Background
Situation on the eve of partitions
Map of the Commonwealth to the partitions
IN mid XVIII century Rzeczpospolita was no longer fully independent. Russian emperors had a direct impact on the election polish kings... This practice is especially vividly seen in the example of the election of the last ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stanislav August Poniatovsky, the former favorite of the Russian Empress Catherine the Great. During the reign of Vladislav IV (1632-1648), the liberum veto law was increasingly applied. This parliamentary procedure was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bequality of all gentry - representatives of the legislative body of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the Seim. Every decision required unanimous consent. The opinion of any deputy that any decision contradicted the instructions he received from the entire gentry of the county during the election, even if this decision was approved by the rest of the deputies, was sufficient to block this decision. The decision-making process became more and more difficult. Liberum veto also provided opportunities for pressure and direct influence and bribery of MPs by foreign diplomats, who actively used this opportunity.
Rzeczpospolita remained neutral during the Seven Years War, while it showed sympathy for the alliance of France, Austria and Russia, letting Russian troops through its territory to the border with Prussia. Frederick II retaliated by ordering the production of a large amount of counterfeit Polish money, which should have seriously affected the economy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1767, through the pro-Russian nobility and the Russian ambassador to Warsaw, Prince Nikolai Repnin, Catherine II initiated the adoption of the so-called "cardinal rights", which eliminated the results of the progressive reforms of 1764. A Diet was convened, which worked under actual control and on conditions dictated by Repnin. Repnin also ordered the arrest and deportation to Kaluga of some active opponents of his policy, such as Jozef Andrzej Zaluski and Vaclav Rzhevuski. "Cardinal rights" enshrined in law all practices of the past, canceled in the course of reforms, including liberum veto. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was forced to rely on the support of Russia to protect itself from the growing onslaught from Prussia, which wanted to annex the northwestern regions of Poland in order to unite its western and eastern parts. In this case, the Rzeczpospolita would have retained access to the Baltic Sea only in Courland and north-west Lithuania.
Repnin demanded freedom of religion for Protestants and Orthodox Christians, and in 1768 non-Catholics were equal in rights with Catholics, which caused outrage among the Catholic hierarchs of the Commonwealth. The very fact of interference in the internal affairs of the state caused the same reaction, which led to a war in which the forces of the Bar Confederation fought against russian troops, loyal to the king of forces and the revolted Orthodox population of Ukraine (1768-1772). The Confederation also appealed for support to France and Turkey, with which Russia was at that time at war. However, the Turks were defeated by the Russian troops, the help of France was insignificant and the forces of the confederation were defeated by the Russian troops of Krechetnikov and the royal troops of Branitsky. The weakening of the state was facilitated by the position of the old ally of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the Austrian Empire.
Having common borders with the Rzecz Pospolita, Prussia, Austria and Russia signed a secret agreement to preserve the invariability of the laws of the Rzecz Pospolita. This union later became known in Poland as the “Union of the Three Black Eagles” (a black eagle was depicted on the emblems of all three states, in contrast to the white eagle, the symbol of Poland).
First section
First Section (1772)
According to this agreement, Russia received Belarusian lands up to the Dinaburg-Pinsk-Zbruch line, the eastern part of Polesie, the Ukrainian regions of Podolia and Volyn. Territories inhabited by ethnic Poles came under the rule of Prussia: Danzig (Gdansk), Thorn, Greater Poland, Kuyavia and Mazovia, with the exception of the Mazovian Voivodeship.
Third section
Three sections of the union of Poland and Lithuania on one map
In Prussia, three provinces were created from the former Polish lands: West Prussia, South Prussia and New East Prussia. Official language became German, Prussian zemstvo law was introduced and german school, the lands of the "king's kingdom" and spiritual estates were taken away to the treasury.
The lands that came under the rule of the Austrian crown were called Galicia and Lodomeria, they were divided into 12 districts. German school and Austrian law were also introduced here.
As a result of the three sections of the Rzecz Pospolita, the Lithuanian, Belarusian (except for the part with the city of Bialystok, which went to Prussia) and Ukrainian lands (except for the part of Ukraine captured by Austria) passed to Russia, and the indigenous Polish lands inhabited by ethnic Poles were divided between Prussia and Austria.
As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon Bonaparte briefly restored the Polish state in the form of the Duchy of Warsaw under the crown of the Saxon king. After the fall of Napoleon in Russia, Prussia and Austria divided Poland again and created autonomous regions in the territories they conquered:
- Grand Duchy of Poznan (ceded to Prussia)
- Free City of Krakow (included in the Austrian Empire)
- Kingdom of Poland (ceded to Russia)
see also
- 4th partition of Poland
Literature
- Taras A.E. Anatomy of Hatred: Russian-Polish Conflicts in the 18th-20th Centuries. - Minsk: Harvest, 2008 .-- S. 832 p .. - ISBN 978-985-16-1774-2
- Konzela L., Tsegelsky T. Concert of the Three Black Eagles. Disputes about the partitions of Poland // Historians answer questions. - M., 1990.
- Stegny P.V. Partitions of Poland and diplomacy of Catherine II. 1772.1793.1795 .-- 2002 .-- S. 696 p .. - ISBN 5-7133-1152-X
- Malinovsky A.F. Historical evidence of the long-standing desire of the Polish people to join Russia // Notes and Works of the Society of Russian History and Antiquities, 1833. - Part 6. - P. V-X, 11-106.
- Soloviev S.M. Book. 16 // History of the fall of Poland // Op. - M., 1995.
- Cegilski T., Kadziela L. Rozbiory Polski: 1772-1793-1795. - Warszawa, 1990.
Notes
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Sigismund III died in March 1632 after 45 years of reign. The descent did not last long, as the country was threatened with war with Russia. Already in November, the eldest son of the deceased monarch Vladislav Vaza, who had long been considered the heir to the throne, was declared king.
After the death of Sigismund III king made an attempt to capture Smolensk and violated the truce. When Vladislav came to the aid of the Smolensk garrison, the Russian troops were in a vice and were forced to surrender. The king was fanned with military glory, and the peace concluded at Polyanovo (1634) confirmed the general conditions of the Deulin armistice: the rights of the Commonwealth to the Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk lands. Vladislav IV renounced the imperial title and claims to the Moscow throne.
One of the most important achievements of Vladislav IV in domestic politics was the settlement of relations between Christian denominations. He legalized the Orthodox Church and also observed the principles of religious tolerance towards Protestants.
The last years of the reign of Vladislav IV are "the happiest years of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Vazov, called" the silver age"Or" Vladislav's golden times. " Rzeczpospolita stretched over the largest territory in its history - approx. 990 thousand sq. km. The country lived in peace. Grain trade began to revive with Western Europe, which fell into decay due to the occupation of ports by the Swedes; the eastern borders of the country were settled faster, new palaces, churches and houses were built. The king and the tycoons patronized musicians, painters, artists, poets. The victories of Zhulkevsky, Chodkevich, Konetspolsky, won under Sigismund III, glorified in Europe their names and the Polish army, especially the cavalry. The rebuilt castle and the monument to the king's father - Sigismund's Column - added splendor to Warsaw, which since 1596 became the de facto capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
However, Vladislav strove for dynastic, diplomatic triumphs, and this ran counter to the expectations and needs of his subjects, who dreamed of peace. He decided to act at his own peril and risk, and the lack of mutual understanding between the monarch and society influenced relations with the Cossacks.
Conflicts have long been brewing on the southeastern borderlands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The peasants languished under the burden of serfdom, and the Orthodox resisted the spread of the Brest Union, which was not recognized in Ukraine. The Cossacks, whom they tried to equate with the peasants, protested against the restriction of their freedom.
All this, along with the refusal of the war with Turkey, which promised the Cossacks the expansion of privileges and rich trophies, served as the reason for the uprising, which was led by Bohdan Khmelnitsky (1648).
Riot cossack troops united with the peasant revolt against the landlords.
At this time, Vladislav IV died. Jan Kazimir, who led the Peace Party, was elected to the throne, but Khmelnytsky no longer wanted reconciliation. The military operations proceeded with varying degrees of success.
Khmelnitsky came to the conclusion that the complete independence of the Cossacks was impossible and faced a choice: whether to seek protection from the Commonwealth or from Russia. The Zemsky Sobor, convened in Moscow at the request of the Cossacks, adopted a resolution on the annexation of Ukraine to Russia. In Pereyaslav (1654) this decree was approved. The tsar included the territories captured by the Cossacks into his state, accepted the Cossacks into citizenship and partially left them with self-government.
The Pereyaslavl treaty became the reason for the transformation of the hitherto internal Polish-Cossack conflict into a war between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia.
The hostilities were interrupted by the Swedish invasion, and in such a situation a truce was concluded with Russia.
Khmelnytsky's successor, Yan Vyhovsky, advocated an alliance with the Commonwealth. In 1658, an agreement was signed in Gadyach that radically changed the structure of the Commonwealth: it was planned to transform it into a federation of three states - the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Russian principality.
Having received news of the conclusion of the Gadyach Union, the tsar resumed hostilities. Rzeczpospolita did not have enough strength to support the Cossacks in the fight against Moscow, and among the Cossacks, disagreements deepened between the supporters of Gadyach and Pereyaslav, the king and the tsar, between the foreman and the army. Yan Vyhovsky was forced to abandon the hetman mace. His successor, Yuri Khmelnitsky (son of Bogdan), placed himself under the patronage of Russia (1659).
In 1667, a truce was concluded in Andrusov, according to which the Rzeczpospolita abandoned the left-bank Ukraine and Smolensk region.
At a time when the Rzeczpospolita was fighting the Cossacks and Russian troops in the east and south, the Swedish invasion fell on it from the north and west. The Swedes occupied Warsaw and Krakow. A spontaneous partisan movement arose in the country. During the hostilities, they managed to recapture most of the Polish lands captured by the Swedes.
The wars during the reign of Sigismund III and Jan Casimir undermined Poland politically and economically.
The eighty-year period of the Vaz rule in the speech of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is full of contradictions. The states of Sigismund III are a huge country. Successfully developing, having outstanding politicians, military leaders, cultural figures, emerging victorious from battles with opponents. During the reign of Vladislav IV, the country lived in peace, its economy developed successfully. Jan Kazimierz left to his successors a country not only devastated by wars, but also internally split, in which the opposing groups, in a whirlwind of struggle for influence, posts and possession, often forgot about the interests of the state.
After the death of Jan Casimir, Michal Vishnevetsky was elected king - the son of the hero of the war with the Cossacks Jeremiah Vishnevetsky.
King Michal turned out to be too weak to rule on his own, and quickly became a pawn in the hands of ambitious and disagreeable opponents.
In 1672, the Turkish invasion fell on the Rzeczpospolita. The Turks occupied Podolia, the southeastern lands of Poland and approached Lvov. The critical situation was reversed by the brilliant victory at Khotin (1673), won by the Polish-Lithuanian army led by Hetman Jan Sobieski over the army of the Sultan. The victory at Khotin was not only a political triumph of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but also a personal success of Sobieski himself. He was soon elected to the royal throne. His candidacy was unconditionally supported by the entire gentry. In the face of the Turkish threat, Sobieski formed an alliance with Austria.
When the Turkish vizier Kara Mustafa in mid-July began the siege of Vienna, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having collected an army of 25,000, hastened to help. The united Austrian and Polish troops under the command of Sobieski won a decisive stay at the gates of Vienna on September 12, 1683.
Jan III died in 1696. August II was elected King.
August II did not intend to relinquish power in his native Saxony - an economically developed, wealthy country with a good administrative apparatus. As a hereditary duke, he had more rights there in relation to his subjects than an elected king in the Commonwealth.
He strove to strengthen his power, rule the Commonwealth as skillfully as his native Saxony, and make decisions on his own. This method of government, alien to Polish customs, displeased senators, ministers, the Diet and even those who put Augustus on the throne. The king tried to achieve his goals without interacting with his subjects.
August drew Rzeczpospolita into the devastating Northern War (1700-1721). The Commonwealth did not officially participate in the Northern War. However, battles were fought on its territory for the longest time.
At the beginning of the 18th century, the population of the Polish-Lithuanian state declined. All strata of society became impoverished, mainly peasants, bourgeoisie, small and middle gentry. The area of \u200b\u200barable land has been reduced by almost half. It was difficult to quickly restore the cities and revive their economy. The economic crisis was not so acutely felt by the large landowners - the magnates, but their incomes also fell sharply.
Compared to its neighbors, whose armies were many times larger, the Rzeczpospolita was almost defenseless. Russia, Prussia and Austria, taking advantage of the weakness of the Commonwealth, began to interfere in its internal affairs.
Wise wisdom from the bitter experience of the reign of Augustus II, the gentry decided to elect the king "Piast". Most of the votes were cast for Stanislav Leshchinsky, rival of August II in 1704-1709, father-in-law of the French king Louis XV. Russia, Austria and Prussia feared that Leshchinsky's ties with Louis XV would lead to an increase in French influence in this part of Europe. Therefore, they supported the candidacy of the Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus, son of August II, and achieved his election with a much smaller number of voters - under the cover of Russian troops, a few weeks after Stanislav had already been elected king. Leshchinsky's supporters were unable to prevent the coronation of August III.
August III, unlike his father, spent more time in Dresden than in Warsaw. The main principle of his policy was interaction with Russia and the priority of the interests of Saxony. The existence of the Commonwealth became a subject of bargaining between St. Petersburg, Vienna and Berlin.
One of the most powerful states in Europe in the middle of the second millennium - Poland - to XVIII century turned into a country torn apart by internal contradictions, into an arena of disputes between neighboring states - Russia, Prussia, Austria. Steel sections natural process development of this country.
The main reason for the crisis in which the Polish state stayed was the enmity of the largest Polish magnates, each of whom, on the one hand, strove by any means to and on the other, sought support in neighboring states, thereby opening their country to foreign influence.
It is worth noting that, despite the fact that Poland was a monarchy, the royal power was rather weak. Firstly, the king of Poland was elected at the Sejm, in the work of which Russia, France, and Prussia and Austria intervened throughout the 18th century. Secondly, one of the main principles of the work of the same Sejm was the "liberum veto", when a decision must be made by absolutely everyone present. One vote “against” was enough to flare up the discussion with renewed vigor.
For Russia, the Polish question has long been one of the most important in its foreign policy... Its essence consisted not only in strengthening its influence in this European country, but also in protecting the rights of the Orthodox population who lived in the territories of modern Ukraine and the Baltic states.
It was the question of the position of the Orthodox population that became the reason that caused the first partition of Poland. The government of Catherine II agreed with King Stanislav Poniatovsky to equalize the rights of the Orthodox and Catholic population, but a part of the large gentry opposed this and raised an uprising. Russia, Prussia and Austria were forced to send troops into the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which eventually gave the Prussian king Frederick II the opportunity to talk about the division of part of the Polish lands. The divisions of the Commonwealth have become an inevitable reality.
As a result of the first partition of Poland in 1772, the territories of eastern Belarus and parts of modern Latvia were ceded to Russia, Prussia received the Polish coast of the northern sea, and Austria - Galicia.
However, the sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not end there. Some of them understood perfectly well that in order to save their state, political reforms were necessary. For this very purpose, the Constitution of Poland was adopted in 1791, according to which the royal power ceased to be elective, and the principle of "liberum veto" was abolished. Such transformations were met with distrust in Europe, where the Great French revolution... Russia and Prussia once again brought troops into Polish borders and initiated a new division of the once mighty state.
In accordance with the second section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1793, Russia regained the right-bank Ukraine and Central Belarus, and Prussia received the Gdansk she so desired, which she immediately renamed Danzig.
Such actions of European states led to the beginning of the national liberation movement in Poland headed by T. Kosciuszko. However, this uprising was brutally suppressed by Russian troops headed by A. Suvorov himself. The third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 led to the fact that this state ceased to exist: its central part, together with Warsaw, went to Prussia, Courland, Lithuania and Western Belarus - to Russia, and Southern Poland with Krakow - to Austria.
The divisions of the Commonwealth in relation to Russia completed the process of reunification of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples and gave an impetus to their further cultural development.
That which is valid for the greater must be valid for the less.
Cicero Mark
In the period between 1772 and 1795, Russia participated in the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - a massive event in historical terms, as a result of which an entire state disappeared from the map of Europe. The Potša territory was divided among themselves by three countries: Prussia, Austria and Russia. The main role in these sections was played by Empress Catherine 2. It was she who annexed most of the Polish state to her dominions. As a result of these divisions, Russia finally became the largest and one of the most influential states on the continent. Today we will consider Russia's participation in the sections of the Commonwealth, and also talk about what lands Russia acquired as a result.
Reasons for the partitions of the Commonwealth
Rzeczpospolita is a state that was formed in 1569 by the unification of Lithuania and Poland. The main role in this alliance was played by the Poles, therefore historians often call the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Poland. At the beginning of the 18th century, Rzeczpospolita experienced a process of disintegration into two states. This was the result Northern War between the Russian empires and Sweden. Thanks to the victory of Peter I, Poland retained its existence, but fell into strong dependence on its neighbors. In addition, since 1709, monarchs from Saxony were on the throne in the Commonwealth, which testified to the dependence of the country on the German states, the main of which were Prussia and Austria. Therefore, Russia's participation in the Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth should be studied on the basis of ties with Austria and Prussia, which also claimed this territory. These 3 countries have been clearly and secretly influencing the state for many years.
The influence of the neighbors on Poland was especially pronounced during the election of the king in 1764, when the Diet elected Stanislav Poniatowski, the favorite of Catherine the Great. As for the further sections, this was not included in the empress's plans, because she was quite satisfied with a semi-dependent state, which was a buffer between Russia and the countries of Europe, which were ready to start a war at any moment. However, the sections did take place. One of the reasons why Russia agreed to the partition of Poland was the potential alliance of Turkey and Austria against Russian Empire... As a result, Catherine accepted Austria's proposal for the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for abandoning the union with Turkey. In fact, Austria and Prussia forced Catherine II to partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Moreover, if Russia did not agree to the conditions of Poland's western neighbors, they would begin the partition on their own, and this created a great threat in eastern Europe.
The reason for the beginning of the partitions of Poland was a religious issue: Russia demanded that Poland grant rights and privileges to the Orthodox population. In Poland itself, supporters and opponents of the implementation of Russia's demands were formed. The country actually began civil War... It was at this time that the monarchs of the three neighboring countries gathered in Vienna and made a secret decision to start partitions of the Commonwealth.
Course, milestones and result
Three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth went down in history, as a result of which the country ceased to exist.
First Section (1772)
After the secret treaty in Vienna, the countries moved to practical action. As a result:
- Russia received a part of the Baltic states (Livonia), the eastern part of modern Belarus.
- Prussia received the northwestern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth along the coast of the Baltic Sea (up to Gdansk).
- Austria received the lands of Krakow and Sandomierz Voivodeships (without Krakow), as well as the territory of Galicia.
Second Section (1793)
In 1792, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth carried out several reforms aimed at settling internal political conflicts, as well as an attempt to return previously lost lands. This caused discontent on the part of the Russian Empire, since in the future the Rzeczpospolita could declare war on it.
By joint agreement, Prussia and Russia organized the second section. As a result, Russia annexed a part of the Belarusian-Ukrainian woodlands, Volyn and Podolia (modern Ukraine). Prussia included Gdansk and part of the Mazovian Voivodeship.
Kosciuszko uprising
After dissatisfaction with the current international situation in Poland, in 1794 the Poles made an attempt to raise a national liberation uprising. It was headed by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the son of a distinguished Lithuanian nobleman. The rebels established control over Warsaw, Krakow, Vilnius and Lublin, that is, over the territory of the central and part of the northern Rzeczpospolita. However, from the south, the army of Suvorov began to move on them, and from the east, the army of General Saltykov. Later, the armies of Austria and Prussia joined, which increased the pressure on the rebels from the west.
In October 1794, the uprising was suppressed.
Third Section (1795)
Poland's neighbors decided to take advantage of the attempted uprising for the complete division of Polish lands. In November 1795, under pressure from his neighbors, Stanislav Ponyatovsky abdicated the throne. Austria, Prussia and Russia took this as a signal for the beginning of a new partition. Eventually:
- Prussia annexed central Poland, along with Warsaw, as well as western Lithuania.
- Austria incorporated Krakow, part of the area between Pilica and Vistula.
- Russia annexed most of modern Belarus to the Grodno-Nemyriv line.
In 1815, after the war with Napoleon, Russia, as a winner, achieved the transfer of the territory around Warsaw to it.
Poland partitions map
Historical consequences of the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
As a result, Russia's participation in the sections of the Posmolita Speech became possible due to the weakening of Poland, as well as internal conflicts the state itself. As a result of these events, Rzeczpospolita ceased to exist. It was revived only after the First World War. As for the results for Russia, it significantly expanded its possessions, however, at the same time, it acquired a big problem in the form of the Polish struggle for independence, which manifested itself in the Polish uprisings (1830-1831 and 1863-1864). However, at the time of 1795, all three participants in the sections were satisfied with the situation, as evidenced by the absence of conflicts and territorial claims to each other.
Additional information on the topic
Another problem of the Commonwealth, which led to the decline and further disappearance, was the system of political structure. The fact is that the main state body of Poland, the Sejm, consisted of the gentry - large landowners who even elected the king. Each nobleman had the right to veto: if he did not agree with the decision government body, then the decision was canceled. This could lead to the fact that the state organism could stop for several months, and in conditions of war or military aggression from neighbors, this could have tragic consequences.
An equally important reason for the divisions of the Rzecz Pospolita is the rapid strengthening of its neighbors. So, Prussia claimed the northern part of the Commonwealth, primarily the large port of the Baltic Sea - Gdansk. The Austrian Empire claimed to establish control over Central Europe; it was interested in the southern part of the Commonwealth, inhabited by Poles and Ukrainians. In addition, the alternative to the partition of Poland for Austria was a war with Russia, especially in the event of its possible expansion to the west. For this, the Austrians were even ready to conclude an alliance with their eternal enemy - the Ottoman Empire.