enterprises for processing agricultural products and light industry. The main products of the manufacturing industry are textiles, food (sugar, flour, pasta, cookies, canned meat and tomatoes), beer, footwear, cement, soap, alcoholic beverages, medicines and vegetable oils. Craftsmen make clothing, wood crafts, carpets, and jewelry. Many manufacturing industries are concentrated near urban centers such as Addis Ababa, Harera and Dire Dawa. In 1975 the government nationalized 72 industrial enterprises and acquired most of the shares of 29 enterprises.

Industrial development is constrained by the lack of electricity, although the country has a powerful hydropower potential, which is estimated at about 60 billion kWh.

The development of industry depends on investments, primarily foreign ones. To attract foreign investors, a government decree was issued in 1950 according to which all new businesses were exempted from taxes for the first five years. The decree provided that capital equipment can be imported into Ethiopia without paying customs duties, that the participation of the Ethiopian side will be minimized, and the investor has the right to transfer profits in foreign currency from Ethiopia abroad in amounts proportional to the invested capital.

In 1975, the government nationalized large industrial enterprises, as well as banks, financial institutions and insurance companies. The socialist policy of the government provided for the functioning of three sectors in the Ethiopian economy. The main branches of industry, natural resources and communal services were transferred to state ownership. A mixed public-private sector encompassed mining, paper and plastics, construction of large facilities, tourism, i.e. those areas that Ethiopia could not develop without the participation of foreign capital. The third sector of the economy, representing a vast field of activity for private capital, included wholesale, retail and foreign trade, land transport, except for railway, food industry, hotel business, small enterprises of various profiles. At the same time, many private firms were nationalized.

The average annual growth rate in the industrial sector declined from 6.4% in 1965-1973 to 3.8% in 1980-1987. From 1989-1990 to 1994-1995 fiscal years, the average annual growth rate of industrial production was 1.6%. However, in last years in the industry there have been positive shifts. Its share in GDP in the 1993-1994 fiscal year increased to 7.1%, and in the 1994-1995 fiscal year - to 8%. Although the state still owns and operates some large industrial and commercial enterprises, the government has increased private investment in the economy and limited the state's economic role.

Public Works.Until recently, public works were used in the construction of churches, palaces and various public buildings. After the Second World War, the state thus built a modern palace, parliament building, prisons, hospitals, schools, airfields and radio stations. In addition, the repair and maintenance of highways, the construction of hydroelectric power plants were carried out, foreign economic assistance and funds from the state budget from foreign loans were directed to these areas. International trade. Ethiopia exports mainly agricultural products and imports manufactured goods. In the 1994-1995 fiscal year, over 65.9% of export earnings were from coffee. Other important export items are hides, vegetables and oilseeds. The main imports were machinery and transport equipment, vehicles, yarns and fabrics, chemical products (primarily pharmaceuticals) and oil. Ethiopia's trade balance was in deficit. In 1994, export earnings amounted to $ 372 million, and the value of imports was $ 772 million.Until the mid-1980s, the United States was Ethiopia's main trading partner in exports, followed by the Federal Republic of Germany, which accounted for 32% of exports in 1994. ... The main import partners are Saudi Arabia (11% of the total import value), USA, Italy, Germany, Japan and Great Britain.

Transport and communication. Since ancient times, important caravan routes have passed through Ethiopia. Development modern species transport began with the construction of the Franco-Ethiopian railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa (from 1981 it became known as Ethiopian-Djibouti). Upon completion of construction in 1917, its length was 782 km (including 682 km in Ethiopia).

Several highways were built before the Italian occupation, and the Italians left behind many new roads. During the Italo-Ethiopian War, transport infrastructure, especially bridges, suffered significant damage, and road repair and maintenance were a heavy burden on the state budget. The imperial government was well aware of the role of reliable communications in strengthening the central government and consolidating the country. In 1995, the total length of paved roads was 23.8 thousand km. The expansion of the road network was financed from the state budget and from foreign aid. In 1995, the Ethiopian government announced the start of a road construction program, which was subsidized mainly by EU and World Bank loans.

After the Second World War, a merchant marine fleet was created, and air transportation began. Planes of the Ethiopian state airline fly to all states of the country, and also connect Addis Ababa with countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. In 1989, the Ethiopian airline's air traffic accounted for nearly half of that of all other African airlines combined. There are three international airports in the country (in Addis Ababa, Bahr Dar and Dire Dawa), there are domestic airports in all administrative centers and a number of major cities... Civil aviation was made possible by loans provided to Ethiopia by the US Export-Import Bank and the American Development Fund. Other types of transport services include intercity bus routes and boat trips along the Tana and Abai lakes and along the Baro river. After the withdrawal of Eritrea from Ethiopia in May 1993, the country lost the ports of Massawa and Assab on the Red Sea. However, the government of Eritrea granted Ethiopia the right to use the port of Assab for receiving humanitarian aid to the hungry and foreign trade operations.

An integral part of Ethiopia's modernization was the expansion of domestic telephony. The first telephone lines were laid during the reign of Emperor Menelik II and later, especially during the Italian occupation, the telephone network was significantly expanded. Since the early 1950s, telephone and telegraph have linked Ethiopia with the rest of the world.

Monetary system. In the past, Ethiopia did not know such a thing as a government budget. Taxes and taxes, which were mostly paid in kind or worked out, were collected and used locally. The main source government revenues was a tribute collected by local authorities in their domains. Part of it remained in place, part was sent to the emperor. The main form of tax was tithe, when the peasants were obliged to give a tenth, or even most of the agricultural production. There was also a tax on livestock. In addition to the above, there were many more local taxes, and there was also a system of labor service.

Ethiopia has long had two main forms of land ownership. The first form, characteristic mainly of the northern regions, included the perpetual ownership of land by the communities. The second form of land tenure, widespread in the central and southern regions, was based on the fact that the sovereign owner of all land in the country is the emperor, who, as a reward for service or payment of tribute, at his own discretion grants his subjects land. At the end of the 19th century. the lands, primarily around Addis Ababa, were partially transferred to private ownership. There was also a gebar, or lease, system, which was based on sharecropping. More or less orderly in the north, in the south it often led to abuses by landlords.

There were many exceptions to general rule... The emperor often granted land to noble people who received the right to collect tithes and taxes in the form of various labor services. Part of the land with the right to collect taxes was transferred to churches, monasteries and individual church hierarchs. Everywhere the right to collect tribute could be granted in exchange for military service. Vast lands belonged to the emperor personally and members of his family, all taxes from there went directly to the imperial treasury.

After the restoration of the country's independence, the tax system has undergone profound changes. The new land tax, introduced in 1942, took into account the fertility of the soil and the location of a particular land plot; tax collectors were appointed by the Ministry of Finance. Two years later, tithes were added to monetary terms and added to a new land tax that went directly to the center, significantly increasing government revenue at the expense of local government revenue.

In 1975 the government nationalized all rural land and limited the maximum size of individual ownership to 10 hectares. In 1978, changes were made to the tax system, which aimed at a more equitable distribution of the tax burden. It was envisaged that, depending on the level of income, tax rates would vary from 10 to 85%. The collection of taxes in the countryside was entrusted to peasant associations.

Another important innovation in government fiscal policy was the significant increase in import duties in the 1940s, as well as the introduction of an individual income tax. All these measures have somewhat eased the tax burden on the peasants. Government revenues increased from $ 15.2 million in 1945 to $ 2.8 billion in 1987. In the 1994-1995 fiscal year, government revenues totaled $ 928 million. The main sources of government revenue were export and import duties and income tax, and in the postwar years - foreign loans (the largest of them were received from the World Bank and the United States). There was a significant increase in the expenditure side of the budget - from $ 15 million in 1945 to $ 3.9 billion in 1987 (in the 1994-1995 fiscal year - $ 1.29 billion). The main items of budget financing were defense, education, maintenance of internal order, health care, social security and the maintenance of the administrative apparatus. Ethiopia's foreign debt in 1992 was $ 4.7 billion.

NATURE

Terrain relief.

Ethiopia is the most mountainous country on the African continent. More than half of its territory is located at absolute heights in excess of 1500 m, and is the Ethiopian Highlands, stretching from the Tigray region in the north to the Gamo-Gofa region in the south. Within its limits, the northwestern, central and southwestern regions are distinguished. In the north-western region there are peaks exceeding 4000 m above sea level. The highest of them are Mount Ras Dashen (4620 m) and Mount Talo (4413 m), located respectively to the north-east and east of the lake. Tana. In addition, the relief shows numerous table heights-outliers, which have the local name "amba". The Ethiopian Highlands in the east drops abruptly to the Afar Basin in the form of a scarp with absolute heights of 2100–2400 m. The western side of the Great Rift Zone slightly decreases in the southwest, where average heights reach 1500–1800 m above sea level. The western slopes of the highland are gentler than the eastern ones, and are limited in the west by ledges 1200–1500 m above sea level. The northwestern parts of the highlands are dissected by V-shaped valleys, the bottoms of which are at an altitude of approx. 600 m above sea level

Mountain ranges surrounded by vast plains are a characteristic feature of the landscape of the southeastern Ethiopian Highlands, where the administrative regions of Sidamo, Arsi, Bale and Harerge are located. Only the eastern edge of the Great Rift Zone is a clear boundary of this territory, since its southern and eastern edges are located on the territory of the neighboring states of Kenya and Somalia. Even deeper canyons are found here than in the northwest of the highlands. The escarpments bordering the Great Rift Zone have absolute heights from 1800 m in the south-west to 1200 m in the northeast, and in the center they exceed 2700 m, there are the Chilalo Mountains with a height of more than 3000 m.

The plains surrounding the Ethiopian Highlands constitute a significant part of the country's territory and in some places turn into a plateau up to 1500 m above sea level. However, individual basins are located below sea level. Within the northeastern plain, partly entering the territory of Eritrea and making up the northern end of the rift zone in Ethiopia, is the Afar depression, the deepest in Africa (116 m below sea level). It is sometimes viewed as a link between the African Great Rift Zone proper and the Red Sea graben. The plains, which form a narrow strip west of the Ethiopian Highlands, stretch along the Sudanese-Ethiopian border from the Gondar region in the north to the Illubabor region in the south. Usually, absolute heights in this strip do not exceed 1000 m.

Water resources.

Since Ethiopia receives a significant amount of rainfall, the rivers are deep and there is enough water to irrigate fields. In the western part of the Ethiopian Highlands, the surface has a general slope to the northwest, and most of the large rivers there belong to the vast drainage basin of the Nile. The largest of these rivers, the Abbay, in the lower reaches called the Blue Nile, originates in the form of a small river Maly Abbay, which flows into the lake. Tana, and leaving it, gradually turns into a full-flowing river. The Tekeze rivers in the north and the Baro and Gilo rivers in the south are also significant waterways. The last two belong to the basin of the Sobat River, a tributary of the White Nile. Of the large permanent streams, only two rivers do not flow into the Nile Basin. The Awash River flows out to the Danakil region and, before reaching the Gulf of Aden, ends in lakes Gamarri, Bario and Abbe. Another river - Omo - flows into the lake. Rudolph on the border with Kenya.

Since the surface in the southeast of the Ethiopian Highlands has a general slope to the southeast, the river flow is directed to the Indian Ocean. The largest rivers in this part of the country are the Ouabi-Shebelle and tributaries of the main waterway of western Somalia, the Jubba River. Along with permanent streams, there are also numerous short rivers and streams, which are filled with water only during the rainy season, when loose deposits are eroded. Since during such periods the winding channels of permanent rivers receive additional nourishment, vast territories are flooded, and tons of fertile soils are washed away from the highlands and redeposited on the lower plains.

Ethiopia's hydrographic network is characterized by the presence of lakes in the Great Rift Zone. They vary in size - from 1300 sq. km (Lake Abai) up to 150 sq. km (Lake Auasa). Some are freshwater, others are salty. The largest lake in the country is Tana with an area of \u200b\u200b3,150 sq. km - not associated with the rift zone and is located in the northwest of the Ethiopian Highlands. It was formed in a tectonic basin as a result of damming lava flows.

Climate.

Ethiopia is located in the equatorial and subequatorial zones, but due to the fact that most of its territory is occupied by highlands, the climate there is more temperate and more humid than in neighboring countries located at the same latitudes. Despite the absence of long-term accurate observations for the whole country, the available data indicate that in mountainous areas the amount of atmospheric precipitation ranges from 1000 mm in the north to 2000 mm in the south-west, with the maximum amount of precipitation falling in the summer months. In the lower regions of the southeastern part of the Ethiopian Highlands, located in the zone of influence of monsoons, in the annual course of precipitation, two wet periods are clearly distinguished, separated by a dry summer season. The average annual rainfall here is 500-750 mm. Typically, the country's flat areas receive less than 500 mm of rainfall per year, with the exception of the Baro Valley in the southwest, which is in the path of summer winds that bring moisture from the Atlantic Ocean. The average annual precipitation in the most arid interior regions of the country, including the Danakil and Afar depressions, does not exceed 250 mm per year (in some years, no more than 50 mm).

Air temperatures depend on the altitude, which makes changes in the zonal climatic characteristics, but at the same time are closely related to the distribution of atmospheric precipitation. For example, in the western regions of the Ethiopian Highlands, the minimum temperatures occur during cloudy and rainy months, while the maximum ones are usually associated with clear sunny weather. The average temperature of the wet season is 16 ° C, dry - 21 ° C. For Ethiopia, sharp temperature drops are not typical. With decreasing altitude, temperatures rise, and the thermometer usually rises in the rainy season to 27 ° C and in the dry season to 35 ° C. A record high temperature (49 ° C) was recorded in the Danakil depression.

Flora and fauna.

The most humid areas are characterized by the densest vegetation cover. In the southwest of Ethiopia, in a combination of abundant rainfall and high temperatures, there are large tracts of tropical rainforest with a rich and varied flora. As a result of centuries of agricultural land use, forests in the northwest of the Ethiopian Highlands have been cleared. In 1900, forests covered 40% of the country's territory, and in the early 1990s, their area was reduced to 4%. More than 2/3 of the remaining forests are concentrated in the Wollega, Illubabor and Kefa districts, the rest is in the Arsi, Bale, Sidamo and Gamo-Gofa districts. At the same time, in the context of a significant increase in the country's population, it is necessary to allocate more and more forest land for arable land and the construction of new settlements. On the inner plains with a hot climate and low rainfall, thin grassy vegetation is widespread, and in the south and southeast of the country, in the regions of Borena and Ogaden, there are acacia savannas.

Fauna changes with the nature of the vegetation. Deforestation and poaching have led to a significant reduction in the abundance and species diversity of wild animals. Lions, leopards, cheetahs and elephants are still found here and there; jackals, hyenas and foxes are ubiquitous. Small numbers of hippos, rhinos, giraffes, zebras, antelopes, monkeys, incl. baboons and crocodiles. The remote northwestern and northeastern mountainous regions are home to some rare animal species, such as the Ethiopian goat and the nyala antelope.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

Christians Amhara and Tigers, who in the past played a dominant role in the country's history, speak Semitic languages, which are based on the ancient Ethiopian language, or gyz, which is still used in church services to this day. Probably, the Semitic peoples moved to Ethiopia through the Red Sea from the centers of civilization in the fertile southwestern Arabia (the so-called "Happy Arabia"). In Africa, the Semitic newcomers subdued the local Hamit-speaking population, and then gradually merged with it.

Amhara and Tigers, which make up one third and one tenth of Ethiopia's population, respectively, inhabit the northwestern mountainous and highlands, located mainly north of 10 ° N latitude. and west of 40 ° E. They also live in the Shoah Central Administrative Region up to the latitude of Addis Ababa in the south. The Amharic language is spoken in the greater, southern part of the Ethiopian Highlands, and the Tigrinya language in its northern part.

The Hamite-speaking peoples include the Oromo (until recently they were called the Galla), Somali, Afars (or Danakil), Sidamo and other smaller ethnic groups. Oromo, the largest Hamite-speaking group, makes up approximately 40% of Ethiopia's population. Individual Oromo groups differ in terms of economic development, social and political organization, and religion. In the distant past, these were nomads who lived on the plains with a hot climate in the southeast of the country. In the 16th century. The Oromo invaded many parts of the Ethiopian Highlands, displacing the Amhara Christians and the Muslim population of the eastern provinces. Later, many Oromo adopted Islam, a slightly smaller part converted to Christianity, but many adherents of traditional beliefs remain. A significant part of Oromo Christians achieved high positions in public service... Oromo make up the majority of the population on the eastern edge of the Ethiopian Highlands, a vast plateau in the Wallo region, in the Wollega and Kefa regions in the southwest, and in Harege in the southeast. In the south, Oromo pastoralists are dispersed on the arid slopes of the Ethiopian Highlands.

Another Hamitic-speaking group, Somali, inhabit the hot and dry eastern and southeastern regions of Ethiopia. These nomadic herders, professing Islam, constitute a single ethnic group with the population of Somalia, Djibouti and Kenya bordering Ethiopia.

Relative Afars (Danakil), Sunni Muslims, live in the semi-desert plains of northeastern Ethiopia and in the northern regions of Djibouti. The cultural center and residence of the Afar Sultan are located in the Afar depression, where the Avash river flows into the system of lakes Gamarra, Bario and Abbe.

Peoples speaking the languages \u200b\u200bof the Sidamo group live in the southern regions of the Omo River valley and around the closed lakes in the south of the Great Rift Zone within Ethiopia. Remaining isolated from Amhara as a result of the Oromo invasion, these peoples developed independently until at the end of the 19th century. were not conquered by Emperor Menelik II and their lands were not included in the Ethiopian state. Over the past two centuries, they managed to create several small states, the most developed of which was Kafa.

Gurage, who speak a Semitic language close to Amharic and Gyizu, form a kind of connecting link between Oromo and Sidamo, who live to the south of them, and Amhara, who live to the north. They are engaged in primitive agriculture and pastoralism, and until the end of the 19th century. only part of their territory was part of Ethiopia.

Numerous Negroid tribes live in the west and south of the country, from the southern border of the Gondar region to Lake. Rudolph, in hilly regions that stretch from the western edge of the Ethiopian Highlands to the sultry plains of Sudan. In the past, like Oromo and Gurage, they were often sold into slavery. Many slaves from these areas were taken to Arabia, Egypt and Sudan.

Demography.

According to the 1984 census, Ethiopia was home to 41 million people, and in 1998 the population increased to 62.1 million. According to UN estimates, in 1995-2000 the average annual population growth was 3.2%. In 1996, approx. 46% of the country's residents were under the age of 14. The population density is uneven. The most densely populated areas of the Ethiopian Highlands with a mild climate, fertile soils and abundant rainfall, while the arid plains in the east of the country are rarely inhabited.

In the absence of precise statistics, it is assumed that approx. 40% of Ethiopians profess Christianity, 45% - Islam, the rest - Jews, Hindus, etc. Traditionally, the overwhelming majority of government officials were appointed from Christians, although in the history of the country there were also Muslim ministers.

A relatively small part of the population lives in cities. In 1994, Addis Ababa, the capital and largest city in the country, had 2.1 million inhabitants - almost a third of Ethiopia's urban population. Addis Ababa is a city of pan-African importance as it is home to the Organization of African Unity (OAE) and The Economic Commission UN for Africa. Among other cities, the population of which, according to the 1994 census, exceeded 50 thousand people, stand out (in thousand people): Dyre-Daua (164.8), Nazret (127.8), Gondar (112.2), Dess (97.3), Harer (131.1), Mekele (96.9), Jimma (88.9), Bahr Dar (96.1), Akaki (54.1) and Debre-Zeit (Bishoftu) ( 51.1).

STATE ORDER AND POLITICS

Ethiopia has been a feudal monarchy for centuries. Its last emperor Haile Selassie I (1892-1975) in the period from 1930 to 1974 concentrated in his hands all the power. An army action in early 1974 led to the resignation of the government, and in September 1974 Haile Selassie was deposed. The country was led by an army group that established the Provisional Military Administrative Council, or Derg. The new leadership announced its intention to create a one-party system and transfer property "necessary for economic development" to state control. In 1975, the monarchy was abolished by government decree. In 1977, after purges in the military leadership, the country was headed by Lieutenant Colonel Mangystu Haile Mariam.

Mengystu held power until the defeat of government forces by armed opposition units in 1991. Popular Front the Liberation of Eritrea (NPLE) established control over the entire territory of Eritrea. In May 1991, units of the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) occupied Addis Ababa. By the decision of the RDFNE, a Transitional Government was created, and the head of the Tigray rebels, Meles Zenawi, became the interim president of Ethiopia.

The period of the monarchy.

The highest power in Ethiopia was possessed by the emperor, or nyguse-negest (king of kings). The legend about the direct origin of the emperor from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba contributed to the preservation of the dominant role of the monarchy in the country. Local power belonged to governors, who were appointed and removed at the request of the monarch.

The governor received no salary or military aid from the emperor. He maintained his own army and made all appointments to the administrative apparatus of his province, annually sending part of the collected taxes to the center. Especially high taxes and taxes were levied on the predominantly Orom population of the Ogaden region, which was captured at the end of the 19th century. Amharic and Tigray warriors of Emperor Menelik II. Most of the most fertile lands were distributed among the conquerors. The local population was forced, in addition to taxes, to pay rent to new landowners.

Since the system of feudal administration that had developed in the north could not be mechanically transferred to the southern regions, where a hostile population with a different social order lived, the process of political reform in the south was accelerated in the first half of the 20th century. under Emperor Haile Selassie I. When he became regent in 1916, he became a key figure in Ethiopian politics. In 1928, Haile Selassie became a Negus, and in 1930 he was elevated to the imperial throne. A senate was established in the country, whose members were appointed from among the nobility (members of the imperial family, ministers, judges and military leaders), as well as a chamber of deputies, the selection of which was carried out by nobles and local leaders “until the population could independently elect their representatives ". This bicameral parliament was primarily an advisory body, and also served as a channel for information coming from above from the government to the local nobility. In 1955, 25 years after his coronation, the emperor enacted a new constitution. Dressed in modern formulations, it did not change anything in the system of government, and until 1974 the country remained an absolute monarchy, whose subjects were deprived of basic political and civil rights. In the 20th century. Ethiopia remained a unique country where there was no political life in its modern manifestations: there were no political parties, non-state press, and local government.

An important innovation was the creation of a cabinet of ministers. The system of new ministries was created in accordance with the annex to the imperial decree of 1943. In 1967, 18 ministries functioned in Ethiopia. All ministers, including the prime minister, were appointed by the emperor. In the period after World War II, the modern education system developed rapidly. The educational institutions trained qualified personnel for the administrative apparatus and the modernized armed forces.

Revolutionary regime.

After World War II, criticism of the monarchist regime intensified from disaffected ethnic groups and various sectors of society. Somalia, inhabiting the southeastern region of Ogaden, resisted the Ethiopian authorities, and since 1960 this struggle began to be supported by the young independent Republic of Somalia.

A similar threat has emerged in the north of the country in Eritrea. After the liquidation of the Italian colonial regime there in 1941, Eritrea came under the control of the British military administration for 10 years, and then, as a self-governing unit, became a part of the federation with Ethiopia. In 1962, the emperor dissolved the federation, turning Eritrea into one of the Ethiopian provinces. In the same year, the national liberation movement was formed, which launched an armed struggle for the independence of Eritrea.

Socio-economic changes have led to the emergence of new groups in Ethiopia, dissatisfied with the policies of the monarchical regime. The educated part of society rejected the political permissiveness of the emperor and his entourage and sharply criticized the slow pace of development of Ethiopia, which was one of the last places in the world in terms of living standards. Among the peasants in the southern regions, there was growing resistance to exploitation from the landowners-landowners. Deprived of any legal protection or social security, the small urban proletariat labored in factories owned and operated by foreigners. The large Muslim population was dissatisfied with the fact that Islam was not officially recognized as one of the state religions and that Muslims were rarely appointed to high government posts.

Discontent has been ripening for years. The internal political situation in the country sharply deteriorated in 1974 against the backdrop of rising inflation and unemployment, coupled with a terrible famine, which in 1972-1974 claimed the lives of approx. 200 thousand people. The government turned out to be unable to prevent the catastrophe: first of all, caring about its own reputation, it tried to hide the fact of hunger from the outside world by any means, leaving people dying of hunger to their fate. Rebellion broke out in military units, exhausted by years of fruitless fighting in Ogaden and Eritrea. Having lost the support of the army, the imperial regime collapsed without resistance. On September 12, 1974, Haile Selassie was deposed, arrested and died on August 27, 1975. Power in the country passed to the Provisional Military Administrative Council (VVAS), or Derg.

This council originally consisted of 120 military personnel ranging from private to major. In 1974 and 1977, Derg was purged, with the result that its significantly thinned line-up was headed by Mangystu Haile Mariam.

The military leadership embarked on a revolutionary socialist program that radically transformed Ethiopian society. The nationalization of industrial enterprises, banks, financial and insurance companies and other sectors of the economy led to the liquidation of private capital. The nationalization and redistribution of land in the countryside undermined the economic position of the old aristocracy. The nationalization of land and apartment buildings in cities has deprived their former owners of the opportunity to enrich themselves from rent. The military leadership launched a nationwide campaign to promote the ideas of "Ethiopian socialism" and accordingly changed the curriculum in public schools (after the nationalization of private schools, only public ones remained in the country).

The military inherited from the previous regime the problem of Eritreans and Somalis, who intensified the struggle for independence. Representatives of other nationalities also took up arms, so that at least five liberation fronts, created on an ethnic basis, opposed the central government. As a result, the military regime was drawn into hostilities throughout the country. In addition, the unwillingness of the military leadership to share power with civilian politicians has led to the emergence of underground opposition movements. The Mengystu regime destroyed thousands of its opponents, many of whom were forced to flee the country.

Military establishment.

According to a long tradition, the majority of the Ethiopian army were provincial formations maintained by the governors. To strengthen his position and coordinate the actions of the provincial armies, the emperor strove to have his own strong army... After the restoration of the imperial regime in 1941, Haile Selassie created an army that provided him with an undeniable superiority over potential rivals. This allowed the emperor to implement a series of successful reforms aimed at significantly limiting the power of the governors. The core of the new armed forces was the regular army, trained by the British under an agreement with Ethiopia in 1942. In addition, the emperor created a personal guard on the French model, led by the Swedish general E. Virjin.

In the early 1950s, the United States became the main ally and main source of financial aid Ethiopia. In exchange for military assistance, which made it possible to form an army of 60 thousand people, the United States received the right to establish a large Kagnyu air force base near Asmara, the main city of Eritrea. The Ethiopian army was equipped with American weapons, and many of its officers, including Lieutenant Colonel Mengystu, received military training in the United States. In 1960, military units loyal to the regime decisively suppressed an attempt to overthrow Haile Selassie, which was led by officers of the Imperial Guard. However, the futile war with guerrilla groups in Eritrea and Ogaden, which lasted for many years, undermined the morale of ordinary soldiers, whose living conditions had deteriorated. The junior officer corps, graduates of the military academy in Harera, shared the discontent of the Ethiopian intelligentsia with an authoritarian political system. In 1974, rank and file soldiers and junior officers banded together to overthrow the monarchist regime.

The radicalism of the new government and the nationalization of American investments without compensation forced the United States to stop providing military and economic assistance to Ethiopia. Faced with the simultaneous offensive of separatists in Eritrea and Ogaden and the growth of internal political instability throughout Ethiopia, Mengystu turned to the USSR and its allies for help. In 1977-1978, the USSR sent large consignments of weapons to Ethiopia, and also sent military advisers and technical personnel. A tactical combat group of several thousand people arrived from Cuba, and various assistance came from other countries of the socialist camp. All these measures allowed the military regime to repel the full-scale offensive of the Somali army in 1978 and regain control over all major cities Eritrea. Success on the fronts allowed Mengyst to strengthen his position by eliminating the main groups of civil opposition and significantly increasing the size of the armed forces. Nevertheless, throughout the 1980s, the Eritrean rebels steadily increased their combat power, and at first insignificant actions against the military regime in Tigray province escalated into a full-scale civil war. By mid-1990, Ethiopia had virtually lost Eritrea, and the military successes of the Tigrayans led to the overthrow of Mengystu in 1991.

Political parties.

Although Derg, created in 1974, repeatedly declared (especially after the beginning of large-scale military aid from the USSR and Cuba in 1977) that it was carrying out socialist transformations, in fact he was far from Marxist ideology. In 1979, the Commission for the Organization of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (COPTE) was formed. Mengystu became the chairman of the Commission, and other members of Derga became members of its governing bodies. At the direction and under the control of the military, associations were created that unite in their ranks peasants, workers, townspeople, women and youth. In September 1984, KOPTE announced the creation of a Marxist-Leninist party in the country, called the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (RPE). Mengystu became the general secretary of the party. According to official data, in 1989 its population reached 50 thousand people.

Derg fought mercilessly against any opposition, but gradually the initiative in the country began to move to the armed formations created by the Eritreans, Tigrais, Oromo and Somalis. The most powerful insurgent movements were the unconcealed Popular Front for the Liberation of Eritrea (PPLF), which sought independence for Eritrea, and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Tigray (PPLT), which helped topple Derg. Maoism was the original ideology of the NPLT, but since the early 1990s it has advocated pluralism and parliamentary democracy. In 1989, on the initiative of the NPLF, the Revolutionary Democratic Front of the Peoples of Ethiopia (RDFNE) was created, which, along with the Tigrayans, included smaller armed groups created on an ethnic basis, such as the Oromo Liberation Front, which enjoyed the support of the population of the southwestern regions of the country ... In May 1991, when the armed forces of the EPRDF approached Addis Ababa, Mengystu fled the country. RDFNE took control of the capital and appointed the leader of the NPT, Meles Zenawi, as interim president. By this time, the NPOE controlled the entire territory of Eritrea, and the EPRDF had to recognize its independence.

Religion.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church played an important role in the political life of the country, second only to the power of the emperor and the army. Using tremendous influence, comparable only to the authority of the Catholic Church in medieval Europe, the Ethiopian Church consolidated society. The unifying role of the church was facilitated not only by common faith, but also by the peculiarities of the church hierarchy. At the very top was abuna (metropolitan), the country's only bishop, who was appointed by the patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church in Alexandria. Since abuna was always appointed from among the Egyptians and was not privy to the intricacies of Ethiopia's political life, he could stay away from worldly concerns in order to maintain his spiritual authority. In fact, the Ethiopian ruled the church, its administrative head, ychege, but only the abuna had the right to be ordained to the church dignity and anointing to the imperial throne. The emperor himself often took an interest in church affairs.

In political life, the church was a powerful conservative force, which was quite understandable, given that the maintenance of its large clergy depended on the preservation of large church property. In 1990, there were 20 thousand churches and monasteries in the country, their parishioners were approximately 45% of the population. Even a small congregation sometimes had more than one church, in each of which three priests and several young deacons held services. Several hundred clergymen could be at the cathedral.

One of the results of the growing national consciousness of Ethiopians was the desire to weaken the dependence of their church on the Alexandrian patriarch. In 1948, the emperor refused to accept the new abuna, appointed in Alexandria, and put forward a number of demands on the Alexandrian patriarch. According to Haile Selassie, representatives of the Ethiopian Church should have participated in the selection of the patriarch and the meetings of the synod of the Coptic Church, the abuna should be appointed from among the Ethiopian clergy, and the synod of the Ethiopian Church should itself determine the clergy who will be consecrated abuna to the rank of bishop. In 1951, for the first time in 15 centuries, the Ethiopian Church was headed by an Ethiopian Abuna, who in 1959 was elevated to the rank of Patriarch. Since 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church has become completely independent from the Coptic.

With the coming to power of the military leadership in 1974, the church fell on hard times. The nationalization of the land deprived the clergy of the vast land holdings that the church had collected for centuries. The church lost financial support from the state, and its maintenance became the lot of the clergy themselves. In 1976, the acting abuna was accused of corruption and stripped of his post, and an unknown monk, pleasing to the authorities, took his place. Christianity has lost the privilege of being the only state religion in the country. By the decision of the authorities, Islam and other religions were equalized in rights with Christianity.

Foreign policy.

The spread of Islam cut off the already inaccessible Ethiopian Highlands from the outside world. Isolation was facilitated by the colonial division of Africa between the European powers in the late 19th century, which threatened Ethiopia's independence. With the exception of US-created Liberia, Ethiopia remained the only independent state in sub-Saharan Africa. The threat of foreign invasion was fully confirmed when Ethiopia became the target of Italian aggression. In 1896, at the Battle of Adua, the country managed to defend its independence. The coming respite made it possible to modernize the country and complete its territorial expansion in the southern direction. However, the threat of dismemberment of the country continued to exist. For example, in 1906, a tripartite agreement was signed between Great Britain, France and Italy, in which these powers, worried about the deteriorating state of health of Menelik II and the danger of civil war, expressed their intention to respect the territorial integrity of Ethiopia, but in the event of its collapse declared mutual respect for the interests of each of parties in this region. The sphere of interests of France was the French railway from Djibouti, Great Britain (represented by Egypt) - establishing control over the lake. Tana and Blue Nile, Italy - construction of a railroad across Ethiopia that would link two Italian colonies on the coast. In 1925 Great Britain recognized the Italian sphere of influence in Ethiopia and promised to support the idea of \u200b\u200bbuilding a railway from Eritrea to Italian Somalia. Italy has promised to support the British project to build a dam on the lake. Tana. After Ethiopia protested against both agreements, Western diplomats assured its government that the agreements did not pose a threat to the country's sovereignty and territorial integrity. In 1919, in order to secure its independence, Ethiopia applied for admission to the League of Nations, and in 1923 became a member of this organization. When Italy began the conquest of Ethiopia in 1935, even the historic personal appeal of the then-exiled Emperor Haile Selassie to the League of Nations did not convince its members of the need to take effective measures against Italy.

After the restoration of the monarchical regime with the help of British arms in 1941, there was a short period of close British-Ethiopian cooperation. In 1945 Ethiopia became a member of the UN.

In the early postwar years, the main goal of the Ethiopian foreign policy was the prevention of the transfer of Italy to its former colonies of Eritrea and Somalia and the return of these territories to Ethiopia. The United Kingdom and the United States provided military and economic assistance to Ethiopia, and during the Korean War, Ethiopian troops fought alongside American troops under the UN flag. In 1952, Eritrea was united with Ethiopia in a federation, and in 1962 it became a province of Ethiopia. In 1991, Eritrea was victorious and independent in the years of national liberation struggle.

From the mid-1950s, Ethiopia began to establish contacts with other African countries. In 1955 she took part in the Conference of Asian and African Countries in Bandung, and in 1958 in the Conference of Independent African States in Accra. At the last conference, a representative of Ethiopia announced that his country had provided 200 Haile Selassie scholarships to Africans to study in Ethiopia. In 1958, the headquarters of the UN African Economic Commission was located in Addis Ababa, in 1960 the second Conference of Independent African States was held there, and in 1962 - a meeting of the Pan-African Liberation Movement of East, Central and South Africa. In May 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in Addis Ababa, and since then its headquarters have been located there.

During the reign of Haile Selassie, Ethiopia maintained close political and economic ties with the United States, although the emperor did not want to depend on one great power and tried to get help from as many countries as possible. American aid was directed primarily towards the development of public education, health care and agriculture, and was also used to finance projects such as the construction of agricultural schools and experimental stations, teacher training institutes and medical advisory centers. With the coming to power of the military leadership in 1974, relations between Ethiopia and the United States deteriorated, and in 1977 most of the organizations associated with the participation of Americans were disbanded by order.

After 1977, the Ethiopian leadership moved towards rapprochement with the countries of the Soviet bloc, from where significant military and less significant economic assistance came. Several agreements were concluded between Ethiopia and the USSR, the military leadership provided support for Soviet foreign policy actions.

ECONOMY

Consumer agriculture plays a leading role in the Ethiopian economy. In the early 1990s, more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP) came from agricultural production. During the same period, the share of trade and services in GDP grew. From 1989-1990 to 1994-1995 fiscal years, the annual growth in the share of the service sector in GDP was 2.4%. In the 1993-1994 fiscal year, services accounted for 22% of GDP (data includes economic indicators for Eritrea). Until recently, Ethiopia was one of the poorest countries in the world, and its economy grew slowly. Between 1960 and 1974, the average annual production growth did not exceed 4%. The revolutionary upheavals led to the fact that this figure in 1974-1979 fell to 1.4%. Due to the rapid population growth, per capita output in 1985–1995 declined by an average of 0.3% annually. During this decade, the population growth rate averaged 2.6% per year. Severe droughts and civil war also contributed to the deterioration of living conditions. In the early 1990s, there were signs of economic recovery. From 1989-1990 to 1994-1995, the average GDP growth rate was 1.9%. In the 1996-1997 financial year, GDP increased by 7%. Foreign loans and financial assistance were the main factors in improving the economic situation.

Agriculture.

A temperate climate, fertile soils and abundant atmospheric precipitation in most of the Ethiopian Highlands create favorable conditions for the development of agriculture. The main crops are wheat, which is grown at higher altitudes in cooler climates, corn, millet, and grains grown at lower altitudes, as well as crops such as durro (a variety of sorghum), teff (a variety of millet with small grains, used to bake bread) and dagussa (from which black bread is baked). Coffee is an important export crop. In the 1994-1995 fiscal year, its share in export earnings was 66%. A significant part of the coffee harvest is harvested on plantations in the state of Kefa. Other crops are cotton, date palm, sugarcane, beans and peas, oilseeds, chat (whose leaves contain a drug), castor oil plants, fruits and vegetables.

Derg's 17 years of rule have had a detrimental effect on the agricultural sector. Labor productivity has plummeted due to the regime's attempts to carry out forced collectivization and set low government procurement prices for agricultural products. The implementation of programs for the creation of new villages and the forced resettlement of peasants has disorganized social and economic life in the Ethiopian village. The RDFNE, which overthrew the dictatorial regime of Mengystu Haile Mariam in May 1991, abolished state control over prices for agricultural products. The transitional government gave the peasants the right to establish minimum guaranteed prices for the crops grown. However, the authorities retained public ownership of land.

Most of the territory of the Ethiopian plains, due to the lack of irrigation, is suitable only for grazing. Herds of cattle (mainly zebu), sheep and goats, as well as horses, donkeys and mules (the latter are highly valued as a means of transporting goods and people), accompanied by shepherds, roam from place to place in search of food. Even though the quality of the workmanship is mediocre, hides and skins are an important export. In 1996 in Ethiopia, there were approx. 30 million head of cattle, 22 million sheep, 16.7 million goats, 5.2 million donkeys, 2.75 million horses, 630 thousand mules and 1 million camels.

Mining industry.

The bowels of Ethiopia are poorly studied. Gold mining, mainly from poor deposits in the south and west, has long been a by-product of the local population. Since the late 1960s, the development of rich gold deposits near Kybre-Mengyst (Adola) in Sidamo state has boosted the production of this metal. In the 1970s, gold production declined, but in 1986 it was 923 kg. Recently, a gold deposit was discovered in Laga Dambi in the Wollega area with a capacity of approx. 500 tons. Iron ore is mined and processed on a modest scale. Significant deposits of iron ore and coal have been found in the Wolleg, Illubabor and Shoah areas, but the development has not yet come to fruition. There are reports that in the bowels of Ethiopia, primarily in Ogaden and Gambel, there are significant reserves of oil and gas, and geological exploration work has been carried out there since the late 1980s. Table salt is mined in the country, but it is not enough to meet domestic needs. Deposits have been explored or other minerals are being mined on a small scale: copper, sulfur, potassium salt, platinum, oil, marble, mica, cinnabar and manganese.

Manufacturing industry

in Ethiopia is underdeveloped, and in the 1993-1994 fiscal year, the share of its production in GDP was only 7%. Mainly there are enterprises for processing agricultural products and light industry. The main products of the manufacturing industry are textiles, food (sugar, flour, pasta, cookies, canned meat and tomatoes), beer, footwear, cement, soap, alcoholic beverages, medicines and vegetable oils. Craftsmen make clothing, wood crafts, carpets, and jewelry. Many manufacturing industries are concentrated near urban centers such as Addis Ababa, Harera and Dire Dawa. In 1975, the government nationalized 72 industrial enterprises and acquired most of the shares in 29 enterprises.

Industrial development is constrained by the lack of electricity, although the country has a powerful hydropower potential, which is estimated at about 60 billion kWh.

In 1975, the government nationalized large industrial enterprises, as well as banks, financial institutions and insurance companies. The socialist policy of the government provided for the functioning of three sectors in the Ethiopian economy. The main branches of industry, natural resources and communal services were transferred to state ownership. A mixed public-private sector encompassed mining, paper and plastics, construction of large facilities, tourism, i.e. those areas that Ethiopia could not develop without the participation of foreign capital. The third sector of the economy, representing an extensive field of activity for private capital, included wholesale, retail and foreign trade, land transport, except for the railroad, food industry, hotel business, and small enterprises of various profiles. At the same time, many private firms were nationalized.

The average annual growth rate in the industrial sector declined from 6.4% in 1965-1973 to 3.8% in 1980-1987. From 1989-1990 to 1994-1995 fiscal years, the average annual growth rate of industrial production was 1.6%. However, in recent years, there have been positive shifts in industry. Its share in GDP in the 1993-1994 fiscal year increased to 7.1%, and in the 1994-1995 fiscal year - to 8%. Although the state still owns and operates some large industrial and commercial enterprises, the government has increased private investment in the economy and limited the state's economic role.

Public Works.

Until recently, public works were used in the construction of churches, palaces and various public buildings. After World War II, the state thus built a modern palace, parliament building, prisons, hospitals, schools, airfields and radio stations. In addition, the repair and maintenance of highways, the construction of hydroelectric power plants were carried out, foreign economic assistance and funds from the state budget from foreign loans were directed to these areas.

International trade.

Ethiopia exports mainly agricultural products and imports manufactured goods. In the 1994-1995 fiscal year, over 65.9% of export earnings were from coffee. Other important export items are hides, vegetables and oilseeds. The main imports were machinery and transport equipment, vehicles, yarns and fabrics, chemical products (primarily pharmaceuticals) and oil. Ethiopia's trade balance was in deficit. In 1994, export earnings amounted to $ 372 million, and the value of imports was $ 772 million.Until the mid-1980s, the United States was Ethiopia's main trading partner in exports, followed by the Federal Republic of Germany, which accounted for 32% of exports in 1994. ... The main import partners are Saudi Arabia (11% of the total import value), USA, Italy, Germany, Japan and Great Britain.

Transport and communication.

Since ancient times, important caravan routes passed through Ethiopia. The development of modern modes of transport began with the construction of the Franco-Ethiopian railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa (from 1981 it became known as the Ethiopian-Djibouti railway). Upon completion of construction in 1917, its length was 782 km (including 682 km in Ethiopia).

Several highways were built before the Italian occupation, and the Italians left behind many new roads. During the Italo-Ethiopian War, transport infrastructure, especially bridges, suffered significant damage, and road repair and maintenance fell heavily on the state budget. The imperial government was well aware of the role of reliable communications in strengthening the central government and consolidating the country. In 1995, the total length of paved roads was 23.8 thousand km. The expansion of the road network was financed from the state budget and from foreign aid. In 1995, the Ethiopian government announced the start of a road construction program, which was subsidized mainly by EU and World Bank loans.

After the Second World War, a merchant marine was created, and air traffic began. Planes of the Ethiopian state airline fly to all states of the country, and also connect Addis Ababa with countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. In 1989, the Ethiopian airline's air traffic accounted for nearly half of that of all other African airlines combined. There are three international airports in the country (in Addis Ababa, Bahr Dar and Dire Dawa), there are domestic airports in all administrative centers and a number of large cities. The creation of civil aviation was made possible by loans provided to Ethiopia by the Export-Import Bank of the United States and the American Development Fund. Other types of transport services include intercity bus routes and boat trips along the Tana and Abai lakes and along the Baro river. After the withdrawal of Eritrea from Ethiopia in May 1993, the country lost the ports of Massawa and Assab on the Red Sea. However, the government of Eritrea granted Ethiopia the right to use the port of Assab for receiving humanitarian aid to the starving and foreign trade operations.

Monetary system.

In the past, Ethiopia did not know such a thing as a government budget. Taxes and taxes, which were mostly paid in kind or worked out, were collected and used locally. The main source of government revenue was the tribute collected by local authorities in their domains. Part of it remained in place, part was sent to the emperor. The main form of tax was tithe, when peasants were required to give a tenth, or even most of the agricultural production. There was also a tax on livestock. In addition to the above, there were many more local taxes, and there was also a system of labor service.

Ethiopia has long had two main forms of land ownership. The first form, characteristic mainly of the northern regions, included the perpetual ownership of land by the communities. The second form of land tenure, widespread in the central and southern regions, was based on the fact that the sovereign owner of all land in the country is the emperor, who, as a reward for service or payment of tribute, at his own discretion, bestows land on his subjects. At the end of the 19th century. lands, primarily around Addis Ababa, were partially transferred to private ownership. There was also a gebar, or lease, system, which was based on sharecropping. More or less orderly in the north, in the south it often led to abuses by landlords.

There were many exceptions to the general rule. The emperor often granted land to noble people who received the right to collect tithes and taxes in the form of various labor services. Part of the land with the right to collect taxes was transferred to churches, monasteries and individual church hierarchs. Everywhere the right to collect tribute could be granted in exchange for military service. Vast lands belonged to the emperor personally and members of his family, all taxes from there went directly to the imperial treasury.

After the restoration of the country's independence, the tax system has undergone profound changes. Introduced in 1942, a new land tax took into account the fertility of the soil and the location of a particular land plot; tax collectors were appointed by the Ministry of Finance. Two years later, tithes were added to a new land tax, which went directly to the center, significantly increasing government revenues to the detriment of local government revenues.

Another important innovation in government fiscal policy was the significant increase in import duties in the 1940s, as well as the introduction of an individual income tax. All these measures have somewhat eased the tax burden on the peasants. Government revenues increased from $ 15.2 million in 1945 to $ 2.8 billion in 1987. In the 1994-1995 fiscal year, government revenues totaled $ 928 million. The main sources of government revenue were export and import duties and income tax, and in the postwar years - foreign loans (the largest of them were received from the World Bank and the United States). There was a significant increase in the expenditure side of the budget - from $ 15 million in 1945 to $ 3.9 billion in 1987 (in the 1994-1995 fiscal year - $ 1.29 billion). The main articles of budget financing were defense, education, maintenance of internal order, health care, social security and the maintenance of the administrative apparatus. Ethiopia's foreign debt in 1992 was $ 4.7 billion.

Banks.

The monetary unit of Ethiopia is the birr (which replaced the Ethiopian dollar), which is equal to 100 centimes. The country's central bank is the National Bank of Ethiopia, created in 1964, the successor to the former State Bank of Ethiopia. Also in 1964, the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia was founded to streamline trade operations. There is a Bank for Agricultural and Industrial Development, which provides loans for the development of relevant sectors of the economy, as well as several other banks. In 1975, the government nationalized all banks, insurance companies and mortgages.

CULTURE

Education.

Since time immemorial, churches and monasteries have been centers of learning and education in Ethiopia. In the 19th and early 20th centuries. some Ethiopians may have attended schools in Christian missions of various denominations: Catholics from France and Italy, Swedish Lutherans, English and German Protestants, Seventh-day Adventists, and Presbyterians from the United States. In 1908, with the care of Emperor Menelik II, the first public school was opened, where Egyptian Copts taught. 20 years later, Haile Selassie founded the Tefari Makonnin school (that was the name of Emperor Menelik II before his coronation). Soon several other schools were opened, one of them for women.

In 1993, the country had 2.3 million primary school students and 714,000 secondary school students. Public schools run by peasant associations and urban dwellers' associations are open to all comers and teach approx. 95% of all students in the country. In 1991, 20.9 thousand students studied at the universities of Ethiopia. The largest is Addis Ababa University (formerly Haile Selassie I University). In 1995, 35.5% of Ethiopian adults were literate, which was the result of a nationwide campaign to eradicate illiteracy, which began in 1980, when only approx. 10% of the adult population can read and write skillfully.

Literature and art.

For a long time, literature was created mainly in the gyz language and had mainly religious content. True, already at the end of the 13th century. the first royal chronicles appeared on parchment. In the 19th century. the first works in the Amharic language were created, and shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, the first printing press appeared in the country. Last but not least to support development modern literature in Amharic, during his regency, Emperor Haile Selassie I founded the Byrkhan enna Saleam (Light and Peace) publishing house. Most of the literary works were characterized by a moralizing orientation. Many dramatic works were created after the liberation of the country from the Italian occupation, and they were staged either on the stage of the National Theater or by the efforts of university students. In the early 1990s, three daily newspapers were published in Amharic and one in English in Addis Ababa.

In the traditional fine arts Ethiopia was dominated by a predominantly Byzantine style. After 1930, commercial art developed significantly, oriented to the needs of tourists. In works of this kind, there was often a plot of the visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon, and they were a series of popular prints, each of which supplemented the other. Around the same time, artists began to paint the walls of pubs and bars with images of national heroes and saints.

HISTORY

Historical roots and legends.

About 10 centuries BC, Semitic tribes from southern Arabia landed on the northeastern coast of Africa and founded the Aksumite kingdom there, which was succeeded by Ethiopia. They established themselves in the north of the Ethiopian Highlands and began to move southward. The main historical and archaeological sources date back to the period from 150 BC. before 600 AD In the 4th century, during the reign of King Ezana, Christianity was adopted in Ethiopia. An important role in the spread of Christianity was played by the Syrian monk Frumentius, who gained popularity among the newly converted flock and was elevated to the episcopal rank by the then Patriarch of the Coptic Church in Alexandria Athanasius. This laid the foundation for the dependence of the Ethiopian Church on the Coptic Church of Egypt. In 451, during the schism of the Christian Church, at the Council of Chalcedon, Copts expressed support for the Monophysite direction, and representatives of the Ethiopian Church took the same position ( see also MONOPHYSISISM).

At the beginning of the 6th century, in order to avenge the oppression of the local Christian population by their rulers, the army of King Caleb of Aksum invaded southern Arabia. At about the same time, Judaism began to penetrate Ethiopia, which had a noticeable influence on the rituals of the Ethiopian Church; in addition, some of the Aksumites became followers of Judaism. (The descendants of these converts, the Falasha, who lived in the north of the country, have now almost completely emigrated to Israel. Their emigration began in the mid-1980s and ended in 1991.) them in Arabia in the 7th century, the spread of Islam led to the isolation of the Aksumite kingdom. The Ethiopians hid behind their rugged mountains and, as Gibbon wrote, "slept for almost a thousand years, forgetting about the world around them, which also forgot about them." However, many of the country's rulers tried to maintain ties with Western European Christian countries.

According to Ethiopian tradition, genealogy imperial family goes back to the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. It is believed that the hereditary right to the imperial throne of the Solomon dynasty was interrupted for about two centuries by representatives of the Zague dynasty. At the end of the 13th century. the ruler of Shoah ascended the throne, having proved his belonging to the Solomonids. This was followed by a period of religious and cultural revival, when the royal chronicles and numerous works of a spiritual nature were created, the most significant of which was Cabre Nagast (Glory of the kings), containing the story of the journey of the Queen of Sheba to Jerusalem.

At the end of the 15th century. A small group of Portuguese and other Europeans, who set out in search of the kingdom of High Priest John, fanned by legends in medieval Europe, arrived in Ethiopia. The Portuguese hoped to make this Christian country an ally in the fight against Muslims and the growing Ottoman Empire. After, after 1531, Ethiopia began to suffer one defeat after another from the army of Imam Adal Ahmed ibn Ibrahim, known as Gran (Lefty), and lost most of its territory, the emperor turned to Portugal for help. In 1541, a detachment of 400 Portuguese landed in Massawa, led by Christopher da Gama, the son of the famous navigator Vasco da Gama. Most of the detachment, including its leader, died in battle with the Muslims. With the assistance of the surviving Portuguese, a new Ethiopian army was created, armed with muskets (until that time, only the soldiers of the Gran had firearms). In 1543, this army defeated the enemy, and Ahmed Gran himself was killed in the battle.

Foreign penetration into Ethiopia begins.

Attempts by the Portuguese and later the Jesuits to impose Catholicism on the population of the country led to numerous conflicts. Eventually, in 1633, the Jesuits were expelled from Ethiopia. For the next 150 years, the country was almost completely isolated from Europe. The foundation of the capital in Gondar dates back to this period, where several stone castles were built. In the middle of the 18th century. the power of the emperor fell into decay, and the country was engulfed in feudal strife. In 1769, the English traveler James Bruce visited Ethiopia, trying to find the sources of the Nile. In 1805, the British mission acquired a trading port on the Red Sea coast. At the beginning of the 19th century. other Europeans also visited the country. In 1855, Tewodros, one of the most capable military leaders of the time, seized the imperial throne, revived power and authority supreme power and tried to unite and reform the country.

Napier's expedition.

After Queen Victoria did not reply to a letter sent to her by Tewodros for two years, several British officials were imprisoned by the Emperor at the Mackdale prison. All attempts to achieve their release by diplomatic methods have led nowhere. In 1867, a military expeditionary force under the command of General Robert Napier was sent to Ethiopia to free the prisoners. Having disembarked from ships on January 7, 1868 in the town of Mulkutto on the shores of the Gulf of Zula, Napier's detachment, numbering more than 10 thousand people, moved along the rugged mountainous terrain to the 650-kilometer route to Mekdela. The British received help and food from local residents who were dissatisfied with the emperor Tewodros, primarily the Tygrai. On the other hand, Tewodros was also advancing towards Mekdale, whose power was shaken by this time, and the ranks of the imperial army thinned. On April 13, 1868, this mountain fortress fell under the onslaught of British troops. During the assault, not wanting to fall into the hands of enemies, Tewodros shot himself. Soon, British troops left Ethiopia.

The first defeat of the Italians.

After the death of Tewodros, Yohannis IV, ruler of Tigray, an ally of the British in their war with Tewodros, became emperor. His twenty-year reign, full of turbulent events, began with the suppression of attempts by other claimants to seize the throne. Subsequently, many battles fell to the lot of Yohannis with external enemies: Italians, Mahdists and Egyptians. The Italians, who had acquired the port of Assab in 1869, in 1885, with the consent of the British, seized Massawa, which had previously belonged to Egypt. In 1884, Great Britain and Egypt promised the emperor that Ethiopia would receive the right to use Massawa, but the Italians soon closed access there and began to systematically move deeper into Ethiopia. In January 1887, the emperor's soldiers defeated the Italians at the town of Dogali and forced them to retreat. Then Yohannis entered into hostilities with the Mahdists, who now and then invaded Ethiopia from Sudan. In March 1889 he was mortally wounded in one of the battles. Negus Shoa Menelik became the emperor of Ethiopia, who enjoyed the support of Italy for several years. Shoah Menelik made successful military campaigns against the rebellious provinces and achieved significant consolidation of the Ethiopian state. During his reign, reforms began to modernize the country.

Accession to the throne of Menelik II.

On May 2, 1889, shortly before the official act of coronation, Menelik concluded the Uchchal Treaty with Italy, according to which the Italians received the right to occupy Asmara. Outwardly, very friendly relations were established between the two countries. However, the said treaty became the source of many problems. The Amharic copy of the treaty stipulated that Ethiopia, if it deems it necessary, may resort to Italy's "good offices" in relations with other powers. In the Italian text of the treaty, it was stated that Ethiopia was obliged to do this only. In practice, this meant Italy's complete control over Ethiopia's foreign policy. Using its text of the treaty, Italy declared that, based on the provisions of the General Act of the Berlin Conference of 1885, it has the right to establish its protectorate over Ethiopia. The persistence of Italian diplomacy in upholding a favorable interpretation of the Treaty of Uchchal led to its denunciation by the Ethiopian side on May 11, 1893.

Rivalry between Britain, France and Italy.

All European powers, except Russia and France, recognized Italy's claims to its protectorate over Ethiopia. In 1891, the Anglo-Italian Protocol was signed, according to which, in exchange for Italy's commitments to do nothing in the Nile Valley, Great Britain recognized that the Italian sphere of influence extended to Ethiopia.

Italy's second defeat.

Italy used its advantage and began to advance deep into Ethiopia. Having achieved success in the fight against the troops of the ruler of Tigray Mengashi, the Italian command had high hopes for a favorable outcome of the campaign. Meanwhile, Menelik, having received by this time large consignments of firearms from France and Russia, acted quickly and decisively. Gathering a powerful army, he opposed the aggressor. On March 1, 1896, a decisive battle took place at Adua, which ended in the complete defeat of the Italian troops. On October 26, 1896 in Addis Ababa, the parties signed a peace treaty that annulled Uchchalsky and recognized the independence of Ethiopia.

Collapse of French claims.

Italy's defeat left France and Britain face to face in the Nile Valley. Mindful of the support of France in the war between Ethiopia and Italy, Emperor Menelik sided with France. The latter began to claim a leading role in the economy of Ethiopia, and the idea arose to unite the colony of the French Coast of Somalia (French Somalia) on the east coast of Africa with the French possessions in West Africa. Menelik was not without reason considered one of the key figures in the struggle for power in the Nile Valley. In the ten years that have elapsed since the Battle of Adua, he has significantly expanded the territory of his empire. Trained by French and Russian officers and well-armed Ethiopian troops conquered the state of Kafa and occupied vast areas stretching south to Lake. Rudolph and the Kenyan Borders. On March 20, 1897, a secret treaty was concluded between Ethiopia and France, which established the Ethiopian border along the Nile and provided for the granting of trade concessions and certain advantages to France, including the right to build a railway. On May 14, 1897, Menelik signed an agreement with Great Britain that established the border between Ethiopia and British Somalia. Great Britain, which was fighting against the Mahdist state, received the right to transport arms and ammunition through Ethiopia.

In Fashoda (present-day Kodok), located on the territory of Sudan, France was a loser, primarily because the French and Ethiopian armed forces failed to connect at the scheduled time, although the Ethiopians reached the Nile just above Fashoda. Under British pressure on November 3, 1898, France withdrew its troops from Fashoda. This was a great loss for the French. On May 15, 1902, Menelik signed a treaty with Great Britain on the delimitation of Ethiopia's western borders, and the Ethiopian side pledged not to divert the waters of the Blue Nile. Four years later, on December 13, 1906, an agreement was concluded between France, Great Britain and Italy, according to which these powers pledged to respect the sovereignty of Ethiopia, but in the event of a split, they assumed the obligation to respect their special interests in that country. Ethiopia itself was not involved in these decisions.

Internal problems.

Meanwhile, Menelik's health deteriorated, and in 1907 he was paralyzed. The above-mentioned tripartite agreement of 1906 was concluded exactly when it became known about the illness of the Ethiopian monarch. In June 1908, Menelik chose his twelve-year-old grandson Lija Iyasu to succeed him, and later Ras Tesemma was appointed regent. In 1911, after the death of Tesemma, Lij Iyasu was deemed old enough to make decisions and be responsible for them, but he did not have real power. Menelik died on December 12, 1913, his death was kept secret for a long time. The first world War saved Ethiopia from division between Italy, Great Britain and France.

Lija's father Iyasu, ruler of the Wallo region of Ras Mikael, was a Muslim before baptism, and in 1915-1916 the young emperor began to demonstrate his commitment to Islam. He declared that he was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, and began to wear a turban. In addition, Lij Iyasu established friendly relations with Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. This development of events alarmed the diplomatic missions of the Entente countries in Addis Ababa, which came out in support of the Shohan clergy. When Lij Iyasu was in the south of the country, the Shohanian nobility moved their troops to Addis Ababa. On September 27, 1916, Menelik's daughter Zouditu was proclaimed Empress of Ethiopia, and Ras Tefari, the son of Menelik's cousin Ras Makonnin, was declared regent and heir to the throne. The following year, the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railroad was completed, giving the capital for the first time such important access to the sea.

Coronation of Haile Selassie.

The Tefari race's regency period was turbulent. Fearing an invasion of Ethiopia by German and Turkish troops during World War I, some of the allied powers (Great Britain, France and Italy) in 1916 agreed that, if necessary, the country would come under Italian control. However, Ethiopia's entry into the League of Nations in 1923 consolidated its independence. In 1928, Ras Tefari was crowned a Negus, and two years later, on November 2, 1930, after the death of Empress Zouditu (April 2, 1930), he ascended the throne under the name of Emperor Haile Selassie I.

Italian occupation.

The craving for the restoration of the former greatness of the Roman Empire and the memory of the humiliating defeat at Adua, as it were, gave Mussolini and his fascist regime a reason to conquer Ethiopia.

On December 5, 1934, an armed clash occurred between Italians and Ethiopians in the Wal-Wal area, located 100 km from the undefined border between Ethiopia and Italian Somalia. To identify the perpetrators, the dispute was referred to the League of Nations, but in September 1935 this international organization declared that none of the states was guilty. Meanwhile, the Italo-Ethiopian negotiations reached a dead end, and again unsuccessfully tried to find a solution to the problem within the walls of the League of Nations. Finally, as a result of consultations between representatives of Great Britain, France and Italy, a number of proposals were developed aimed at resolving the conflict situation. Ethiopia was ready for a constructive dialogue, but Italy, which this time was actively increasing the number of its troops in Italian Somalia and Eritrea, refused. On October 3, 1935, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia without declaring war. Although until that day the Ethiopian government had delayed in announcing a general mobilization, the poorly armed Ethiopian army was able to stop the enemy's advance at first.

On November 18, 1935, the League of Nations decided to impose economic and financial sanctions against Italy. In order to meet the Italian demands in December of the same year, Great Britain and France came forward with a proposal to dismember Ethiopia, but a wave of public protests, especially in Great Britain, prevented the implementation of this plan.

On May 5, 1936, Italian troops under the command of Marshal Pietro Badoglio entered Addis Ababa. By this time, Emperor Haile Selassie was already outside the country, having received asylum in England. While in exile, he gave a speech at a meeting of the League of Nations in Geneva, saying: "God and history will remember your decision." On May 9, 1936, Italy officially announced the annexation of Ethiopia. On June 1, the King of Italy was proclaimed emperor, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia were united to form the Italian East Africa colony.

Restoration of Ethiopia's independence.

The Italian occupation lasted five years, and during all this time the Ethiopian patriots continued to resist the invaders. Already at the very beginning of World War II, the low combat effectiveness of the Italian army was manifested. On July 12, 1940, Great Britain officially recognized Ethiopia as its ally. To organize resistance to the invaders, Haile Selassie arrived in Sudan by plane. On January 15, 1941, the Ethiopian army, led by the emperor, began hostilities in Ethiopia. On April 6, 1941, British units drove the Italians out of Addis Ababa, and on May 5, 1941 Haile Selassie solemnly entered the liberated capital. On May 20, 1941, the last Italian units surrendered in the town of Amba-Alage. Haile Selassie took the imperial throne again.

World War II and the rise of British influence.

British troops liberated Ethiopia from the Italian occupation, but the threat to Egypt from German and Italian troops remained. In this situation, Great Britain needed reliable communications from Sudan to the Red Sea coast. In January 1942, the Anglo-Ethiopian agreement was signed, providing for the establishment of cooperation between the allies, the dispatch of British civil and military advisers to Ethiopia, and the provision of financial and other assistance to restore the emperor's administrative apparatus. To maintain internal political stability, the British side committed itself to creating and training a regular Ethiopian army.

On December 19, 1944, a new agreement was concluded between Ethiopia and Great Britain, "two equal and independent powers," which nevertheless gave the British government priority in appointing advisers and senior officials of Ethiopia's financial system. The education system was reorganized and expanded, and Ethiopian control of the railway to Djibouti was restored. In 1945, the Ethiopian government granted Sinclair Oil Company a 50-year concession for the exploration and development of oil fields.

Ethiopia after World War II.

In 1945 Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations and immediately firmly declared its rights to former colonies Italian Somalia and Eritrea.

The peace treaty of February 10, 1947, which officially ended the state of war with Italy, canceled the Anglo-Ethiopian agreement of 1944. The emperor's power was restored throughout Ethiopia, with the exception of Ogaden, which remained under the control of the British military administration until 1948. By a UN decision, the British management on the territory of Italian Somalia, and since 1950 it was transferred under the tutelage of Italy for ten years. In 1960, Italian and British Somalia formed the independent Republic of Somalia. In 1952, by decision of the UN, Eritrea, as an autonomous unit, along with Ethiopia, joined the federation under the rule of the Ethiopian crown.

In 1962, in order to establish complete control over the ports of Massawa and Assab, the imperial government abolished the autonomous status of Eritrea. In response, Muslim Eritreans organized the Eritrean Liberation Front (EFL), which began a struggle, first for autonomy, and then for the independence of this country. By the late 1960s, about half of the Ethiopian army was stationed in Eritrea. Other movements also fought against the imperial government, most notably the ethnic Somalis in Ogaden.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the police had to forcefully disperse demonstrations of leftist student groups that advocated land reform and educational reform in the country, as well as granting independence to Eritrea. In 1972-1974, apprx. 200 thousand people. The government tried in every possible way to hide the truth about the famine. Until the end of 1973, the country's public did not even suspect about the numerous victims. After the truthful information appeared, massive anti-government demonstrations began.

In early 1974, the army units stationed in Asmara mutinied, demanding an increase in pay. Soon they were joined by military units in other parts of the country, demanding the resignation of the government. The military was supported by workers and students. Although the emperor complied with these requirements, in the next few months he was deprived of all real power, which passed to the military. The military soon disbanded the civilian government and created its own provisional military government. In the summer, criticism of the emperor intensified. On September 12, 1974, Haile Selassie was deposed and died eleven months later while under house arrest. After usurping political power, the Provisional Military Administrative Council (Derg) introduced censorship and abolished civil rights. In November, a group of 60 people were executed, including former high-ranking officials. To fight the military regime, radical representatives of the left intelligentsia, workers and students organized the illegal Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party. During the Red Terror campaign launched by Derg in 1977, the opposition was defeated. Approx. 100 thousand people, and several hundred thousand more were forced to take refuge in neighboring Kenya, Sudan and Djibouti. The split in Derge itself was liquidated by mass execution of dissidents. In November 1974, General Aman Andom, the country's first leader after Haile Selassie, was shot by his former associates over Derg. In mid-1976, several other high-ranking members of Derg were shot. A group of members of the military leadership, including the head of state, General Tefari Bunty, were executed in February 1977. All these repressions testified to the consolidation of the power of Lieutenant Colonel Mengystu Haile Mariam.

Despite the repression, the military promised to carry out reforms. In December 1974, the military government announced its intention to transform the country into a socialist state with a one-party system, collective agriculture and direct state control over "all property useful for economic progress." By order of the authorities, all educational institutions were closed for a year, and students and teachers were sent to rural areas, where they had to explain the goals to the peasants. public policy, teach them the basics of sanitation and hygiene, and introduce them to advanced agricultural practices. Many foreign-owned enterprises were nationalized.

In 1975, episodic armed conflicts in Eritrea escalated into large-scale war, which threatened the existence of the military regime. In 1977, rebels, supported by the Republic of Somalia, captured a number of large settlements in Ogaden during successful battles with government forces. Then Mengystu turned to the USSR with a request for help. In early 1978, the Ethiopian army launched a counteroffensive. Fighting on the side of the rebels, the Somali army was forced to retreat. Following this, government forces launched a powerful offensive against the Eritreans, who, having lost control of the cities, continued to fight in the countryside. The Maoist People's Front for the Liberation of Tigray (PPLF), formed in 1976, gradually developed into a significant force and by early 1984 controlled most of the province. In the early 1980s, the Ethiopian economy, shattered by war, was also hit by a severe drought. In 1983, a terrible famine began in the country, which claimed more than a million human lives by the beginning of 1985.

To expand the support of the Mengystu regime among the masses, a new constitution was adopted in 1987, providing for the creation of a civilian government, but this did not help to contain the growth of discontent in the country. By this time, the Eritrean liberation movement was led by the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Eritrea (PNLF), which in 1970 separated from the OPF. In March 1988, the NLOE troops captured the headquarters of the Ethiopian army in Af-Abed. In 1989, the Eritreans helped NPLT capture the Ethiopian headquarters at Ynda Sillas, forcing government forces to withdraw from Tigray territory. Together with other smaller rebel groups, the NPLT created the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and by 1991 government forces were holding only Addis Ababa and its surroundings. In 1990, the NPOE troops captured the port of Massawa, and the following year, the last government military units in the port of Assab and the capital of Eritrea, Asmara, were defeated. In May 1991, on the eve of the capture of Addis Ababa by the EPRDF troops, Mengystu fled the country. The NPT leader Meles Zenawi became the interim president of Ethiopia. The leader of the NPOE, Issayas Afavorki, became President of Eritrea, and the new Ethiopian government had to recognize the de facto independence of this part of the country. In a referendum on the future of the country, held April 23-25, 1993 under the auspices of the United Nations, Eritreans voted almost unanimously to secede from Ethiopia. Eritrea was officially declared an independent state on May 24, 1993.

In July 1991, on the initiative of the EPRDF, a nationwide conference was held to discuss the political future of Ethiopia and the formation of a Transitional Government. As a result of its work, it was decided that a State Council, consisting of 87 representatives from 20 political groups and ethnic organizations, will be created to govern the country during a two-year transition period. The Council approved the leader of the NPLT, Meles Zenawi, as the head of the Transitional Government.

In 1991, by order of this government, the territory of Ethiopia was divided into 14 administrative districts headed by the local administration, endowed with limited powers in the management of the regions. Local elections held in April-May 1992 were overshadowed by allegations of misconduct by EPRDF members, who were the majority in the Transitional Government. The ethnic-based opposition Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) withdrew from the election and accused the EPRDF of intimidating its candidates. Together with its allies, the RDFEN received approx. 90% of the popular vote. Soon, members of the OLF, not wanting to put up with their secondary role, left the Transitional Government. Several other political organizations that previously supported the country's leadership spoke in favor of annulling the election results. In the following years, EPRDF was repeatedly accused of human rights violations and political repression.

In June 1994, national elections were held for the newly created Constituent Assembly, in which the EPRDF won 484 seats out of 547. The elections were boycotted by the OLF and the Amhara Democratic Movement, which was a coalition of about 30 opposition groups. The Constituent Assembly drafted a new constitution, which came into effect in December 1994. It provided for the creation of a federal government and administrative division territory of the country into nine autonomous states, which had the right to secede from Ethiopia. Under the new constitution, the country was renamed the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Instead of the Constituent Assembly, a bicameral parliament was introduced, consisting of 548 members of the Council of People's Representatives and 117 members of the Federation Council. Members of the lower house are directly elected and members of the Federation Council are elected at meetings of representatives from each of the nine states.

In May 1995, the EPRDF again won a landslide victory in elections for representatives of the nine state congresses and for the Council of People's Representatives. In August of that year, the legislative power of the provisional legislature was officially transferred to the Federation Council. Prolonged drought and sporadic ethnic conflicts continued to threaten the social and economic stability of Ethiopia.

Ethiopia in the late 20th century - early 21st century

In the summer of 1998, there was a sharp deterioration in relations between Ethiopia and Eritrea. After Eritrea's secession from Ethiopia in 1993, the border between the two states became the subject of constant disputes. In early June 1998, the Eritrean government announced its claim to an area of \u200b\u200bapprox. 400 sq. km in the province of Tygrai and sent troops there. Ethiopian aircraft raided the Eritrean capital, Asmara, and Eritrean aircraft bombed the Ethiopian city of Mekele. The number of killed and wounded on both sides reached several hundred people. All Eritrean citizens residing in Ethiopia were ordered to leave the country. In both countries, a general mobilization was announced. Attempts by the mediating countries and the Organization of African Unity to help resolve the border conflict have not yielded results. Since the summer of 1998, fighting on the Ethiopian-Eritrean border has either subsided or flared up with renewed vigor. At the end of February 1999, Ethiopia launched a large-scale offensive, during which it managed to recapture the area of \u200b\u200bBadme, previously captured.

The border wars with Eritrea in the late 1990s ended with a peace treaty: in June 2000, the parties signed an agreement to end the confrontation, and in December of the same year, an agreement on a comprehensive peace. According to the agreement, in April 2001, under the auspices of the UN, a temporary security zone was created in the border region of Ethiopia and Eritrea, where UN peacekeepers were stationed. A special commission created later was engaged in the delimitation of the border between the two countries. In April 2003, she made a decision on the demarcation of the border, with which the parties expressed their agreement in principle. However, in September 2003, Ethiopia appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to redefine the disputed border with Eritrea, including the Badme region, and the latter insists on the immutability of the already rendered decision of the UN commission. Thus, the peace process was again at an impasse. In November 2007, a geographic boundary was established between Eritrea and Ethiopia, but its final designation was suspended due to opposition from Ethiopia.

Literature:

Morett F. Equatorial, East and South Africa... M., 1951
Galperin G.L. Ethiopia: population, resources, economy... M., 1976
Modern Ethiopia. Directory... M., 1988
Tsypkin G.V., Yagya V.S. Ethiopia's history in the new and modern times ... M., 1989

Economic and geographical position of Ethiopia

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is located in the northeastern part of Africa.

Its north-western and western border runs with Sudan, northeastern - with Eritrea and Djibouti, in the east and southeast Ethiopia borders with Somalia, and in the south-west with Kenya.

Remark 1

Despite the availability of natural resources, the neighboring countries are poor, developing countries in Africa.

Until 1993, Ethiopia had access to the Red Sea, and after Eritrea withdrew from it, the access to the sea was closed.

Despite this, Ethiopia is close to the oil-rich Gulf countries.

Communication with the outside world is carried out by air transport. Regular communication has been established with Cairo, Khartoum, Lagos, Accra and others. There are international airports in Addis Ababa and Direawa. Internal lines connect up to 40 settlements.

In addition to river and sea transport, the country has all its types. Rail transport is poorly developed and is limited to only one line to Djibouti.

Having lost access to the Red Sea, Ethiopia used the Eritrean ports of Assab and Massawa.

After the conflict with Eritrea, the country began to use the port of Djibouti and the ports of the self-proclaimed state of Somaliland for foreign trade. True, this state did not last long and on July 1, 1960 it united into a single state with the former trust territory of Somalia.

The subsoil of the country has practically not been studied, and the extraction of mineral resources is carried out in small quantities.

In foreign economic relations, the volume of imports exceeds the volume of exports by 5 times. The main imported goods are crude oil and petroleum products, machinery and equipment, construction materials and chemical products, irrigation equipment, pharmaceutical products, and consumer goods.

Export goods include coffee, leather goods, oilseeds and legumes, livestock, meat products, cake, vegetables, and fruits.

The largest foreign exchange earnings are provided by coffee exports - 55-60% of the value of all exports.

The partners in the country's foreign trade are:

Saudi Arabia,
Italy,
Djibouti,
Japan.

Import partners - Italy, India, USA, China, Saudi Arabia.

Export partners - Saudi Arabia, Djibouti, China, USA, Italy, Netherlands.

Since 1967, the Soviet-Ethiopian company Efso Trading has been successfully operating in Ethiopia.

Remark 2

Despite the geographically favorable position, the country cannot yet derive economic benefits from this and remains today an underdeveloped African state.

Natural conditions of Ethiopia

The surface of Ethiopia is mainly elevated and mountainous, located in the eastern part of the African Plate and occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands, whose height is from 2000 to 3000 m.

The highest point of the country is Ras Dashen, 4623 m above sea level.

The plateau is crossed diagonally by the East African Rift, which stretches from northeast to southwest. In the north-eastern part of the country, the Afar depression adjoins the plateau, separated from the Red Sea by the Danakil ridge.

In the southeastern part of the country, there is the Ethiopian-Somali plateau.

The relief is characterized by high mountains with steep slopes, but with flat peaks, which are called "ambas" here.

The entire territory of the country belongs to the zone of high seismicity.

Most of Ethiopia lies in the subequatorial climate zone, hot and seasonally humid. June to September are usually rainy months, with occasional rainfall in February or March.

The dry season starts in September and lasts until the month of February.

In the northeastern part of the country, there is one of the hottest places on earth, the Afar depression, the climate of which can be classified as tropical. The temperature of the depression does not drop below +35 degrees.

The average temperature of the tropical zone is +27 degrees. Annual precipitation is less than 50 mm.

There are no precise long-term observations in the country, but there is evidence that precipitation in the mountains ranges from 1000 mm to 2000 mm in the south-west in the north.

The Ethiopian Highlands, its lower southeastern part lies in the zone of influence of the monsoons.

On flat areas, precipitation is less than 500 mm, with the exception of the Baro Valley in the southwest. It is in the path of humid summer winds from the Atlantic.

Sharp temperature changes are typical for the country. Average monthly temperatures in most of the highlands are recorded in the range from +15 to +26 degrees, with an annual precipitation of 510 to 1530 mm. There are night frosts high in the mountains.

Natural resources of Ethiopia

The country's mining industry is very poorly developed, therefore, only gold deposits, which have been actively exploited by Italian and French companies, since 1909-1941, are constantly being developed.

The mines produced ore with a gold grade of 10 to 30 g / t. Development in the 60s was discontinued because placer deposits were discovered.

Non-metallic minerals are mined, but in insignificant quantities - these are clay, sand, gravel, gypsum.

Iron ore and coal are mined and processed on a very modest scale.

There is information about significant reserves of hydrocarbons in Ogaden and Gambel, where geological exploration has been carried out since the late 1980s.

Table salt is mined, but it is not enough for internal needs.

Minor extraction of copper, sulfur, platinum, marble, mica, manganese, and cinnabar is carried out.

The country's water resources are represented by rivers. The densest river network in the Ethiopian Highlands.

In the Afar depression, drying up river beds are rivers without water. The main rivers belong to the Nile basin.

The main river of this basin is the Blue Nile (Abbay), which flows through Ethiopia for 800 km.

Also the rivers Baro, Takaze, Akobo belong to the Nile basin.

The Indian Ocean basin includes Ganale, Ouabi-Shabelle. Internal flow rivers - Omo, Avash.

Mountain rivers contain a great energy potential, which is gradually starting to develop.

Of the lakes, Tana is the largest, but shallow. Its depth is 4-7 m. The Blue Nile flows out of the lake. There are other lakes in the country.

Except for desert areas and highland areas, Ethiopia's soils are reddish in color. The color is the result of volcanic rocks that erode in hot climates with sufficient humidity. The reddish color is given by a special form of iron oxide.

In the higher parts of the highland, mountain-steppe and mountain-meadow soils are developed.

There are mountain chernozem-like, humus and fertile soils, they have been plowed for a long time.

Ethiopia is not rich in primeval forests, they are reduced or burned. In those places where forests are still preserved, represented by conifers, an amazing picture is observed - conifers are intertwined with lianas and ivy. The picture resembles a tropical forest.

The tropical zone is characterized by vegetation, the leaves of which fall during the dry season. Fig trees, acacias, and sometimes baobabs are common here. There are many fruit trees.

ETHIOPIA, the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a state in East Africa. The area is about 1221.9 thousand km 2. The population is about 37 million people (1988). The capital is Addis Ababa. Administrative divisions - 24 administrative territories and 5 autonomous territories. Official language - Amharic. The monetary unit is birr. Part of the OAE (since 1963).

General characteristics of the economy... Ethiopia is an agrarian country. About 86% of the working-age population is employed in agriculture, which gives 52% of the gross external product and 94% of export earnings (1988). The gross external product in 1988 amounted to 5.3 billion birr (industry accounts for about 16% of the gross external product). The share of the public sector in industrial production is 90%.

In the structure of the fuel and energy balance, 94% falls on oil and oil products. Length railways 1.2 thousand km, motorways over 18 thousand km (1987). Seaports - Assab, Maccaya.

Nature. Ethiopia is located in the eastern part of the East African Plateau. Most of the country is occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands (the highest point of the country is the volcanic mountain Pac-Dashen, 4623 m). A deep graben to the southeast of the highland separates the Ethiopian-Somali plateau from it (altitude up to 1500 m). In the north-east of the country, there is the Afar depression (from Lake Assale, 116 m below sea level) with small volcanoes along the edges. The climate in the northeast is tropical, the rest of the territory is subequatorial. Average monthly temperatures are 13-18 ° C, precipitation ranges from 150-600 (in the southeast) to 1500-1800 mm per year (in the center and in the southwest). Large rivers - Blue Nile, Atbara, Webi-Shebeli (Ouabi-Shebelle).

Geological structure. IN geological structure Ethiopia is distinguished by 3 structural stages: Precambrian basement, platform cover and Cenozoic rift complex. The Precambrian basement belongs to the Mozambican mobile belt of eastern Africa. It is exposed in the southern (Sidamo), western (Wollega, Gojam) and northern (Eritrea, Tigray) provinces of the country, small outcrops are known to the surface in the east. gneisses and migmatites of amphibolite, rarely granulite facies of metamorphism. and the overlying Early Proterozoic complex including quartzites. mica and graphite shales. marbles. The massifs are separated by fold belts of West Ethiopia and Adola, which are branches of the Red Sea Late Proterozoic fold belt. In the southerly direction, erosional cutting off of supracrustal complexes of folded belts takes place, turning into seams (sutures), soldering ancient massifs. Ophiolite associations (ultrabasites, gabbroids, amphibolites, metavolcanites), deep-water sandy-clayey sediments, calc-alkaline volcanic complexes are distinguished in the fold belts (they are associated with intrusions of diorite-granodiorite composition). Taken together, these formations, whose age is 800 (and more?) - 600 Ma, mark the Late Cambrian active margin in the east of the African continent. Multiphase deformation of volcanogenic-sedimentary strata (folding, flake-thrust structures with a western slope) occurred 700-500 million years ago and was accompanied by the mobilization of the ancient basement, migmatization, and intrusion of post-tectonic potassium granites. The folded belts are associated with sulfide copper-zinc mineralization of pyrite type, deposits of gold ores and rare metals.

At the base of the platform cover lie the fluvial and glacial strata of the Upper Paleozoic - Triassic (300-400 m thick), which are analogous to the Kappy system of Southeast Africa. These deposits fill erosional and tectonic depressions (the largest is the Ogaden graben in the east of the country). Above, there are clayey-carbonate coastal and shallow-water Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sediments. In the eastern part of the country (Ogaden), the section is supplemented by coastal lagoon deposits of the Upper Cretaceous and carbonate strata of the Paleocene - Middle Eocene. In the west (Central Basin), the thickness of the sedimentary cover is 1-1.5 km, in the east it increases, reaching a maximum of 5-6 km in the Ogaden graben (aulakogen), where industrial gas deposits are known.

The Cenozoic structure includes the Ethiopian and Somali plateaus, uplifted in the Pliocene-Quaternary, and the rift zone separating them. Plateau composed of Oligocene-Miocene basalts. crowned with volcanoes (Magazes, Pac-Dashen, Chilalo, Budd, etc.), the activity of which is associated with the early stage of rifting. The rift zone includes the Afar Depression and the Ethiopian Rift. formed over the past 15 million years. The Afar depression, which has a triangular shape, is filled with weakly alkaline and tholeiitic basalts. Within its limits, there is a triple junction of the Red Sea, Aden and Ethiopian rifts. The earth's crust in the Afar region is 2-3 times thinned; in separate expansion zones (axial ridges), a new basaltic crust builds up ("diffuse spreading"). The Ethiopian rift is a graben 500 km long and 50-80 km wide with stepped faults. It is filled mainly with tuffs and ignimbrites of alkaline rhyolites. to a lesser extent lake sediments. The modern expansion within the Ethiopian rift occurs in the axial zones, where fractured eruptions of basalts are observed, rhyolite stratovolcanoes are concentrated.

Seismicity. The territory of Ethiopia is characterized by high seismicity associated with processes occurring at plate boundaries. Earthquake foci are located in the axial zone of the Ethiopian rift and along the western edge of the Afar depression. Earthquakes are shallow, crustal, often with a magnitude of more than 5 (including the catastrophic earthquake in the Serdo village in Central Afar, 1969).

Hydrogeology. On the territory of the country, 5 groups of aquifers and complexes are distinguished: Precambrian crystalline rocks, marine sediments of the Mesozoic, Pliocene-Miocene trap basalts, Pliocene-Quaternary volcanics, Quaternary fluvial and lacustrine-fluvial deposits.

The underground waters of intrusive and metamorphic formations of the Precambrian are confined to the zone of exogenous fracturing (thickness up to 50 m) and to fractured zones of tectonic faults. The water depth is from 3-5 to 40 m. The flow rates of wells and wells do not exceed 0.7-1 l / s. The waters are fresh, less often brackish, the composition is HCO 3 - -Na + and SO 4 2- -HCO 3 - -Na + -Ca 2+. Aquifers in the Mesozoic strata are associated with fractured sandstones and Triassic limestones. Jurassic and Cretaceous. Well flow rates are 1.6-5 l / s, specific flow rates are 0.05-0.1 l / s. The waters are brackish (3-4 g / l), with depth the mineralization rapidly increases. Groundwater trap basalts are associated with fracture zones, tectonic crushing. as well as interlayers of agglomerate tuffs. ancient lake sediments. Permeability 10-5-10-6 l / s. The depth of water is from several m to 150 m. The water intake rates are 1.5-5.0 l / s, the specific flow rates are 0.12-0.16 l / s. The salinity of water usually does not exceed 1.5 g / l, the composition is HCO 3 - -Ca, or C 1 - - HCO 3 - - Na + - Ca 2+. Pliocene-Quaternary volcanic formations have similar characteristics with slightly greater water abundance (at a well depth of 80-100 m, their flow rates are 2.5-8.0 l / s, specific flow rates are 0.4-5.0 l / s).

In quaternary sediments the groundwater are confined to sand interlayers and lenses. sandy loam and loam. The water abundance of the rocks is motley, the flow rates of water intakes are from 0.5 to 5 l / s. Fresh water developed in mountainous areas and in the foothills. With increasing distance from the foothills, mineralization increases to 10-20 g / l and more.

Ethiopia has significant geothermal resources. concentrated in the Ethiopian rift zone. The total forecast resources are estimated at 3 trillion. GJ (which corresponds to 100 billion tons of standard fuel). High-potential (suitable for electricity generation) resources of individual hydrothermal systems amount to 0.6-5 billion GJ. Since the 80s. a program for the development of water resources is being implemented with the help of Soviet and other foreign specialists.

Oil and gas shows are established in Phanerozoic sediments filling the Ogaden, Central and Red Sea basins. The greatest prospects for prospecting for oil and gas are associated with the Ogaden Basin, where the only gas field in Ethiopia was discovered, Kalub. The thickness of the Upper Paleozoic and Cenozoic terrigenous and evaporite strata in the basin is estimated at 5000-6000 m. Gas inflows are obtained from Permian and Triassic deposits.

Gold ore is the main mineral that plays the largest role in the economy of Ethiopia. There are about 80 known deposits and ore occurrences of primary and more than 250 placer gold. Primary deposits of gold ores of low-sulfide quartz-vein type are localized along submeridional faults. Gold zones are a dense network of gold-quartz veins and veinlets that permeate the Upper Proterozoic metamorphic shales and intrusive rocks. Most of the primary deposits are located in the provinces: Tygrai and Eritrea (Hamazien, Daze, Ugaro, Cepoa), Wollega and Gojam (Tulu-Kapi, Chakorsa, Shirgelo, Ondonok, Odogodore, etc.). A large Laga-Dambi field was discovered in the Sidamo province. The total reserves of gold in the deposits of the bedrock type are estimated at 33 tons, including at the Laga-Dambi deposit at 28 tons with an average grade of 11 g / t. Placer deposits are located in the same areas as the primary ones. The total reserves of placers are 20 tons with a gold content of 0.17-1.77 g / m 3; reserves of individual deposits - from 0.3 to 3 tons of gold.

The reserves of copper, zinc and lead ores are concentrated in the pyrite-polymetallic deposits Dybarua, Addi-Rassi and Addi-Nefas, located near the city of Asmara. Ore bodies occur among the metamorphosed volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks of the Upper Proterozoic age. The largest deposit is Dybarua with total reserves of 320 thousand tons of copper. 560 thousand tons of zinc and 40 thousand tons of lead. with contents over 1%, 4.7% and 0.6%, respectively.

Platinum ore deposits are associated with the weathering crust on the Upper Proterozoic dunite massif (Yubdo deposit in Wollega province). Rare metal ores are confined to pegmatite veins and intrusions of Upper Proterozoic apogranites, beryllium, tantalum and niobium ores are found in the Wollega and Sidamo provinces, and beryllium in the Harege province. The reserves of rare metal ores have not been calculated, but a preliminary geological assessment allows us to consider the territory of Ethiopia as a large rare metal province.

The reserves of potash and rock salts are concentrated in the evaporite formation of the Pleistocene age, filling the Danakil depression (Dalol deposit). The layers of potassium salt lie among the strata of halite. the predicted resources of which are estimated at 3 billion tons. The upper layer with a thickness of 5-10 m is penetrated by wells at a depth of 43 to 215 m. Halite deposits with predicted resources of several billion tons are also known in the Dakhlak archipelago.

History of the development of mineral resources... The mining of gold ores in Ethiopia has been carried out since ancient times. In the south-west of the country, remains of ancient gold mining were found (galleries, pits for crushing and washing rocks, stone pests and hoes) dating back to the 1st millennium BC. In the Aksum period (1st century), salt production developed in the north of the Danakil desert and on the coast of the Red Sea.In 547, the Greek merchant Kosma Indikopyaov described caravans sent by the king of Aksum in the south of the country for gold and other precious metals.
In the 11-14 centuries. From the reports of Arab geographers, it is known about the gold and silver mines in the city of Muris (apparently in the south of the country), about the presence of iron, lead and copper ores in Ethiopia. European travelers in the 16-18 centuries mentioned the mining of alluvial gold in the provinces of Damot (on Lake Tana), Gojam and Tygrai, as well as attempts to develop deposits of silver, lead, tin and iron (near Axum and in the city of Bzgemdyr) ores. The mined rock salt was for a long time one of the main items of trade, which also served to pay trade duties. Salt bars (about 4 4 25 cm in size) were used as money until the 20th century.

In the 19th century. there was a small mining of iron ore deposits (mainly in the province of Bulga). In the middle of the 19th century. European experts discovered deposits of brown coal in the Wollega province. At the end of the 19th century. in the central regions of the country, gold-bearing sand was washed; tin and mercury (in the Somali mountains), saltpeter and table salt (on the coast of the sea and lakes) were produced in small quantities. At this time, foreign capital began to penetrate into the economy of Ethiopia, in the 20-30s. there were foreign concessions for gold and platinum mining.

Mining... General characteristics. The mining industry as a whole is poorly developed; its share in the gross external product accounts for up to 1% (1985). Only deposits of gold ores are constantly being developed, more occasionally deposits of platinum, etc. (Table 2, map).

The Ethiopian government attaches great importance to the development of the mining industry as one of the foundations for strengthening the national economy. The regulation of mining activities is carried out by a resolution of the Provisional Military Administrative Council, adopted in 1975, and by a law (1983), aimed at attracting foreign capital for the exploration and exploitation of mineral deposits under state control.

Gold ore mining... Deposits of gold ores (primary) were actively exploited in 1909-41 by Italian and French companies in the provinces of Eritrea and Tigray, where about 20 mines operated. Ore was mined with a gold grade of 10 to 30 g / t. In the 40s. the development of vein deposits declined sharply in the 60s. completely stopped. This is mainly due to the discovery and start of exploitation in 1936 of placer deposits in the Adola region (Sidamo province), which became the center of gold mining in Ethiopia. By the mid-70s. rich areas of the deposits have been worked out. Since 1978, semi-industrial production has been carried out in this area. Larger deposits are exploited using mechanized complexes with hydromonitors with a capacity of 1,000 m 3 of sand per day (Verkhnyaya Bore deposit), small dredges (Kalecha deposit); small deposits (for example, Sakaro) are developed by prospectors. The accumulated production in 1890-1986 amounted to 49 tons. The prospects for the gold mining industry are associated with the development of primary deposits, primarily Laga-Dambi, as well as the commissioning of an enterprise (with the involvement of foreign capital) with a capacity of 3 thousand tons of ore per day for the extraction of gold ores by the method heap leaching at the Severny site.

Extraction of other minerals... In Ethiopia, since 1926, prospectorial mining of platinoids from placers has been carried out (the Yubdo deposit); cumulative production by 1986 - 2.7 tons of metal. Prospects for increasing production are associated with an increase in reserves in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Yubdo field. Polymetallic ores in Ethiopia were mined in 1973-74 at the Dybarua deposit by a Japanese company. In 1974, 1.9 thousand tons of copper concentrate were exported to Japan. In the same year, during the hostilities, the mine was blown up. During the Italian occupation (1935–41), small quantities of brown coal were mined for local needs in the provinces of Wollega, Eritrea, and Shoah; kaolin in the province of Eritrea (Teramni and Addi Keyih deposits). In 1945-53, sulfur deposits were exploited (in the Shoah province and in the north of the Salt Plateau). Since 1920, artisanal mining of potash salt has been carried out in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Salt Plateau; in this area it is planned to build a plant for the extraction and processing of potash salts with an annual capacity of 1.5 million tons.

Ethiopia produces a small amount of non-metallic minerals: clay. sand, gravel. gypsum. In the country, 3 cement plants operate on local raw materials (in Maccaya, Addis Ababa, Dire Daua) with a total capacity of 180-200 thousand tons per year, which makes it possible to satisfy domestic needs for this type of raw material. Prospects for the development of the mining industry are associated with the industrial development of gas deposits (Kalub), tantalum raw materials (Kentiche), as well as potassium salts (1.5 thousand tons per year, Danakil region) and natural soda (up to 20 thousand tons per year, Lake Shala region ).

Geological Survey... Personnel training. Geological and mining work in the country is carried out by the Ministry of Mines and Energy, which includes the departments: mining, energy and water resources.

The training of national mining and geological personnel is conducted in Addis Ababa, as well as in universities, mainly in socialist countries.

http://www.mining-enc.ru

ETHIOPIA, the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a state in East Africa. The area is about 1221.9 thousand km 2. Population about 37 million (1988). The capital is Addis Ababa. Administrative divisions - 24 administrative territories and 5 autonomous territories. The official language is Amharic. The monetary unit is birr. Part of the OAE (since 1963).

General characteristics of the economy... Ethiopia is an agrarian country. About 86% of the working-age population is employed in agriculture, which provides 52% of the gross external product and 94% of export earnings (1988). The gross external product in 1988 amounted to 5.3 billion birr (industry accounts for about 16% of the gross external product). The share of the public sector in industrial production is 90%.

In the structure of the fuel and energy balance, 94% falls on oil and oil products. The length of railways is 1.2 thousand km, of motorways over 18 thousand km (1987). Seaports - Assab, Maccaya.

Nature... Ethiopia is located in the eastern part of the East African Plateau. Most of the country is occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands (the highest point of the country is the volcanic mountain Pac-Dashen, 4623 m). A deep graben to the southeast of the highland separates the Ethiopian-Somali plateau from it (altitude up to 1500 m). In the north-east of the country, there is the Afar depression (from Lake Assale, 116 m below sea level) with small volcanoes along the edges. The climate in the northeast is tropical, the rest of the territory is subequatorial. Average monthly temperatures are 13-18 ° С, precipitation is from 150-600 (in the southeast) to 1500-1800 mm per year (in the center and in the southwest). Large rivers - Blue Nile, Atbara, Webi-Shebeli (Ouabi-Shebelle).

Geological structure. In the geological structure of Ethiopia, 3 structural stages are distinguished: the Precambrian basement, the platform cover, and the Cenozoic rift complex. The Precambrian basement belongs to the Mozambican mobile belt of eastern Africa. It is exposed in the southern (Sidamo), western (Wollega, Gojam) and northern (Eritrea, Tigray) provinces of the country; small outcrops are known in the east. Massifs (Ethiopian, Sidamo), which stand out within the basement, are supposedly composed of an Archean complex, consisting of gneisses and migmatites of amphibolite, less often granulite facies of metamorphism, and the overlying Early Proterozoic complex, including quartzites, mica and graphite schists, and marbles. The massifs are separated by fold belts of Western Ethiopia and Adola, which are branches of the Red Sea Late Proterozoic fold belt. In the southerly direction, erosional cutting off of supracrustal complexes of folded belts takes place, turning into seams (sutures), soldering ancient massifs. Ophiolite associations (ultrabasites, gabbroids, amphibolites, metavolcanites), deep-water sandy-clayey sediments, calc-alkaline volcanic complexes are distinguished in the fold belts (they are associated with intrusions of diorite-granodiorite composition). Taken together, these formations, whose age is 800 (and more?) - 600 Ma, mark the Late Cambrian active margin in the east of the African continent. Multiphase deformation of volcanic-sedimentary strata (folding, flaky-thrust structures with a western slope) occurred 700-500 million years ago and was accompanied by the mobilization of the ancient basement, migmatization, and intrusion of post-tectonic potassium granites. The folded belts are associated with sulfide copper-zinc mineralization of the pyrite type, deposits of gold ores and rare metals.

At the base of the platform cover lie the fluvial and glacial strata of the Upper Paleozoic - Triassic (300-400 m thick), which are analogous to the Kappy system of Southeast Africa. These deposits fill erosional and tectonic depressions (the largest is the Ogaden graben in the east of the country). Above, there are clayey-carbonate coastal and shallow water and Lower Cretaceous sediments. In the eastern part of the country (Ogaden), the section is supplemented by coastal lagoon deposits of the Upper and carbonate strata of the Paleocene - Middle Eocene. In the west (Central Basin) the thickness is 1-1.5 km, in the east it increases, reaching a maximum of 5-6 km in the Ogaden graben (), where industrial ones are known.

The Cenozoic structure includes the Ethiopian and Somali plateaus, uplifted in the Pliocene-Quaternary, and the rift zone separating them. The plateaus, composed of Oligocene-Miocene basalts, are crowned with volcanoes (Magazes, Pac-Dashen, Chilalo, Badda, etc.), the activity of which is associated with the early stage of rifting. The rift zone includes the Afar Depression and the Ethiopian Rift, which were formed over the past 15 million years. The Afar depression, which has a triangular shape, is filled with weakly alkaline and tholeiitic basalts. Within its limits, there is a triple junction of the Red Sea, Aden and Ethiopian rifts. The earth's crust in the Afar region is 2-3 times thinned; in separate expansion zones (axial ridges), a new basaltic crust builds up ("diffuse spreading"). The Ethiopian rift is a graben 500 km long and 50-80 km wide with step-faulting sides. It is filled mainly with tuffs and ignimbrites of alkaline rhyolites, to a lesser extent with lacustrine deposits. The modern expansion within the Ethiopian rift occurs in the axial zones, where fractured eruptions of basalts are observed, rhyolite stratovolcanoes are concentrated.

Seismicity... The territory of Ethiopia is characterized by high seismicity associated with processes occurring at plate boundaries. Earthquake foci are located in the axial zone of the Ethiopian rift and along the western edge of the Afar depression. Earthquakes are shallow, crustal, often with a magnitude of more than 5 (including the catastrophic earthquake in the Serdo village in Central Afar, 1969).

Hydrogeology... On the territory of the country, there are 5 groups of aquifers and complexes: Precambrian crystalline rocks, marine sediments of the Mesozoic, Pliocene-Miocene trap basalts, Pliocene-Quaternary volcanics, Quaternary fluvial and lacustrine-fluvial deposits.

History of the development of mineral resources... The mining of gold ores in Ethiopia has been carried out since ancient times. In the south-west of the country, remains of ancient gold mining were found (galleries, pits for crushing and washing rocks, stone pests and hoes) dating back to the 1st millennium BC. In the Aksum period (1st century), salt production developed in the north of the Danakil desert and on the coast of the Red Sea.In 547, the Greek merchant Kosma Indikopyaov described caravans sent by the king of Aksum in the south of the country for gold and other precious metals.

In the 11-14 centuries. From the reports of Arab geographers, it is known about the gold and silver mines in the city of Muris (apparently in the south of the country), about the presence of iron, lead and copper ores in Ethiopia. European travelers in the 16-18 centuries mentioned the mining of alluvial gold in the provinces of Damot (on Lake Tana), Gojam and Tygrai, as well as attempts to develop deposits of silver, lead, tin and iron (near Axum and in the city of Bzgemdyr) ores. The mined rock salt was for a long time one of the main items of trade, which also served to pay trade duties. Salt bars (about 4.4.25 cm in size) were used as money until the 20th century.

In the 19th century. there was a small mining of iron ore deposits (mainly in the province of Bulga). In the middle of the 19th century. European experts discovered deposits of brown coal in the Wollega province. At the end of the 19th century. in the central regions of the country, gold-bearing sand was washed, tin and (in the Somali mountains), saltpeter and table salt (on the coast of the sea and lakes) were produced in small quantities. At this time, foreign capital began to penetrate into the economy of Ethiopia, in the 20-30s. there were foreign concessions for gold and platinum mining.

Mining... General characteristics. The mining industry as a whole is poorly developed; its share in the gross external product accounts for up to 1% (1985). Only deposits of gold ores are constantly being developed, more occasionally deposits of platinum, etc. (Table 2, map).

Gold ore mining... Deposits of gold ores (primary) were actively exploited in 1909-41 by Italian and French companies in the provinces of Eritrea and Tigray, where about 20 mines operated. Ore was mined with a gold grade of 10 to 30 g / t. In the 40s. the development of vein deposits declined sharply in the 60s. completely stopped. This is mainly due to the discovery and start of exploitation in 1936 of placer deposits in the Adola region (Sidamo province), which became the center of gold mining in Ethiopia. By the mid-70s. rich areas of the deposits have been worked out. Since 1978, semi-industrial production has been carried out in this area. Larger ones are operated with the use of mechanized complexes with hydromonitors with a capacity of 1,000 m 3 of sand per day (Verkhnyaya Bore deposit), small dredges (Kalecha deposit); small deposits (for example, Sakaro) are developed by prospectors. The accumulated production in 1890-1986 amounted to 49 tons. The prospects for the gold mining industry are associated with the development of primary deposits, primarily Laga-Dambi, as well as the commissioning of an enterprise (with the involvement of foreign capital) with a capacity of 3 thousand tons of ore per day for the extraction of gold ores by the method heap leaching at the Severny site.

Extraction of other minerals... In Ethiopia, since 1926, prospectorial mining of platinoids from placers has been carried out (the Yubdo deposit); cumulative production by 1986 - 2.7 tons of metal. Prospects for increasing production are associated with an increase in reserves in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Yubdo field. Polymetallic ores in Ethiopia were mined in 1973-74 at the Dybarua deposit by a Japanese company. In 1974, 1.9 thousand tons of copper concentrate were exported to Japan. In the same year, during the hostilities, the mine was blown up. During the Italian occupation (1935–41), small quantities of brown coal were mined for local needs in the provinces of Wollega, Eritrea, and Shoah; kaolin in the province of Eritrea (Teramni and Addi Keyih deposits). In 1945-53, sulfur deposits were exploited (in the Shoah province and in the north of the Salt Plateau). Since 1920, artisanal mining of potash salt has been carried out in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Salt Plateau; in this area it is planned to build a plant for the extraction and processing of potash salts with an annual capacity of 1.5 million tons.

In Ethiopia, a small amount of non-metallic minerals is mined: clay, sand, gravel, gypsum. In the country, 3 cement plants operate on local raw materials (in Maccaya, Addis Ababa, Dire Daua) with a total capacity of 180-200 thousand tons per year, which makes it possible to satisfy domestic needs for this type of raw material. Prospects for the development of the mining industry are associated with the industrial development of gas deposits (Kalub), tantalum raw materials (Kentiche), as well as potassium salts (1.5 thousand tons per year, Danakil region) and natural soda (up to 20 thousand tons per year, Lake Shala region ).

Geological Survey... Personnel training. Geological and mining work in the country is carried out by the Ministry of Mines and Energy, which includes the departments: mining, energy and water resources.

The training of national mining and geological personnel is conducted in Addis Ababa, as well as in universities, mainly in socialist countries.