Consider types, powers and role of popular assemblies Ancient Rome .
Types of popular assemblies of ancient Rome
During the period of the republic, there were several types of assemblies :
- curiate comitia (COMITLA CURIATA), which appeared during the primitive communal system. Following the reform of Servius Tullius, they lost political significance;
- centuria comitia (COMITIA CENTURIATA) represent the most important type of popular assembly that emerged as a result of the reform of Servius Tullius. This meeting elected officials (consuls, praetors, censors). The Centuriate Comitia passed laws, considered complaints from persons sentenced to death or heavy fines;
- tribute commissions (COMITLA TRIBUTA). The nationwide assemblies of the tribe were distinguished, in which patricians, plebeians and meetings of the plebeians of this tribe took part. In the first case, the decisions of the meeting were called populiscytes, in the second - plebiscites.
The powers of the popular assemblies of ancient Rome
National assemblies published rulings of various types and character. Already in the XII Tables there was a decree according to which any decision of the people's assembly must have the force of law.
Magistrate, before the formal introduction the bill in assembly of the people, estimated public opinion through preliminary interviews at private informal gatherings that he organized. Having clarified the attitude of citizens to the bill, the magistrate introduced it to comitia... By this time, the draft law has already been promulgated, usually on a wooden board in a public place.
In the meeting, the magistrate voiced the provisions of the bill. After that, he asked if the congregation was accepting him. After reviewing and discussing the project, it received it with the words: "UTI ROGAS", that is, "As you ask!" or rejected with the words "ANTIQUO", that is, "Let it be as before!". On initial stage voting had an oral form, and later with the help of tracing two letters on the tablets. Then the decision of the meeting was submitted to the Senate, which gave it its authority.
If the law was passed, then its text was carved on a copper or stone board and exhibited for public viewing on the square. The text contained an indication of the name of the author of the law, and at the end it indicated the sanction, that is, the consequences of a possible violation.
The role of popular assemblies in ancient Rome
Until the middle of the third century BC Rome was aristocratic republic, in which the most important role was played by senate... However, as the influence of the new nobility ( horsemen) there is some democratization of the state system, which is expressed in a change in the balance of forces between senate and people's assembly... There is a tendency to expand the competence and role of the People's Assembly by reducing the powers of the Senate.
During the years 241-222. BC assembly of the people is undergoing a reform process. As part of the change Constitution of Servius Tullius undergoes changes in that the number of centuries increases from 193 to 373, that is, for each category there are 70 centuri plus a certain number (23) additional centuri. Thus, the first category loses its majority.
Rome with colonies and allies subdivided into 35 districts or territorial tribes. They were required to provide a certain number of centuries to the army. From that moment on, the numerical superiority in centuriate comitia acquired middle property classes... Similar events took place against the backdrop of a confrontation between nobility and the so-called " horseback riding».
Popular assemblies were an important institution of power in ancient Rome. In the course of the development of his statehood, they took different forms. They were called comitia. Such assemblies made the primary state decisions concerning the internal and foreign policy... In addition, the comitia were a place where passions seethed between different classes that fought with each other.
The concept of comitia
According to the lexical meaning of the word, comitia in ancient Rome are popular assemblies. State laws stated that those events were called so that received legal status. That is, they were opposed to spontaneous gatherings of the population.
Comitia in ancient Rome are meetings that were organized by a magistrate to put to a vote any socially important issue. In this sense, this ancient phenomenon is very similar to the Slavic veche. However, this definition does not cover all types of comitia (there were three of them). The authorities could also organize a national assembly in order to simply announce one or another of their decisions.
The appearance of the comitia
Tracing the history of ancient statehood, it can be determined that the comitia in ancient Rome is, first of all, an institution that arose during the clan system. This feature is extremely important as it explains the mandate and structure of the assembly. The first to appear were the curia comitia, whose name came from the word “curia”. From the most ancient times, all the Romans were divided into these administrative parts. The basis of such a ranking was belonging to one or another genus.
Until the VI century BC e. the curiate comitia were the only ones in Rome. The established order was changed by King Servius Tullius. Before his reform, the right to vote in the comitia belonged only to patricians - representatives of the most noble and influential families of the city. This was due to traditions. IN latin the word "people" meant a collection of people with citizenship - that is, almost always influential patricians.
First National Assembly
The comitia to which the members of the curia were invited could be convened only by the ruler of Ancient Rome. If he was absent from the capital, and the authorities needed to know the opinion of the patricians, this function passed to the prefect. In addition to representatives of noble families, in the then Rome there was another important class. These were clients - free citizens who voluntarily passed under the patronage of their patron, thus becoming dependent on him. These city dwellers did not have the right to vote at the comitia, but they could attend as spectators.
The popular assemblies of the tsarist period had the important function of electing a new ruler. When the monarch died, the interrex was elected - an emergency magistracy. This was done by lot among the most noble citizens. Interrex, in turn, convened the comitia in ancient Rome. powers were to take place no later than five days after the death of the king. Finally, the popular assembly determined who was destined to become the next ruler.
Kuriat elections
The earliest comitia in Rome collected votes only from the curiae and not personally from citizens. Each genus had to make its choice after an internal discussion. The curia had one voice (there were 30 curiae in total in Rome). The news of the convening of the comitia was spread throughout the city by heralds or lictors - government officials who carried out important orders of the magistrate. Since there was no regulation that could somehow determine the course of universal suffrage, the classical lot was used. With the help of it, the queue was agreed upon on which the curiae spoke.
It is important to emphasize that the comitia of that time had no right to propose any initiative of their own. They could only accept or reject proposals from the authorities. Under the jurisdiction of the people, according to such a system, there was a decision on the election of kings and magistrates, the adoption of new laws, the declaration of peace or war, as well as the death penalty for the citizens of Rome. In the case of the determination of a new ruler, the candidates were selected by the Interrex. The curiae chose the priests (flamines) in the same way. That is, the comitia is also an instrument for regulating the religious life of Roman society.
Voting of the Centuries
Tsar Servius Tullius decided to get rid of the previous legislative order. He abandoned the curiate and created new - centuriate - comitia, in which the centuria became the main unit - military units in the first time plebeians received the right to vote - ordinary citizens of that They were equated with patricians. In order to vote, a man had to meet two requirements. First, only one who knew how to handle weapons could become an elector. Secondly, people from the plebs had to comply in terms of their well-being within the framework set by a special property qualification.
Thus, the centuriate comitia founded by Servius Tullius in the 6th century BC. e., were able to unite the disparate parts of ancient Roman society and smooth out the contradictions between them. In total, there were almost 200 centuries in the capital at different times. Each military unit took turns voting. When in one "camp" more than half of the centuries were recruited, the question was removed from the vote and an appropriate decision was made.
Functions of the Century Comitia
Since the centuriate comitia are primarily meetings on a military basis, they were convened in a special area where army exercises and gymnastics exercises were held. This was the famous Sign of the calling of the meeting and served as the battle red banner fluttering on the Capitol. The centuria comitia were an extremely important organ. They were the ones who passed most of the Roman laws. This popular assembly agreed on whether to declare peace and war on their neighbors. In addition, it considered court cases of citizens accused of
Until 287 BC e. most of the decisions in Rome were made by the centuriate comitia. The powers of this institution were curtailed following the Quintus Hortense Act. decided to oppress the rights of the plebeians, who, among other things, were also evicted on a separate Roman hill Janiculum. At the same time, new tributary committees were established.
New comitia
From 287 BC. e. the most important role in the life of Ancient Rome was played by tributary comitia, which were convened on a territorial basis. The already mentioned Servius Tullius divided his capital into thirty districts. They were named tribes, and later the corresponding comitia also began to be called.
Throughout its existence, this institution of people's power has gone through several of its reincarnations. At first, only local issues (tax collection and conscription) were within the competence of the tributary committees. Gradually, along with the strengthening of the influence of the ever-growing plebs, they received new powers. In the end, the centuriate comitia remained only as a body necessary for diplomatic interaction with neighboring countries. Tribal meetings have received an internal agenda.
Powers of the tributary committees
At a later stage in their development, the comitia began to influence lawmaking. They could send a resolution to the Senate, which he was obliged to consider on time. Most often, such requirements were taken into account when making important government decisions. After the Hortense Act, the tributary comitia finally received independent legislative power.
When in the 1st century BC. e. Roman citizenship began to extend to all free inhabitants of Italy, the institution of the popular assembly began to wither away. He finally disappeared under the Emperor Augustus.
Higher government agency was considered a popular assembly. It passed or abolished laws, declared war and made peace, was the supreme court of justice, which dealt with appeals and protests against decisions of the judiciary. The National Assembly elected all the highest officials, in whose hands all the executive power was.
In Rome, there were three kinds of popular assemblies of the comitia; before the reforms of Servius Tullius from the middle of the VI century. BC e. popular assemblies gathered only in curiae and were called curiae comitia. They were the only kind of popular assembly. However, the curiae were closed associations of patricians with strong vestiges of clan rule and did not include plebeians. Servius Tullius, whose role in the design of the Roman state is especially great, allowed the plebeians to military service and created the so-called centuria device. Due to the fact that in the V - VI centuries. BC e. the most important problems of public life gave rise to numerous wars, the struggle of patricians and plebeians, the importance in state life acquired assemblies of Roman citizens by centuri, which included both patricians and plebeians.
The centuria comitia were gathered by the highest officials - consuls - outside the city limits of Rome, on the Champ de Mars (Mars is the god of war). All Roman citizens exhibited 193 centuries, of which the richest - the first class - 98 centuri, that is, more than half. Voting took place by centuri, each with one vote. Votes were cast according to a strictly routine order: first, the first class centuria, then the second, third, etc. If more than 50% of the centuria voted for a proposal, the vote was terminated, and the proposal became law. With this voting procedure, all questions were decided by 98 first class centuria, that is, the richest part of Roman citizenship. The oligarchic character of the centurian assemblies displeased wide sections of Roman citizens; they fought for the democratization of the centuriate comitia and the fair representation of the centurias. In the second half of the 3rd century. to p. e. a democratic reform of the centuriate comitia was carried out. Previously, each class put up a different number of centuries and, therefore, had an unequal number of votes, now each of the five classes put up an equal number of centuries -70, and in total, Rome began to count 373 centuries (5 classes of 70 \u003d 350 + 18 equestrian centuries + 5 centuries artisans and proletarians).
In the process of the struggle between the plebeians and the patricians, assemblies of plebeians in territorial districts - tribes acquired an important state significance (Roman territory was divided into 35 territorial districts - tribes, 4 urban and 31 rural). Initially, the tributary assemblies consisted of only plebeians and met in opposition to the purely patrician assemblies of the curia. The strengthening of the political importance of the plebeians led to an increase in the state authority of the tributary plebeian assemblies. According to the laws of 449, and then 287, the decisions of the tributary plebeian comitia were recognized by law, binding for the patricians. Patricians also began to take part in tributary comitia, and this type of national assembly by the 2nd century. BC e. became the main and decisive one in the state. Tribute comitia, associated by their origin with gatherings of the plebeian masses, from the very beginning were distinguished by a democratic character. All 35 tribes had one vote regardless of the composition of the population and enjoyed the same rights. The democratic character of the comitia tributaries intensified after the reforms of Appius Claudius (end of the 4th century), according to which artisans and traders, always more mobile and restless people, could be attributed not only to the four urban tribes, but also to other rural tribes and thereby exert their influence to a wider mass of the population.
Despite the well-known democratization of the Roman people's assemblies and their broad competence, even the most democratic comitia tributes turned out to be an instrument in the hands of the aristocracy. The People's Assembly discussed only the issues submitted by magistrates and previously discussed in the Senate, that is, it did not have the right to initiate legislation. In Rome, there were several types of popular assemblies: curiata, centuria, tributary comitia. Their functions were not delimited clearly enough, which was used for their own purposes by the ruling elite of Rome, represented by the senate and magistrates.
In the course of the class struggle, there was a gradual merger of the wealthy part of the plebeians with the top of the patriciate. This process developed especially intensively in the second half of the 4th century, from the time when the plebeians gained access to the highest government posts, and, consequently, to the Senate. In fact, passive suffrage in Rome in early period republics could be used only by rich people. Firstly, master's programs were free, and this alone prevented the poor from taking them. No matter how modest the way of life of even the upper classes of Roman society in the 4th-3rd centuries was, nevertheless a certain wealth was required from the magistrate for "representation." Moreover, this concept was quite broad in Rome: officials not only had to live in accordance with their dignity, but many of them (ediles, censors) had to invest personal funds in public construction, organizing games, etc. secondly, the elections of the supreme magistrates took place in the centuriate comitia, where, as we know, the equestrians and the first property class enjoyed an absolute majority of votes. Therefore, they always sent candidates from their midst, that is, people of the rich.
In this way, a limited circle of wealthy families stood out from the patricians and plebeians, who held in their hands the magistracy, and through them the Senate. This closed group, jealously guarding its privileged position and not allowing "strangers" into its midst, was tied by family relations and thus was a hereditary ruling caste. Its representatives were called "nobiles" (nobiles - noble), and the whole group - "nobilitas" (nobilitas - to know).
The nobility was numerically small. About the number of ruling patrician-plebeian clans of the 3rd - 2nd centuries. the following figures can give an idea. Of the 200 consuls from 234 to 133, 92 were plebeians and 108 were patricians. Of this number, 159 consuls belonged only to 26 clans: 10 patrician and 16 plebeian. Representatives of the Cornelian clan, for example, occupied consular posts 23 times, Emiliev - 11 times, Fabiev - 9, Fulviev - 10, Claudius Marcellus - 9 times, etc. From this it is easy to conclude that during this period 26 Nobilian clans constituted the core of the ruling estates.
In keeping with the agrarian character of Rome, the economic base of nobility was land tenure. Trade and monetary transactions from the end of the III century. more and more go away from the nobles. into the hands of the so-called "horsemen" (this will be discussed further). Thus, we can define nobility as the rich agrarian-service part of Roman citizenship, as the ruling elite of the slave-owning class.
General character of Roman popular assemblies
In the Roman comitia there were many organizational issuesthat weakened their political significance. These moments were not accidental, but stemmed from the general undemocratic character of the Roman constitution. First of all, this must include the fragmentation of the national assembly. While, for example, in Athens, the ecclesia was a single organ for expressing the will of the people, in Rome there were two such organs (formally even three). Naturally, this reduced the authority of the people's assembly.
The open casting of votes in the comitia, which existed until the middle of the 2nd century, also operated in the same direction.
Each voter, passing through the narrow walkways, was questioned by a controller, who marked his voice with a dot on a special table. At election comitia, the controller put as many dots against the candidate's name as there were votes cast for him.
Only in the second half of the 2nd century. clandestine voting was introduced.
At the electoral comitia, everyone received a tablet (tabella) on which they wrote the names of their candidates; passing through the footbridge, he threw it into an urn (basket). At the legislative comitia, the voter wrote on the plaque either UR - uti rogas ("yes", literally - "as you suggest"), or A - antique ("no", literally - "I will leave it as before"). At judicial comitia they wrote on tablets A or L - absolvo, libero ("I justify"), or C or D - condemno, damno ("I condemn"). If the voter abstained, he had to write on the plate NL - non liquet ("not clear").
The popular assemblies in Rome did not have the right to initiate legislation. This means that no proposal (rogatio) could have come from the meeting itself. This last could only vote on proposals made by topics official, who convened and presided over this meeting. At the same time, the proposed proposals could not be changed or even discussed: the rogation text had to be accepted or rejected entirely. The discussion of issues related to this meeting took place at special meetings (contiones), convened before the comitia.
To these undemocratic moments in the organization of popular assemblies, it must be added that the centuriate comitia were based on the census principle, in which, even after the reform of the centuries in the middle of the third century, the superiority belonged to the wealthier elements. In the tributary comitia, 31 votes of rural tribes always prevailed over 4 votes of urban ones, which led to the predominance of the conservative rural population in the political life, moreover, less organized and therefore easily accessible to the influence of the reactionary land nobility.
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