Constructed languages \u200b\u200bare created for different purposes. Some are designed to give credibility to a fictional space in a book or film, others to obtain a new, simple and neutral means of communication, while others are designed in order to comprehend and reflect the essence of the world. It's easy to get confused in the variety of artificial languages. But there are several of the most "unusual among the unusual".
The elaboration and durability of each language also varies greatly. Some, such as Esperanto, have been “living” for several centuries, while others, having originated on Internet sites, exist through the efforts of their authors for a month or two.
For some artificial languages, sets of rules have been developed, while others consist of several tens or hundreds of words designed to demonstrate the singularity and dissimilarity of the language to others and do not form a harmonious system.
Lincos: a language for communicating with aliens
The language "lingos" (lingua cosmica) was invented for contact with extraterrestrial intelligence. It is impossible to speak it: there are no “sounds” as such in it. It is also impossible to write it down - it also lacks graphic forms ("letters" in our understanding).
It is based on mathematical and logical principles. There are no synonyms or exceptions in it, only the most universal categories are used. Messages on a linkos must be transmitted using pulses of different lengths, for example, light, radio signal, sound.
The inventor of the linkos, Hans Freudenthal, suggested establishing contact by first transmitting the main signs - a dot, "more" and "less", "equal". The number system was further explained. If the parties understood each other, then the communication could be complicated. Lincos - language initial stage communication. If earthlings and aliens wanted to exchange poetry, for this they would have to come up with new language.
It is not a "ready-made" language, but a kind of framework - a set of basic rules. It can be changed and improved depending on the task. Several lincos principles have been applied to codify messages directed to solar-type stars.
Solresol: the most musical language
Even before the surge in popularity of artificial languages, the French musician Jean François Südre invented the "solresol" language based on combinations of seven notes. In total, it contains about twelve thousand words - from two-syllable to five-syllable. Part of speech was determined by the position of the stress.
You can write texts on solresol in letters, notes or numbers, they can be drawn in seven colors. You can communicate on it using musical instruments (playing messages), flags (like in Morse code), or just singing or speaking. There are ways of communication in solresol, designed for the deaf and the blind.
The melodiousness of this language can be illustrated by the phrase "I love you": in solresol it will be "dore milasi domi". For brevity, it was suggested to omit vowels in writing - "dflr" means "kindness", "frsm" - cat.
There is even a Solresol grammar with a dictionary. It has been translated into Russian.
Ithkuil: learning the world through language
One of the most difficult in terms of grammar and writing is the language "Ifkuil". It belongs to philosophical languages \u200b\u200bcreated for the most accurate and fast transmission of large amounts of information (the principle of "semantic compression").
The creator of Ifkuil, John Qihada, did not set out to develop a language close to natural. His creation is based on the principles of logic, psychology and mathematics. Ifkuil is constantly improving: Qihada, up to the present day, makes changes in the language he constructed.
Ithkuil is very difficult in terms of grammar: it has 96 cases, and a small number of roots (about 3600) are compensated by a significant number of morphemes that clarify the meaning of the word. A small word in Ifkuil into natural language can only be translated with a long phrase.
It is proposed to write texts in Ifkuil using special characters - several thousand can be made from the combination of four basic characters. Each combination indicates both the pronunciation of the word and the morphological role of the element. You can write text in any direction - from left to right, and from right to left, but the author himself suggests writing a vertical "snake" and reading from the upper left corner.
Moreover, the Ifkuil alphabet is based on Latin. A simplified writing system is also built in the Latin alphabet, which allows you to type texts on a computer.
In total, this artificial language has 13 vowels and 45 consonants. Many of them individually are easy to pronounce, but in the text they form combinations with difficulty. In addition, ifkuil has a tone system, as, for example, in Chinese.
There is no joke at Ifkuil, no puns or ambiguities. The language system obliges to add special morphemes to the roots, showing exaggeration, understatement, irony. This is an almost ideal "legal" language - without ambiguity.
Toki Pona: the simplest artificial language
A large proportion of artificial languages \u200b\u200bare created deliberately simplified so that they can be learned quickly and easily. The simplicity champion is Toki Pona, with 14 letters and 120 words. Toki Pona was developed in 2001 by Sonya Helen Kisa (Sonya Lang) of Canada.
This language is almost the complete opposite of Ifkuil: it is melodic, it has no cases and complex morphemes, and most importantly, every word in it is very polysemous. The same construction can mean completely different things. For example, "jan li pona" is " good man"(If we just point to a person) or" a person fixes "(point to a plumber).
One and the same thing in tokipona can also be called differently, depending on the attitude of the speaker towards it. For example, a coffee lover might call it “telo pimaje wawa” (“strong dark liquid”), while a hater might call it “telo ike mute” (“very bad liquid”).
All land mammals in it are designated by one word - soweli, so a cat from a dog can be distinguished only by directly pointing to the animal.
Such ambiguity serves as the flip side of the simplicity of tokipona: words can be learned in a few days, but it will take much more time to memorize already established stable turns. For example, "jan" is a person. “Jan pi ma sama” is a compatriot. And the "roommate" is "jan pi tomo sama".
Toki Pona quickly gained fans - the community of fans of this language on Facebook numbers several thousand people. Now there is even a Tokikipono-Russian dictionary and grammars of this language.
The Internet allows you to learn almost any artificial language and find like-minded people. But in real life, artificial language courses are almost absent. The exception is groups of learners of Esperanto, the most popular international auxiliary language today.
And there is also sign language, and if someone finds it too complicated,
know - there is.
Esperanto is the world's most widely used artificial language. Now, according to various sources, it is spoken by several hundred thousand to a million people. It was invented by the Czech optometrist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887 and got its name from the author's pseudonym (Lazar signed in the textbook as Esperanto - "hopeful").
Like other artificial languages \u200b\u200b(more precisely, most of them) has an easy-to-learn grammar. The alphabet has 28 letters (23 consonants, 5 vowels), and it is built on the basis of Latin. Some enthusiasts have even nicknamed it "the Latin of the new millennium."
Most of Esperanto words are composed of Romanesque and Germanic roots: the roots are borrowed from French, English, German and italian languages... Also in the language there are many international words that are understandable without translation. 29 words are borrowed from Russian, among them the word "borsch".
Harry Garrison spoke Esperanto and actively promoted this language in his novels. Thus, in the series "The World of the Steel Rat", the inhabitants of the Galaxy speak mainly Esperanto. About 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, and four radio stations broadcast.
Interlingua (occidental)
It appeared in 1922 in Europe thanks to the linguist Edgar de Valle. In many ways it is similar to Esperanto: it has many borrowings from the Romano-Germanic languages \u200b\u200band the same system of building the language as in them. The original name of the language - occidental - became a hindrance to its spread after the Second World War. In the countries of the communist bloc, it was believed that anti-revolutionary ideas would creep in after the pro-Western language. Then the occidental began to be called interlingua.
Volapuk
The author of the language, priest Johann Martin Schleier, in 1879, God appeared in a dream and ordered him to invent and write down his own language, which Schleier immediately did. All night he wrote down his grammar, meanings of words, sentences, and then whole poems. The basis of Volapuk became german, Schleier boldly deformed the words of the English and French languages, reshaping them to new way... In Volapyuk, for some reason, he decided to abandon the sound [p]. More precisely, not even for some reason, but for a very specific one: it seemed to him that this sound would cause difficulties for the Chinese, who decided to learn Volapuk.
The language became quite popular at first due to its simplicity. It published 25 magazines, wrote 316 textbooks in 25 languages \u200b\u200band operated 283 clubs. For one person, Volapyuk even became a native language - this is the daughter of Professor Henry Conn of Volapuk (unfortunately, nothing is known about her life).
Gradually, interest in the language began to decline, but in 1931 a group of Volapukists led by the scholar Ari de Jong carried out a reform of the language, and for a while its popularity increased again. But then the Nazis came to power and banned all foreign languages \u200b\u200bin Europe. Today in the world there are only two to three dozen people speaking Volapuk. However, Wikipedia has a section written in Volapuk.
Loglan
Linguist John Cook invented log ical lan guage in 1955 as an alternative to conventional, "imperfect" languages. And suddenly the language that was created mostly for scientific research, has found its fans. Still would! After all, it does not have such concepts as tense for verbs or number for nouns. It is assumed that this is already clear to the interlocutors from the context of the conversation. But there are a lot of interjections in the language, with the help of which it is supposed to express shades of emotions. There are about twenty of them, and they represent the spectrum of feelings from love to hate. And they sound like this: yiwu! (love), yeah! (surprise), yi! (happiness) etc. Also, there are no commas or other punctuation marks. Miracle, not language!
Ro
Designed by Ohio Priest Edward Foster. Immediately after its appearance, the language became very popular: in the first years, even two newspapers were published, manuals and dictionaries were published. Foster managed to get a grant from the Association for the International Auxiliary Language. The main feature of the Ro language: words were built according to a categorical scheme. For example, red is bofoc, yellow is bofof, orange is bofod. The disadvantage of such a system: it is almost impossible to distinguish words by ear. This is probably why the language did not arouse much interest in the public.
Solresol
It appeared in 1817. The creator of the French Jean François Sudre believed that everything in the world can be explained with the help of notes. Language, in fact, consists of them. It has a total of 2,660 words: 7 monosyllables, 49 dissyllabic, 336 trisyllabic, and 2268 four-syllable. To indicate opposite concepts, mirroring of the word is used: falya is good, lyafa is bad.
Solresol had several scripts. It was possible to communicate on it by writing down notes on the staff, the names of the notes, the first seven digits of the Arabic script, the first letters of the Latin alphabet, special shorthand symbols and the colors of the rainbow. Accordingly, it was possible to communicate in Solresol not only by pronunciation of words, but also by playing a musical instrument or singing, as well as in the language of the deaf and dumb.
The language has found a lot of fans, including among famous people... Famous followers of Solresol were, for example, Victor Hugo, Alexander Humboldt, Lamartine.
Languages \u200b\u200binvented by linguistic writers and other personalities so that life is not boring.
1. Baronne (アーヴ語 ) Is the fictional Av language in Hiroyuki Morioka's Seikai no Saga series. in the genre of "space opera". Several anime series were shot and manga was published about the motives of the novels. The scene is the planet Martin, there are two big empires - the Avov Human Empire and the United Humanity. The Baronne bears some resemblance to Old Japanese, but only has a phonetic alphabet. The Baron's primary source arose as an attempt to cleanse japanese language from foreign borrowings. The alphabet was compiled for the recording of the baron baron: ath, "at", "letter". For example, the word "Takamagahara" (高天原 ) - the upper, heavenly world, the dwelling place of the heavenly gods, in the process of the development of the baron passed the forms "tacmgahar" and "lacmhacar" until it turned into Lacmhacarh, the name of the capital of the Human Empire of Avs.
2. Languages \u200b\u200bof Middle-earth , invented by the English writer and linguist J. Tolkien (John Ronald Reuel Tolkien):
Valarin- the proto-language of Middle-earth, had, according to legend, influence on all major languages.
a) Quenya (Quenya). Tolkien began working on this language in 1915. Finnish served as the basis for the construction of this language; in addition, Tolkien borrowed some of the phonetics and spelling from Latin and Greek. In parallel with the development of the Quenya language, Tolkien described the people who spoke this language - the Eldar, or elves, as well as the history, land and world in which they could speak it - Middle-earth. During the times described in The Lord of the Rings, Quenya fell out of everyday use, and took about the same place in the culture of Middle-earth as Latin did in medieval European culture.
"Sin macil Elessarwa" - (This is the sword of Elessar (Aragorn)).
In 2004, after the release of the last episode of The Lord of the Rings movie, the Elvish language was officially taught to schoolchildren in Birmingham's Terves Green School for Boys in the UK.
b) Sindarin(Sindarin) - the most common language of the elves. The language of the Teleri tribe, which did not reach the immortal lands of Haman and remained in Middle-earth.
"Iaurivelllawthinnatha" (Not everyone weakens under the yoke of years).
The Sindarin script uses the Tengwar alphabet.
Tengvar - this is plural Quenya "tengwa", which means "sign", "symbol" For vowels, most variants use superscripts vowels - tehtar.
c) Khuzdul (Khuzdul or Khuzdûl - the language of the gnomes. According to the legend described in the book "The Silmarillion", Khuzdul invented Aule, one of the Valar - angels of Eru Iluvatar. Aule created the gnomes out of stone and began to teach them the language he invented for them. of how the Children of Eru - elves and humans - came to Middle-earth.The basic structure of Khuzdul is similar to that of the Semitic languages. Khuzdul is used mainly in geographical names... One of the few phrases spoken in Khuzdul is Gimli's battle cry:
"Baruk Khazad! Khazad ai-menu!" (Axes of the Dwarfs! The Dwarfs are (coming) at you!)
Kirt, Kerthar - the alphabet invented by Tolkien for the artificial languages \u200b\u200bhe created. Many Kirt signs are similar to the Futhark runes, but only a few vowels have the same sound meaning. Subsequently, it was almost supplanted by the Tengwar, the dwarves adapted Kerthar for their language, and the simpler, earlier form of Kerthar was adopted by various peoples of humans and orcs.
d) Ents language - differs in slowness and numerous repetitions, based on complex and varied shades of vowel pronunciation and a variety of tone differences. "Laurelindorenan lindelorendor malinornelion ornemalin"(Only outside Laurelindorenan (Lothlorien), in my opinion, leaves fall more often).
e) Black dialect - an artificial language, according to legend, created by Sauron for his servants instead of the numerous dialects of orcs and other subordinate tribes. There was an archaic "high" form of the language used by the Nazgулыl, and a more simplified form used by the army of Barad-Dur. According to the historian-orientalist A.A.Nemirovsky, this language is the Hurrian language.
The inscription on the Ring of Omnipotence:
Ash nazg durbatulûk,
ash nazg gimbatul,
ash nazg thrakatulûk,
agh burzum-ishi krimpatul.
One ring to rule them all
One ring to track them down
One ring to bring them down
Into endless darkness.
e) Westron - a common language. Humble old english language.
3. Languages \u200b\u200bof music groups:
Magma Is a French rock band formed in 1969. The group is famous for the creation of a new direction of progressive music called "zoil-prog" (Zeuhl prog), the invention of the legend of a non-existent alien race and their language - Kobaïan (kobay), on which 10 albums of the group were sung. Based on Slavic and Scandinavian languages.The trilogy came out the most euphonious -Theusz Hamtaahk.
Some words: apocalypse - emgalai, people -blum, speech - bradia, a life - dihhel, hypocrisy - dreiak.
Koenji
Hyakkei
- a wonderful Japanese group (one song will be presented below) - followers of the "zoil-prog" direction, they also sing in Kobai. Yoshida Tatsuya吉田達也
- its genius, as they say, the creator.
Moëvöt - Black Metal / Black Ambient - a group from France, many dubbed it satanic, to which the participants did not really mind, they sing in a demonic language similar to a black dialect. The songs are titled like this: Abgzvoryathre, Voekreb,Zurghtapr.
4. Drow language - the name of the language of the dark elves-drow (aka Ilyithiri) from the universe of the Forgotten Realms. Invented by writer and game developer Ed Greenwood for the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D), also present in other fantasy games such asBaldur's Gate. Drow are a powerful and arrogant dark-skinned race that lives in underground cities. These people are notorious for their cruelty, treachery and internecine wars. Most drow profess the bloody cult of the spider goddess Lolth.(Lolth, Llot). The Drow language is one of the many fictional dialects of Elvish. In the Drow language, there are 23 terms for cave, 7 for the type of water found in the Underdark, 11 for radiation (or radiation in the Underdark), and 1,284 terms are synonymous with torture. In the drow language, words such as selflessness, compassion, and fun are not found, since these concepts are completely incomprehensible and alien to the dark elves.
« A’ quarthusa’ lilMzilstMallaNedylene, Valsharessd’ lilIlythiirid’ Rilauven» (By order of Most Honored Nedilen, drow queen of Rylauven).
5. Klingon language (tlhIngan Hol) - developed for the fantasy series "Star Trek" by linguist Mark Okrand, supplemented with a dictionary and other materials.When creating the language, Mark Okrand combined elements of the Indian languages \u200b\u200bfamiliar to him from the university North America and Sanskrit.For and after the series, several Klingon writing systems were developed based on features of Tibetan writing.
"Heghlu" meH QaQ jajvam " (Today is a good day to die.)
6. Simlish (Simlish) — language designed for games SimCopter, SimCity 4, The Sims, The Sims 2and The Sims 3. The Sims development team created the language by experimenting with broken French, Latin, Finnish and Ukrainian, Tagalog and Navajo. A number of bands and singers have performed compositions from their repertoire in Simlic, including Depeche Mode, Katy Perry, Lily Allen and others.
"Awasa poa" (I'm bored). One of the suggested alphabets:
7 divine language ( Divinian) - Leelu's tongue from The Fifth Element.The language was invented by Luc Besson and greatly enriched by Mila Jovovich.There are only 400 words in the language dictionary. Slavyansk mixwow, semitic , French, Sanskrit, etc.
"Seddan akta gamat" (Never without my permission).
8.Na'vi ( na'vi - "people")- developed by professional linguist Paul Frommer commissioned by James Cameron's production for James Cameron's film "Avatar". The native speakers of the Na'vi language are the blue-skinned three-meter humanoids of the planet Pandora, whose atmosphere is poisonous to humans. In its structure, the Na'vi language resembles the Papuan and Australian languages, and in sounding it is closer to the German and Polynesian languages.
1 Oeri ta peyä fahew akewong ontu teya längu. (My nose smelled its foreign smell)
2 Fì skxawngì ritsap’ alutesengioe. (I apologize for this fool)
3 Oel ngati kameie.(I see you )
4 Txo new nga rivey, oehu! (Come with me if you want to live)
5 Eywa (God of the race Pandora)
6 tiftia kifkeyä (The science)
9. Senior Speech (Starsza Mowa , Hen Llinge) is a runic language, which is spoken in the works of the cycle "The Witcher" by Andrzej Sapkowski, the language of the ancient people of the Sid elves. The language is based on English, French, Welsh, Irish and Latin.
"Duttaean aef cirran Caerme Glaeddyv. Yn a esseath " (The sword of destination has two points. One is you.)
10. Salresol Is an international language based on the names of the seven notes of the diatonic scale. It was invented by the Frenchman Jean François Sudre in 1817.All words are composed of the names of 7 notes in various combinations. Thus, the language has 7 monosyllabic words, 49 two-syllable words, 336 three-syllable and 2268 four-syllable (total of 2660 words). Sudra's project, oddly enough, has earned multiple approvals from various commissions Paris Academy sciences and numerous scientific societies, received a prize of 10 thousand francs at the international exhibition in 1851 in Paris and an honorary medal at the international exhibition in 1862 in London, was recognized by many prominent contemporaries, including Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Alexander Humboldt.
"Dore milyasi domi" (I love you).
11.Larimin (Larimin) - the language invented by Olga Laedel in her work aboutlesbian civilization of the planet Atea. In the texts of this utopia, larimin is presented as a planned language, constructed by the witches of the planet Atea as an international language of science, teaching and book culture (acting, thus, partly as a likeness of Latin and partly as a language of Esperanto in real earth history)... Contains about 2 thousand words.
jeacle o locle luma
o fiannasafe qaefla.
qaeti roanqe olonca
eslomia elel ünela
Warm, calm water
soft moonlight.
Rustling wet forest
on which I walk naked.
12. Lincos (lingua cosmica - "cosmic language") - created by Hans Freudenthal, professor of mathematics, to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. Lincos's key idea (as well as a number of subsequent languages \u200b\u200bof intercivilizational communication) is the thesis that mathematics is universal. Therefore, starting with universal and elementary mathematical concepts, which, of course, are known to the aliens, we will be able, relying on something in common, to try to gradually create a language for the subsequent transmission of our unique information, which, of course, they cannot yet know.
13.Tokypona (toki pona) is a language created by Canadian Sonya Helen Kisa and claims to be the simplest one.
Quite often, writers and screenwriters endow their characters with their own fictional languages. Sometimes, to keep the intrigue of what is happening, sometimes to add depth to the work, and sometimes even for reasons they only know. In our roundup of 10 very interesting and funny fictional languages \u200b\u200bthat have appeared in recent decades.
1. Alien
Alien is a set of fictional languages \u200b\u200bthat often appear, usually in the form of graffiti, in the popular animated series Futurama. There is even a translation of this language into English, which was done by loyal fans of the series.
2. Serpentine
In the Harry Potter books, Parseltongue is the language of snakes that only snaketongue sorcerers understand. It could be spoken by Salazar Slytherin and his descendants, including Voldemort, who passed this ability on to Harry when he tried to kill him. J.K. Rowling said she called the language "the old name for those with speech problems."3. Aklo
Aklo is a fictional language that is often associated with the writing of forbidden or occult texts. Aklo was invented by Arthur Maken in the 1899 short story "White Men," in which two men discuss the nature of evil. This language is notable for the fact that it was often used in other fiction. Lovecraft used aklo in two stories about Cthulhu (The Dunwich Horror and The Ghost in the Dark). Alan Moore used this language in The Courtyard. Since this language is always used only in passing and by many authors, there is no single set of grammar or vocabulary.
4. Mangani
Mangani is the language of the monkeys from the Tarzan novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs, as well as the word that monkeys call themselves. It is described as consisting of guttural sounds, which are nouns and basic concepts.
5. Newspeak (new language)
Newspeak was invented by George Orwell for his dystopian novel 1984. Newspeak was developed by a fictional totalitarian regime to secure its dominance over the people. It was originally English, but its lexicon constantly shortened to exclude any words that convey the idea of \u200b\u200bfreedom, rebellion, or free thought.
6. Nadsat
Invented by author Anthony Burgess, Nadsat is the idiomatic language of adolescent communication in A Clockwork Orange. The word itself comes from the transliteration of the Russian word (the endings of the numerals "-teen"). It was a folk speech, created by a youth counterculture, and consisting of English, some transliterations from Russian, London Cockney slang and words invented by Burgess himself. All the words of nadsat are simple, and the author seeks to show by this the lack of depth of thinking in adolescents.
7. Simlish
Simlish is the spoken language in the Sims computer toy. To avoid the expense of recording repetitive dialogues and translating them, the project director asked the actors to improvise and speak in incomprehensible gibberish.
8. Esperanto
The only real language on this list. It was one of the most successful artificial languages \u200b\u200bin history. Esperanto was created by the Warsaw optometrist Zamenhof and is described in his book "Unua Libro" in 1887. The word "Esperanto" means "one who hopes". Today, there are 100-200 people who are fluent in Esperanto, and about 200-2000 native speakers.
9. Klingon
The Klingon language of the Star Trek universe is in fact an almost fully developed language today. For the first time language (more precisely, individual phrases) appeared in the film "Star Trek" (1979). Paramount Pictures subsequently hired linguist Mark Okrand to elaborate on the complete language. The first Klingon Dictionary was published in 1985. Shakespeare's famous plays Much Ado About Nothing and Hamlet were even translated into this language.
10. Languages \u200b\u200bof Arda
The term is used to describe many of Tolkien's fictional languages \u200b\u200bfor The Lord of the Rings and other works that are set in Middle-earth. This was done out of a desire to lend a real linguistic depth to the names and places that Tolkien used in his famous works. The two most mature of these languages \u200b\u200bare Quenya (High Elvish) and Sindarin. Quenya is comparable to Latin, an old language used in Middle-earth as official language... Both languages \u200b\u200bwere strongly influenced by Finnish and Welsh, although their further development this influence has become less noticeable.
However, who knows, maybe the invented languages \u200b\u200bwill someday be used more widely, like, and today came into real life.
List of national Esperanto organizations - a list of organizations whose activities are aimed at spreading Esperanto within a country or region. Contents 1 America 2 Asia 3 Africa ... Wikipedia
Esperanto - Esperanto ... Wikipedia
Artificial language
Auxiliary language - Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare special languages \u200b\u200bthat, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created. Classification There are the following types of artificial ... ... Wikipedia
Synthetic language - Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare special languages \u200b\u200bthat, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created. Classification There are the following types of artificial ... ... Wikipedia
Artificial languages - Portal: Constructed Languages \u200b\u200bfor Beginners · Community · Portals · Awards · Projects · Requests · Assessment Geography · History · Society · Personalities · Religion · Sports · Technology · Science · Art · Philosophy ... Wikipedia
Portal: Constructed Languages - Beginners · Community · Portals · Awards · Projects · Requests · Assessment Geography · History · Society · Personalities · Religion · Sports · Technology · Science · Art · Philosophy ... Wikipedia
Esperanto vocabulary - The basic set of words for Esperanto was defined in the First Book, published by Zamenhof in 1887. It contained about 900 roots, however, the language rules allowed speakers to borrow words as needed. It was recommended to borrow ... Wikipedia
Wikipedia in Esperanto - Vikipedio en Esperanto ... Wikipedia
Zamenhof, Ludwik Lazar - Ludwik Lazar Zamenhof Eliezer Levi Samengof ... Wikipedia
Books
- , Alexander Piperski Category: Learning foreign languages Publisher: Alpina non-fiction, Buy for 435 rubles
- Construction of languages. From Esperanto to Dothraki, Alexander Piperski, Why do people create their own new languages \u200b\u200b- Konlangs, when there are 7,000 natural languages \u200b\u200bin the world? What artificial languages \u200b\u200bare there? How are they similar to natural languages, and how ... Category: Miscellaneous Series: Fiction Publisher: Alpina Non-fiction, Manufacturer: