The lungs are the organs that provide human breathing. These paired organs are located in the chest cavity, adjacent to the left and right of the heart. The lungs are in the form of half-cones, with the base adjacent to the diaphragm, with the apex protruding 2-3 cm above the clavicle. The right lung has three lobes, the left - two. The skeleton of the lungs consists of treelike branching bronchi. Each lung is covered from the outside by a serous membrane - the pulmonary pleura. The lungs lie in the pleural sac formed by the pulmonary pleura (visceral) and the parietal pleura (parietal) lining the chest cavity from the inside. Each pleura on the outside contains glandular cells that produce fluid into the cavity between the pleural layers (pleural cavity). On the inner (cardial) surface of each lung there is a depression - the gate of the lungs. The pulmonary artery and bronchi enter the gate of the lungs, and two pulmonary veins exit. The pulmonary arteries branch out parallel to the bronchi.
Lung tissue consists of pyramidal lobules, with the base facing the surface. A bronchus enters the apex of each lobule, sequentially dividing with the formation of terminal bronchioles (18-20). Each bronchiole ends with an acinus - a structural and functional element of the lungs. Acini are made up of alveolar bronchioles, which are divided into alveolar passages. Each alveolar passage ends with two alveolar sacs.
Alveoli are hemispherical protrusions consisting of connective tissue fibers. They are lined with a layer of epithelial cells and are abundantly braided with blood capillaries. It is in the alveoli that the main function of the lungs is carried out - the processes of gas exchange between atmospheric air and blood. At the same time, as a result of diffusion, oxygen and carbon dioxide, overcoming the diffusion barrier (epithelium of the alveoli, basement membrane, wall of the blood capillary), penetrate from the erythrocyte to the alveoli and vice versa.
Lung function
The most important function of the lungs is gas exchange - the supply of oxygen to hemoglobin, the removal of carbon dioxide. The intake of oxygen-enriched air and the removal of carbonated air is carried out due to the active movements of the chest and diaphragm, as well as the contractility of the lungs themselves. But there are other lung functions as well. The lungs take an active part in maintaining the required concentration of ions in the body (acid-base balance), are able to remove many substances (aromatic substances, ethers, and others). The lungs also regulate the water balance of the body: about 0.5 liters of water per day evaporate through the lungs. In extreme situations (for example, hyperthermia), this figure can reach up to 10 liters per day.
Ventilation of the lungs is carried out due to the pressure difference. On inspiration, the pulmonary pressure is much lower than atmospheric pressure, due to which air penetrates into the lungs. On exhalation, the pressure in the lungs is higher than atmospheric.
There are two types of breathing: costal (chest) and diaphragmatic (abdominal).
- Costal breathing
In the places where the ribs attach to the spinal column, there are pairs of muscles that are attached at one end to the vertebra and the other to the rib. There are external and internal intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles provide inspiration. Exhalation is normally passive, and in case of pathology, the internal intercostal muscles help the act of exhalation.
- Diaphragmatic breathing
Diaphragmatic breathing is carried out with the participation of the diaphragm. In a relaxed state, the diaphragm is dome-shaped. With the contraction of its muscles, the dome flattens, the volume of the chest cavity increases, the pressure in the lungs decreases compared to atmospheric pressure, and inhalation is carried out. When the diaphragmatic muscles relax as a result of the pressure difference, the diaphragm returns to its original position.
Regulation of the breathing process
Breathing is regulated by the centers of inhalation and exhalation. The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata. Receptors that regulate respiration are located in the walls of blood vessels (chemoreceptors, sensitive to the concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen) and on the walls of the bronchi (receptors that are sensitive to changes in pressure in the bronchi - baroreceptors). There are also receptive fields in the carotid sinus (where the internal and external carotid arteries diverge).
Lungs of a smoking person
In the process of smoking, the lungs are hit hard. Tobacco smoke that penetrates the lungs of a smoking person contains tobacco tar (tar), hydrogen cyanide, nicotine. All these substances are deposited in the lung tissue, as a result, the epithelium of the lungs begins to simply die off. The lungs of a smoking person are a dirty gray or even just black mass of dying cells. Naturally, the functionality of such lungs is significantly reduced. In the lungs of a smoker, ciliary dyskinesia develops, bronchial spasm occurs, as a result of which bronchial secretions accumulate, chronic pneumonia develops, bronchiectasis is formed. All this leads to the development of COPD, a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Pneumonia
One of the most common severe lung diseases is pneumonia. The term "pneumonia" includes a group of diseases with different etiology, pathogenesis, clinic. Classic bacterial pneumonia is characterized by hyperthermia, cough with purulent sputum, in some cases (with the involvement of the visceral pleura in the process) - pleural pain. With the development of pneumonia, the lumen of the alveoli expands, the accumulation of exudative fluid in them, the penetration of erythrocytes into them, the filling of the alveoli with fibrin, leukocytes. To diagnose bacterial pneumonia, X-ray methods, microbiological examination of sputum, laboratory tests, and blood gas analysis are used. Antibiotic therapy is the mainstay of treatment.
Abasia - Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Abbreviation - Loss by a species in the course of evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogeny of traits or phases of development that were present in ancestors.
Abiogenesis - The emergence of living from non-living in the process of evolution.
Aboriginal - An indigenous inhabitant of any locality, living in it from time immemorial.
Avitaminosis - Disease caused by a long-term lack of essential vitamins in food.
Autogamy - Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.
Auto-duplication - The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.
Autolysis - Self-dissolution, decay of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.
Automixis - Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widespread among protozoa, fungi, diatoms.
Autotomy - The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.
Autotroph - An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or the energy released during chemical reactions.
Agglutination - 1) Bonding and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, erythrocytes and other cells. 2) Coagulation of protein in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.
Agglutinins - Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which the coagulation of proteins, adhesion of microbes, blood cells occurs.
Agony - The end point of life, preceding clinical death.
Agranulocyte - Leukocyte, which does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates, these are lymphocytes and monocytes.
Agrocenosis - Biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms, created for agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.
Adaptation - A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the effects of factors of the abiotic environment.
Adinamia - Muscle weakness, impotence.
Azotobacteria - A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.
Acclimatization - A set of measures for the introduction of a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.
Accommodation - Adaptation to something. 1) Eye accommodation - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly grows in strength.
Accumulation - Accumulation in organisms of chemicals that are in the environment in a lower concentration.
Acromegaly - Excessive, disproportionate growth of limbs and facial bones due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.
Alkalosis - Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Allele - Different forms of the same gene located at the same loci of homologous chromosomes.
Allogenesis
Albinism - Congenital absence of pigmentation normal for this type of organisms.
Algology - The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.
Amensalism - Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative effect from the suppressed one.
Amitosis - Direct cell division.
Anabiosis - A temporary state of the body, in which life processes are so slowed down that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.
Anabolism - Plastic exchange.
Analyzing cross - Crossing of the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygote for this trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test subject.
Similar bodies - Organs performing the same functions, but having a different structure and origin, the result convergence.
Anatomy - A group of scientific branches investigating the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the whole organism as a whole.
Anaerobe - An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.
Angiology - Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.
Anemia - A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of erythrocytes, the content of hemoglobin or total blood mass.
Aneuploidy - A multiple change in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes, in which one or more chromosomes from the usual set are either absent or are represented by additional copies.
Antheridium - The male organ of sexual reproduction.
Antigen - A complex organic substance that, when it enters the body of animals and humans, can cause a response immune reaction - formation antibodies.
Anticodon - A region of the t-RNA molecule, consisting of 3 nucleotides, which specifically binds to the m-RNA codon.
Antibody - Immunoglobulin of blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by cells of lymphoid tissue under the influence of various antigens.
Anthropogenesis - The process of human origin.
Anthropology - An interdisciplinary discipline that explores the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.
Apomixis - The formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of an embryo or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.
Arachnology - A section of zoology that studies arachnids.
Area - The area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the species.
Arogenesis
Aromorphosis - An evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of the organization, raising to more high level, morphophysiological progress.
Arrenotokia - Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by a queen bee.
Archegonium - The female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, lymphoids, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.
Assimilation - One of the sides of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which the accumulation of energy occurs.
Astasia - Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Astrobiology - The scientific industry dedicated to the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.
Asphyxia - Cessation of breathing, choking, oxygen starvation. It occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.
Atavism - The appearance in some individuals of this species of traits that existed in distant ancestors, but then lost in the process of evolution.
Atony - Intravital decrease in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Is accompanied by a violation or even termination of their functions.
Outbreeding - Crossbreeding of individuals of the same species, which are not directly related, leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.
Autosome - Any non-sex chromosome; a person has 22 pairs of autosomes.
Acidosis - Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Aerobe - An organism that can live only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.
Aeroponics - Growing plants without soil in humid air by periodically spraying the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, greenhouses, on spaceships and etc.
Aerotaxis - The movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to the oxygen source or, conversely, from it.
Aerotropism - Growth of stems or roots of plants in the direction from which oxygen-enriched air is supplied, for example, growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.
Bacteriology - A branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.
Carrier bacteria
Bacteriophage - A bacterial virus capable of infecting a bacterial cell, multiplying in it and causing it to dissolve.
Bactericide - Antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of other types of bacteria.
Baroreceptors - Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that perceive changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.
Bacillus - Any bacterium in the form of a rod.
Bivalent - Two homologous chromosomes formed during the division of the cell nucleus.
Bilaterality - Bilateral symmetry in organisms.
Biogeography - The scientific branch that studies the general geographic laws of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of vegetation cover and animal population of different parts of the globe, their combination, the floristic and faunistic division of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their constituent species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms ...
Biogeochemistry - A scientific discipline that studies the role of living organisms in the destruction of rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere.
Biogeocenosis - An evolutionarily developed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system, in which living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by a relatively independent exchange of substances and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.
Biology - A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study wildlife.
Biometrics - A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data by methods of mathematical statistics.
Biomechanics - A section of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.
Bionics - One of the directions of cybernetics, which studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the revealed patterns in solving engineering problems and constructing technical systems, similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.
Biorhythm - Rhythmic-cyclical fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the ability to adapt to changes in the environment.
Biosphere - The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms.
Biotechnology - A section of hunting management, exploring ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting grounds.
Biotechnology - The borderline between biology and technology, a scientific discipline and a field of practice that studies the ways and methods of changing the surrounding person natural environment according to his needs.
Biophysics - A scientific discipline that studies the physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cells, organ and organism as a whole.
Biochemistry - Scientific discipline investigating chemical composition Living creatures, chemical reactions in them and the natural order of these reactions, providing metabolism.
Biocenosis - An interconnected set of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of \u200b\u200bland or water.
Bifurcation - Splitting something into two branches.
Blastula - Single layer embryo.
Botany - A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of plants.
Bryology - The scientific industry researching mosses.
Vaccine - A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used to immunize humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.
Virology - A scientific discipline that studies viruses.
Carriage of viruses - Stay and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in humans and animals in the absence of signs of the disease.
Gamete - Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Gametogenesis - The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.
Gametophyte - Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.
Haploid - A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, resulting from reduction division.
Gastrula - The phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layered embryo.
Gastrulation - The process of gastrula formation.
Heliobiology - A section of biophysics that studies the effect of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.
Hemizygote - A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms with a heterogametic male sex (like humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of the genes responsible for any trait.
Hemolysis - Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.
Hemophilia - Hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.
Hemocyanin - The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrates, which provides oxygen transport in their body, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.
Hemerythrin - The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrates is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.
Genetics - A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of managing these processes.
Genome - A set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.
Genotype - The set of all genes obtained from parents.
Gene pool - The set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.
Geobotany - The scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and the impact on it, especially the finocenotic environment.
Geotaxis - Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.
Geotropism - Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of the force of gravity.
Geophilia - The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants to be drawn into or embedded in the soil for overwintering.
Hermaphroditism - The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.
Herpetology - A section of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.
Heterozygote - An individual that produces different types of gametes.
Heterosis - "hybrid vigor", acceleration of growth, increase in size, increased viability and fertility of the first generation hybrids in comparison with the parental forms of plants or animals.
Heteroploidy - A multiple change in the number of chromosomes.
Gibberellin - Substance that stimulates plant growth.
Hybrid - An organism obtained as a result of crossing.
Gigantism - The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the characteristic norm for the species.
Hygiene - A science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops disease prevention measures.
Hygrophiles - Terrestrial animals adapted to living in high humidity conditions.
Hygrophytes - Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excessive moisture.
Gigrophobes - Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.
Hydrolysis - The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.
Hydroponics - Growing plants without soil on aqueous solutions mineral substances.
Hydrotaxis - Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of moisture.
Hypertension - Disease caused by high blood pressure.
Hypodynamia - Lack of physical activity.
Hypoxia - Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, some diseases and poisoning.
Hypotension - A disease caused by a decrease in blood pressure.
Histology - Section of morphology, studying the tissues of multicellular organisms.
Glycolysis - Anoxic process of digestion of carbohydrates.
Hollandric sign - A symptom found only in men (XY).
Homozygote - An individual producing one variety of gametes.
Homeotherm - An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).
Homologous organs - Organs that are similar in structure, origin, but perform different functions, the result divergences.
Hormone - A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and has a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.
Granulocyte - Leukocyte, containing grain (granules) in the cytoplasm, protects the body from bacteria.
Color blindness - Hereditary inability to distinguish some colors, more often red and green.
Degeneration
Deletion - Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome is lost in its middle part; gene mutation, as a result of which a section of the DNA molecule is dropped.
Demecology - A section of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.
Dendrology - A branch of botany that studies woody and shrub plants.
Depression - Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species, caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activities; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decrease in vitality.
Defensive - Chromosomal mutation resulting in the loss of the ends of the chromosomes (shortage).
Divergence - Discrepancy of signs.
Dihybrid crossing - Crossing of individuals for two pairs of signs.
Dissimilation
Dominant feature - The predominant feature.
Donor - A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.
Gene drift - Changes in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random causes; genetic-automatic process in a population.
Splitting up - The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.
Duplication - Chromosomal mutation, in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.
Eugenics - Teaching about hereditary human health and ways to preserve and improve it. The basic principles of the teaching were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed to study factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, giftedness). But some ideas of eugenics were perverted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.
Preserve - A section of a territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.
Reserve - Specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve it intact natural complexes, protection of living species and monitoring of natural processes.
Zygote - A fertilized egg.
Zoogeography - A scientific branch that studies the patterns of the geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.
Zoology - A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.
Idioadaptation - The path of evolution without raising general level organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.
Insulation - A process that prevents the crossing of individuals of different species and leads to a discrepancy of characters within one species.
Immunity - Immunity, resistance of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances. Distinguish between natural (innate) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.
Imprinting - Firm and fast fixation in the memory of the animal of the signs of any object.
Inbreeding - Closely related crossing.
Inversion - Chromosomal mutation, which results in a rotation of its site by 180 °.
Insertion - Gene mutation, as a result of which a piece of DNA molecule is inserted into the gene structure.
Interferon - Protective protein produced by cells of mammals and birds in response to their infection with viruses.
Intoxication - Poisoning of the body.
Ichthyology - A section of zoology that studies fish.
Carcinogen - A substance or physical agent capable of causing the development of malignant neoplasms or contributing to their occurrence.
Karyotype - A diploid set of chromosomes in somatic (non-sex) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.
Carotenoids - Pigments of red, yellow and orange, found in plant and some animal tissues.
Catabolism - Energy metabolism, decay of substances, synthesis of ATP.
Catagenesis - The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of the organs of active life.
Lodging - Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms different types, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without harming the other.
Kyphosis - The curvature of the spine, facing the bulge back.
Clone - Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.
Commensalism - Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives one-sided benefit from the other, without causing harm to the owner.
Complementarity - Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.
Convergence - Convergence of signs.
Competition - Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to better and more quickly achieve a goal in comparison with other members of the community.
Consumption - Organism-consumer ready organic matter.
Conjugation - The convergence of chromosomes during meiosis; the sexual process, which consists in a partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.
Copulation - The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the connection of individuals of the opposite sex during intercourse.
Crossbreeding - Interbreeding of domestic animals.
Crossover - Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.
Xanthophylls - A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.
Xerophilus - An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficit.
Xerophyte - Plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, deserts.
Lability - Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, instability of the organism to environmental conditions.
Latent - Hidden, invisible.
Leukoplasts - Colorless plastids.
Lysis - Destruction of cells by their complete or partial dissolution both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogens.
Lichenology - A section of botany that studies lichens.
Locus - The part of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.
Lordosis - The curvature of the spine, facing the bulge forward.
Macroevolution - Evolutionary transformations occurring at the supraspecific level and causing the formation of ever larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).
Mediator - A substance whose molecules are able to react with specific receptors of the cell membrane and change its permeability for certain ions, causing the emergence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.
Mesoderm - Medium germ layer.
Metabolism - Metabolism and energy.
Metamorphosis - The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.
Mycology - The scientific industry researching mushrooms.
Mycorrhiza - Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.
Microbiology - A biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.
Microevolution - Evolutionary transformations within a species at the level of populations, leading to speciation.
Mimicry - Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species of poisonous and well protected animals from the attack of predators.
Modeling - The method of research and demonstration of various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.
Modification - Non-hereditary changes in the characteristics of the organism, which occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.
Monitoring - Tracking any objects or phenomena, including biological ones; a multipurpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecasting of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact in order to warn of emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. .d.
Monogamy - Monogamy, mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.
Monohybrid crossing - Crossing of individuals according to one pair of signs.
Monospermia - Penetration into the egg of only one sperm (sperm).
Morganida - A unit of distance between two genes in one linkage group, characterized by the frequency of crossing over in%.
Morula - The early stage of embryo development, which is an accumulation of a large number of blastomere cells without a separate cavity; in most animals the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.
Morphology - A complex of scientific branches and their sections, which studies the shape and structure of animals and plants.
Mutagenesis - The process of occurrence of mutations.
Mutation - An abrupt change in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.
Mutualism - A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.
Heredity - The property of organisms to repeat similar signs and properties in a series of generations.
Freelogging - One of the forms of useful-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from the other without harming him.
Neirula - The stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the lamina of the neural tube (from the ectoderm) and axial organs are laid.
Neutralism - Lack of mutual influence of organisms.
Noosphere - The part of the biosphere in which human activity is manifested, both positive and negative, the sphere of "reason".
Nucleoprotein - Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.
Obligate - Mandatory.
Metabolism - Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the process of life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and reproduce themselves in the environment, as well as adapt in it.
Ovulation - The release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.
Ontogenesis - Individual development organism.
Fertilization - Fusion of germ cells.
Organogenesis - The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.
Ornithology - A section of zoology that studies birds.
Paleontology - A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial.
Natural monument - A separate rare or remarkable object of animate or inanimate nature, deserving protection in terms of scientific, cultural, educational and historical and memorial significance.
Parallelism - Independent acquisition by organisms in the course of evolution of similar structural features based on the features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.
Parthenogenesis - Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.
Pedosphere - The shell of the Earth, formed by the soil cover.
Pinocytosis - Absorption of substances in dissolved form.
Pleiotropy - The dependence of several traits on one gene.
Poikilotherm - An organism that is not able to maintain the internal body temperature, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.
Polygamy - Polygamy; mating of the male during the breeding season with many females.
Polymerism - Dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes that are independent in action.
Polyploidy - Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.
Breed - A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and conformation.
Protistology - A section of biology that studies protozoa.
Processing - Chemical modification of substances (fermines and hormones), which are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.
Radiobiology - A section of biology that studies the effect of all types of radiation on organisms and how to protect them from radiation.
Regeneration - Restoration of lost or damaged organs and tissues by the body, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.
Reducent - An organism that converts organic matter into inorganic in the course of its life.
Reotaxis - The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of fluid or the location of the body parallel to it.
Rheotropism - The property of the roots of multicellular plants when they grow in a stream of water to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.
Retrovirus - A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, a reverse transcription process occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized on the basis of viral RNA, which is then incorporated into the host's DNA.
Reflex - The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.
Receptor - A sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.
Recipient - An organism that is receiving blood or organ transplants.
Rudiments - Underdeveloped organs, tissues and features that were present in the evolutionary ancestors of the species in a developed form, but lost their significance in the process phylogenesis.
Selection - Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.
Symbiosis - The type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.
Synapse - The place of contact of nerve cells with each other.
Synecology - A section of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationship with the environment.
Taxonomy - Section of biology, dedicated to the description, designation and classification by groups of all existing and extinct organisms, the establishment of relationships between individual species and groups of species.
Scoliosis - Curvatures of the spine facing right or left.
Variety - A set of cultivated plants of one species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.
Spermatogenesis - The formation of male germ cells.
Splicing - Process of editing i-RNA, in which some of the marked regions of i-RNA are excised, and the rest are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.
Succulent - Plant with succulent fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.
Succession - Consecutive change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in the species composition and structure of the community.
Serum - The liquid part of the blood without corpuscles and fibrin, formed in the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.
Taxis - Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a one-sided stimulus.
Teratogen - Biological impact, chemical substances and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms in the process of ontogenesis.
Thermoregulation - A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.
Thermotaxis - Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.
Thermotropism - Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.
the cloth - A set of cells and intercellular substance that plays a certain role in the body.
Tolerance - The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations from optimal environmental factors.
Transcription - Biosynthesis of i-RNA on the DNA matrix, is carried out in the cell nucleus.
Translocation - Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is an exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.
Broadcast - Synthesis of the protein polypeptide chain is carried out in the cytoplasm on the ribosomes.
Transpiration - Plant water evaporation.
Tropism - Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of any stimulus.
Turgor - The elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.
Phagocyte - A cell of multicellular animals (humans) capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.
Phagocytosis - Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or by special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I.I.Mechnikov.
Phenology - The body of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these terms.
Phenotype - The totality of all internal and external signs and the properties of the individual.
Enzyme - A biological catalyst, by its chemical nature, is a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.
Physiology - A biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.
Phylogenesis - Historical development of the species.
Photoperiodism - The reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in intensity physiological processes.
Phototaxis - Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.
Phototropism - Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by one-sided action of light.
Chemosynthesis - The process of formation of organic substances from inorganic by some microorganisms due to the energy of chemical bonds.
Chemotaxis - Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.
Predation - Feeding on animals that were alive until they were turned into food (with their capture and killing).
Chromatid - One of two nucleoprotein filaments formed during the duplication of chromosomes in the process of cell division.
Chromatin - Nucleoprotein, which forms the basis of the chromosome.
Cellulose - A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.
Centromere - The part of the chromosome that holds together its two strands (chromatids).
Cyst - The form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive adverse environmental conditions.
Cytology - The science of the cell.
Schizogony - Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; typical for sporozoans.
Strain - A pure single-species culture of microorganisms isolated from a specific source and having specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.
Exocytosis - Isolation of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of vesicles surrounded by the membrane.
Ecology - A field of knowledge that studies the relationship of organisms and their communities with the environment.
Ectoderm - The outer germ layer.
Embryology - A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of the body.
Endocytosis - Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.
Endoderm - Internal germ layer.
Ethology - The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.
From the first days of life, a person is inextricably linked with biology. Acquaintance with this science begins from the school desk, but we have to deal with biological processes or phenomena every day. Later in the article we will look at what biology is. The definition of this term will help to better understand what is included in the range of interests of the named science.
What biology studies
The first thing that is considered when studying any science is a theoretical explanation of its meaning. So, there are several formulated definitions of what biology is. We'll look at a few of them. For instance:
- Biology is the science of all living organisms living on Earth, their interaction with each other and with the environment. Such an explanation is most common in educational school literature.
- Biology is a complex of teachings that deals with the examination and knowledge of living objects of nature. Man, animals, plants, microorganisms - all these are representatives of living organisms.
- And the shortest definition is: biology is the science of life.
The origin of the term has ancient Greek roots. If translated literally, then we will have another definition of what biology is. The word consists of two parts: "bio" - "life", and "logos" - "teaching". That is, everything that has to do with life in one way or another falls into the field of biology.
Subdivisions of biology
The definition of biology will become more complete when listing the sections included in this science:
- Zoology. She is engaged in the study of the animal world, the classification of animals, their internal and external morphology, vital activity, relationship with the world, influence on human life. In addition, zoology considers rare as well as extinct animal species.
- Botany. This is a branch of biology related to flora... She studies plant species, their structure and physiological processes. In addition to the main issues related to plant morphology, this category of biology studies the use of plants in industry and human life.
- Anatomy examines the internal and external structure human and animal organisms, organ systems, interaction of systems.
Each biological section has a number of its own subcategories, each of which deals with the study of more narrow topics of the section. In this case, there will be several definitions of biology.
What biology studies
Since the definitions of biology say that this is the science of living things, therefore, living organisms are the objects of its study. These include:
- person;
- plants;
- animals;
- microorganisms.
Biology deals with the study of more precise structures of the body. These include:
- Cellular, molecular - this is the consideration of organisms at the level of cells and smaller components.
- Tissue - a complex of cells of the same direction is folded into tissue structures.
- Organ - cells and tissues that perform the same function form organs.
- Organism - a system of cells, tissues and organs and their interaction with each other, forms a full-fledged living organism.
- Population - the structure is aimed at studying the life of individuals of one species in a single territory, as well as their interaction within the system and with other species.
- Biosphere.
Biology is closely related to medicine, so its teachings are also medical topics. The study of microorganisms, as well as the molecular structures of living substances, contributes to the receipt of new drugs to combat various diseases.
What sciences does biology intersect with?
Biology is a science that has close interaction with various sciences in other fields. These include:
- Chemistry. Biology and chemistry are closely intertwined and inextricably linked with each other. Indeed, in biological objects, various biochemical processes continuously occur. A simple example is the respiration of organisms, plant photosynthesis, metabolism.
- Physics. Even in biology, there is a subsection called biophysics, which studies the physical processes associated with the vital activity of organisms.
As you can see, biology is a multifaceted science. The definition of what biology is can be paraphrased in different ways, but the meaning remains the same - this is the doctrine of living organisms.
1.3. Lungs.
The lungs are located in the chest cavity. They consist of lobes - in the right lung there are three lobes, in the left lung - two. The basis of the lungs is formed by the bronchi and bronchioles, which pass into the alveolar passages with the alveoli. The diameter of the air ducts gradually decreases. The ends of the smallest bronchial tubes end in clusters of thin-walled pulmonary vesicles filled with air. (Figure 4)
Fig 4. Pulmonary vesicles. (Scheme).
Their walls are formed by one layer of epithelial cells and are densely braided with a network of capillaries. Bubble epithelial cells secrete biologically active substances, which in the form of a thin film line their inner surface. This film maintains a constant volume of bubbles and prevents them from closing. In addition, film substances neutralize microorganisms that enter the lungs with air. The "spent" film is excreted through the airways in the form of sputum or is "digested" by the lung phagocytes.
With pneumonia, tuberculosis and other pulmonary infectious diseases, the film can be damaged, the pulmonary vesicles stick together and cannot participate in gas exchange. In smokers, the bubbles lose their elasticity and ability to cleanse, the film hardens from cigarette poisons. Fresh air, intense breathing during physical work and sports activities contribute to the renewal of the film lining the pulmonary vesicles. The pulmonary vesicles form a spongy mass that forms the lungs. The lungs fill the entire chest cavity, except for the area occupied by the heart, blood vessels, airways and esophagus. Each lung contains 300 - 350 million pulmonary vesicles; their total surface area exceeds 100 m 2, which is approximately 75 times the body surface.
Outside, each lung is covered with a smooth, shiny membrane of connective tissue - the pulmonary pleura. The inner wall of the chest cavity is lined with parietal pleura. The sealed pleural cavity located between them is moist and contains no air at all. Therefore, the lungs are closely pressed against the wall of the chest cavity and their volume always changes with changes in the volume of the chest cavity.
II. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.
2.1. Respiratory movements.
Inhalation and exhalation rhythmically replace each other, ensuring the passage of air through the lungs, their ventilation. (Figure 5) The change of inhalation and exhalation is regulated by the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. In the respiratory center, impulses rhythmically arise, which are transmitted along the nerves to the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, causing them to contract. The ribs are raised, the diaphragm due to its contraction
Fig 5. Inhale and exhale.
muscle becomes almost flat. The volume of the chest cavity increases. The lungs follow the movements of the chest. Inhalation occurs. Then the intercostal muscles and the muscles of the diaphragm relax, the volume of the chest cavity is reduced, the lungs are compressed and air is removed. Exhalation occurs.
With relative rest, an adult makes about 16 respiratory movements in 1 minute. In a poorly ventilated room, the frequency of respiratory movements increases by 2 or more times. This is because the nerve cells in the respiratory center are sensitive to carbon dioxide in the blood. As soon as its amount in the blood increases, excitement increases in the respiratory center and nerve impulses spread along the nerves to the respiratory muscles. As a result, the frequency and depth of respiratory movements increase. Thus, respiratory movements are regulated by the nervous and humoral pathways.
The growing body needs more oxygen, in addition, the working tissue absorbs oxygen. During sleep, a person absorbs 15-20 liters of oxygen per hour; when he is awake, but lies, oxygen consumption increases by 1/3, and when walking - twice, with light work - three times, with heavy work - six or more times.
2.2. The vital capacity of the lungs.
Gas exchange activity affects lung capacity. For an athlete, it is usually 1 - 1.5 liters more than the norm. And for swimmers it reaches 6.2 liters. The largest volume of air that a person can exhale after the deepest inhalation is about 3500 cm 3. This volume is called the vital capacity of the lungs.
The vital capacity is not the same for different people. It is determined during medical examinations using a special device - a spirometer.
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The lungs are the respiratory organs in which gas exchange takes place between the air and the circulatory system of living organisms. Lungs are found in mammals (including humans), reptiles, birds, most species of amphibians and some species of fish.
The unusual name of these bodies came about as follows. When people cut up the carcasses of animals and put the entrails taken out of them into a basin of water, then all the organs turned out to be heavier than water and sank to the bottom. Only the respiratory organs located in the chest were lighter than water and floated on the surface. So they got the name "lungs".
And after we briefly understood what the lungs are, let's see what the human lungs are and how they work.
Human lung structure
The lungs are a paired organ. Each person has two lungs - the right and the left. The lungs are located in the chest and occupy 4/5 of its volume. Each lung is covered with pleura, the outer edge of which is tightly adhered to the chest. Initially (in newborns), the lungs are pale pink. Over the course of life, the lungs gradually darken due to the accumulation of particles of coal and dust.
Each lung has lobes, the right lung has three lobes, the left two. The lobes of the lung are divided into segments (the right lung has 10, the left has 8), the segments consist of lobules (there are about 80 of them in each segment), and the lobules are divided into acini.
Air enters the lungs through the windpipe (trachea). The trachea divides into two bronchi, each of which enters the lung. Further, each bronchus is divided according to a tree-like principle into bronchi of a smaller diameter in order to supply air to each lobe, each segment, each lobule of the lung. The bronchus, which is part of the lobule, is divided into 18 - 20 bronchioles, each of which ends with an acinus.
Inside the acinus, the bronchioles are divided into alveolar passages, dotted with alveoli. The alveoli are braided by a network of the thinnest blood vessels - capillaries, separated from the alveoli by the thinnest wall. It is inside the alveoli that gas exchange between blood and air takes place.
How the lungs work
On inhalation, air from the trachea enters the alveoli through the network of bronchi and bronchioles. On the other hand, blood supersaturated with carbon dioxide enters the alveoli through the capillaries. Here the human blood is cleansed of carbon dioxide and enriched with oxygen necessary for the cells of the body. When you exhale, carbon dioxide is released from your lungs into the atmosphere. This cycle repeats countless times as long as the body continues to live.