Turkish sultan Mahmoud IIlearning about the extermination naval forces his own at Navarino, hardened more than before.
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The envoys of the allied powers have lost all hope of persuading him to accept London treatise and left Constantinople. Following this, in all the mosques of the Ottoman Empire, a hatt-i-sheriff (decree) was promulgated on a general militia for faith and fatherland. The Sultan proclaimed that Russia was the eternal, indomitable enemy of Islam, that she was plotting the destruction of Turkey, that the Greek uprising was her business, that she was the real culprit of the London Treaty, which was harmful to the Ottoman Empire, and that in the last negotiations with her Porta was trying only to gain time and gather strength, deciding not to perform in advance Akkerman Convention.
The court of Nicholas I responded to such an hostile challenge with deep silence and for four months hesitated to announce the break, still not losing hope that the Sultan would reflect on the consequences of a new Russian-Turkish war that were inevitable for him and agree to peace; the hope was in vain. He challenged Russia to war not only in words, but also in deed: he insulted our flag, detained ships and did not open the Bosphorus, thereby stopping any movement of our Black Sea trade. Moreover, at the very time when the peace agreements between Russia and Persia were drawing to a close, Turkey, with the hasty arming of its troops and the secret promise of a strong support, shook the peaceful disposition of the Tehran court.
Forced to draw his sword in defense of the dignity and honor of Russia, the rights of his people, acquired by victories and treaties, emperor Nicholas I announced publicly that, despite the disclosures of the Sultan, he did not at all think about the destruction of the Turkish Empire or the expansion of his power and would immediately stop the hostilities begun by the Battle of Navarino, as soon as the Porta satisfied Russia in its just demands, already recognized by the Akkerman Convention, and would provide for the future time a reliable guarantee of the validity and exact execution of previous treaties and will proceed to the terms of the London Treaty on Greek affairs.
Such a moderate response from Russia to the Turkish declaration, filled with anger and implacable hatred, disarmed and calmed the most distrustful envious people of our political power. The European cabinets could not but agree that it was impossible to act more noble and magnanimous than the Russian emperor. God blessed his just cause.
The Russo-Turkish War began in the spring of 1828. On our side, an extensive plan of military operations was drawn up in order to disturb Turkey from all sides and with the combined, united strikes of land and sea forces in Europe and Asia, on the Black and Mediterranean seas, to convince the Porto of the impossibility of fighting Russia. Field Marshal Count Wittgensteinentrusted with the main army to occupy Moldavia and Wallachia, to cross the Danube and on the fields of Bulgaria or Rumelia to inflict a decisive blow on the enemy;
After the defeat of the united Anglo-Franco-Russian squadron in October 1827 of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet in Navarin Bay, Great Britain and France did not want to go into further military conflict with Turkey, which Russia was so desperate for. The Turkish government, given the differences between the three powers, stubbornly refused to give Greece autonomy and abide by treaties with Russia. The relations of the European powers with Turkey became complicated. This created a tactical benefit for its closest neighbor, Russia, which could now act more decisively against Turkey. Turkey's policy only pushed the expansionist circles of Russia towards aggression.
The successful completion of the war with Iran and the signing of the Turkmanchay peace allowed Nicholas I to start a war against Turkey. The purpose of this war, Russia saw the solution to the problem of its control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles - "the keys to its own home", as the Russians said at the time. Russia wanted to ensure freedom of exit to the Mediterranean and consolidate its influence in the Balkans and Transcaucasia.
The formal reason for the outbreak of hostilities was Turkey's "non-compliance" with the Akkerman Convention concluded with Russia in 1826, in particular, the article on the freedom of travel by Russian merchants through the Black Sea straits and on Russia's right of intercession in the affairs of the Danube principalities of Moldova, Wallachia, and Serbia ...
Having secured non-interference in the conflict of Great Britain, which, by virtue of the convention of 1827 and its participation in the Battle of Navarino, observed neutrality and even pledged not to interfere with the advance of Russian troops, on May 7, 1828, Russia began war of conquest with Turkey. The international situation was indeed favorable to the Russian aggressors. Of all the great powers, only Austria openly provided the Turks material assistance... France, for the same reasons and in view of the established close ties between the Bourbon government and the Russian government The Romanovs also did not oppose Russia. Prussia took a neutral position towards Russia.
Mediocrely managed, especially with the personal intervention of the tsar, the Russian army, despite the bravery of the soldiers, for a long time could not overcome the not too strong resistance of the Turkish army, which was in the process of reorganization. Numerous mistakes of the Russian command dragged out the war until the autumn of 1829. More or less successful military operations took place only in the Transcaucasus. But in Europe it sometimes seemed that the Russians would leave empty-handed and the whole venture would end in failure.
The Austrian foreign minister who supported the Turks, Count Clement Metternich, hastened to notify the embassies of Great Britain, France and Prussia about the supposedly hopeless situation of Russian troops in the Balkan Peninsula and began to offer the European powers to demand from the militarily weak Russia an immediate end to the war. However, neither the government nor the liberal part of society of these countries thought so, knowing well the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II as a representative of bloody despotism, the culprit of unheard-of atrocities against the Greeks.
The outcome of the war in Asia was decided after the capture by the army of Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich of an important strategic point - Erzurum (1829). In the European theater of war, the army of Field Marshal Ivan Dibich, finally, having killed the main Turkish forces at Kulevche, broke through the Balkans and, reaching the valley of the Maritsa River, captured the city of Edirne (Adrianople). The vanguard of the Russian troops began to threaten Istanbul (Constantinople).
The Turkish government, having suffered a series of military failures, began to seriously fear the occupation of the Turkish capital and the Bosphorus and Dardanelles by enemy troops. Mahmud II decided to ask for peace. Negotiations began. Fearing international complications, as well as that Turkey will learn about the weakness russian armyunable to take Istanbul (about four thousand soldiers were in the hospitals), Russia was in a hurry to end the war and put forward its demands. On September 14, 1829 in Edirne (Adrianople) between Russia and Turkey was signed a peace treaty enslaved for the vanquished. Turkey agreed with russian requirements... Under the terms of the treaty, she gave Russia part of her territories: the entire Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban River to the pier of St. Nicholas (near Poti) and part of the Akhaltsykh Pashalyk. In the European part, the border between the two states was established along the Prut River before its confluence with the Danube; the islands in the Danube delta receded to Russia. Turkey finally agreed to recognize the annexation of the Transcaucasian regions conquered by Russia at the beginning of the 19th century to Russia, and take the Turkmanchay peace treaty with Iran. Russian ships received confirmation of the right to pass through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.
In the Danube principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as in the Bulgarian fortress Silistria remained russian troops until all the conditions of the Treaty of Adrianople are fulfilled. According to the Russian-Turkish treaty of 1829, these principalities continued to retain internal autonomy with the right to have a "zemstvo army", i.e. they were independent in internal government, but the principalities were vassal in relation to Turkey. In relation to Serbia, which had started another uprising by that time, the Turkish government pledged to fulfill the terms of the Bucharest Treaty on granting the Serbs the right to convey through their deputies to the Sultan demands for the urgent needs of the Serbian people. In the next 1830, the incessant unrest of the Serbs (to which Russia paid special attention, since the Serbs and Russians adhered to the Eastern Greek - Christian faith) forced the Turkish Sultan to issue a decree, according to which Serbia also recognized autonomy.
One of the important consequences of the Russian-Turkish war was the granting of independence to Greece. In the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey accepted all the conditions that determined internal organization and the borders of Greece. In 1830: Greece was declared an independent state, connected with the Turkish sultan only by the obligation to pay 1.5 million piastres per year, and these payments began only in the fifth year after Turkey accepted the terms of the treaty. However, the disputed territories were not included in Greece - part of Epirus, Thessaly, the island of Crete, the Ionian Islands and some other once Greek lands.
After lengthy negotiations between Great Britain, France and Russia regarding the structure of Greece, the population of the country was given the right to elect a prince from the Christian dynasties reigning in Europe, but not an Englishman, not a Russian or a Frenchman. In Greece, a monarchy was formed headed by the Prussian prince Otto. No matter how hard Russia tried, Greece soon fell under the financial and then political control of Great Britain.
Thus, Russia's victory over Turkey provided Greece with state independence and strengthened the autonomy of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia. The Adrianople treaty gave Russia great benefits: it was an important milestone in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Turkish rule, and also contributed to the fact that Russia was able to withdraw its troops from the Balkans in order to throw them to suppress the uprising that broke out in 1830 in Poland, Belarus and Lithuania, as well as to put up forces against the murids, who continue to wage a people's war in the Caucasus.
Thus, the strengthening of Russia's position in the Balkans and Asia as a result of the war of 1828 - 1829. further exacerbated the Eastern question. By this time, the position Ottoman Empire significantly complicated in connection with the open speech against the power of the Sultan of another rebellious Turkish vassal - the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad-Ali.
Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 was prompted by Turkey's desire to preserve the crumbling Ottoman Empire. Russia, having supported the uprising of the Greek people against Turkish rule, sent a squadron of L.P. Heyden for combat operations in conjunction with the Anglo-French fleet (see Archipelago Expedition of 1827). In December 1827 Turkey declared a "holy war" to Russia. Russian troops successfully operated in both the Caucasian and Balkan theaters of war. In the Caucasus, the troops of I.F. Paskevich took Kars by storm, occupied Akhaltsikh, Poti, Bayazit (1828), captured Erzurum and reached Trebizond (1829). At the Balkan theater, the Russian troops of P.Kh. Wittgenstein crossed the Danube and took Varna (1828), under the leadership of I.I. Dibich defeated the Turks at Kulevche, captured Silistria, made a bold and unexpected transition through the Balkans, threatening Istanbul directly (1829). Under a peace treaty, Russia acquired the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast from the Kuban to Adjara and other territories.
Archipelago Expedition (1827)
Archipelago expedition in 1827 - the campaign of the Russian squadron of L.P. Heyden to the shores of Greece to support the Greek anti-Turkish uprising. In September 1827 the squadron joined the Anglo-French fleet in the Mediterranean for joint operations against the Turks. After Turkey rejected the allied ultimatum to end hostilities against Greece, the allied fleet in the Battle of Navarino completely destroyed the Turkish fleet. In the battle, Heyden's squadron distinguished itself, destroying the center and the right flank of the enemy fleet. During the subsequent Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. the Russian squadron blocked the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.
Navarino naval battle (1827)
The battle in Navarino Bay (southwestern coast of the Peloponnese) between the united squadrons of Russia, England and France, on the one hand, and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, on the other, took place during the Greek National Liberation Revolution of 1821-1829.
The united squadrons included: from Russia - 4 battleships, 4 frigates; from England - 3 ships of the line, 5 corvettes; from France - 3 ships of the line, 2 frigates, 2 corvettes. Commander - British Vice Admiral E. Codrington. The Turkish-Egyptian squadron under the command of Muharrem Bey consisted of 3 ships of the line, 23 frigates, 40 corvettes and brigs.
Before the battle began, Codrington sent an envoy to the Turks, then a second. Both parliamentarians were killed. In response, the united squadrons attacked the enemy on October 8 (20), 1827. The Navarino battle lasted about 4 hours and ended with the destruction of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. Its losses amounted to about 60 ships and up to 7 thousand people. The Allies did not lose a single ship, with only about 800 killed and wounded.
During the battle, distinguished themselves: the flagship of the Russian squadron "Azov" under the command of captain 1st rank M.P. Lazarev, who destroyed 5 enemy ships. Lieutenant P.S. Nakhimov, midshipman V.A. Kornilov and midshipman V.I. Istomin are the future heroes of the Battle of Sinop and the defense of Sevastopol in the Crimean War of 1853–1856.
The feat of the brig "Mercury"
The brig "Mercury" was laid down in January 1819 at a shipyard in Sevastopol, launched on May 19, 1820. Tactical and technical characteristics: length - 29.5 m, width - 9.4 m, draft - 2.95 m. Armament - 18 24-pounder guns.
There was a Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. In May 1829, the "Mercury" as part of a small detachment under the flag of Lieutenant-Commander P.Ya. Sakhnovsky together with the frigate "Standart" and the brig "Orpheus" carried out patrol service in the Bosphorus region. On the morning of May 26, a Turkish squadron of 18 ships was discovered, including 6 battleships, 2 frigates and 2 corvettes. The overwhelming superiority of the enemy was undeniable, and therefore Sakhnovsky gave the signal not to accept the battle. Raising all the sails, "Shtandart" and "Orpheus" left the pursuit. "Mercury", built of heavy Crimean oak, and therefore significantly inferior in speed, lagged behind. Fast ships of the Turkish fleet rushed in pursuit, 110-gun battleship The Selimiye and the 74-gun Real Bay soon overtook the Russian brig.
Seeing the inevitability of a battle with the enemy, the brig commander Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky gathered the officers. By tradition, the youngest in rank, Lieutenant of the Naval Navigator Corps I.P. Prokofiev expressed the general opinion - to accept the battle, and in case of a threat of seizure of the ship - to blow it up, for which purpose leave a loaded pistol near the cruise camera.
The brig was the first to fire a volley at the enemy. Kazarsky skillfully maneuvered, not allowing the Turks to conduct aimed fire. Somewhat later, Real Bay was still able to take a firing position from the left side and the Mercury came under cross fire. The Turks showered the brig with cannonballs and brandskugels. Fire broke out in many places. Part of the team began to extinguish it, but the well-aimed shelling of Turkish ships did not weaken. The Russian gunners managed to inflict such significant damage on the Selimiye that the Turkish ship was forced to drift. But Real Bay continued to fire at the Russian brig. Finally he, too, got hit by a cannonball in the forward mast and began to lag behind. This unprecedented battle lasted for about 4 hours. "Mercury", despite the fact that it received 22 hits in the corps and about 300 in the rigging and spars, emerged victorious and joined the Black Sea squadron the next day. For the feat, Lieutenant-Commander A.I. Kazarsky was awarded the Order of St. George, IV degree and promoted to captain of the 2nd rank, and the ship was awarded the stern St. George flag and pennant. In addition, the imperial rescript said that "when this brig will become unusable, build according to the same drawing with it and in perfect resemblance to it the same ship, named" Mercury ", attributing to the same crew to which to transfer and St. George flag with a pennant. "
This tradition, which has developed in the Russian navy, continues to this day. The sea minesweeper Kazarsky and the hydrographic vessel Memory of Mercury are flying the Russian flag over the wide expanses of seas and oceans.
The commander of the legendary brig A.I. Kazarsky in April 1831 was appointed to the retinue of Nicholas I and soon received the rank of captain of the 1st rank. On June 28, 1833 he died suddenly in Nikolaev. In Sevastopol, according to the project of A.P. Bryullov, a monument to the brave sailor was laid. On the truncated stone pyramid there is a stylized model of an antique warship and a short inscription: “Kazarsky - as an example to posterity”.
He moved with the Russian army to the Crimea. With a frontal attack, he captured the fortifications of Perekop, went deep into the peninsula, took Khazleiv (Evpatoria), destroyed the khan's capital Bakhchisarai and Akmechet (Simferopol). However, the Crimean Khan, constantly evading decisive battles with the Russians, managed to save his army from extermination. At the end of the summer, Minich returned from Crimea to Ukraine. In the same year, General Leontyev, acting against the Turks from the other side, took Kinburn (a fortress near the mouth of the Dnieper), and Lassi - Azov.
Russian-Turkish War 1735-1739. Map
In the spring of 1737, Minikh moved to Ochakov, a fortress covering the exits to the Black Sea from the Southern Bug and the Dnieper. Due to his inept actions, the capture of Ochakov cost the Russian troops quite large losses (although they were still many times less than the Turkish ones). Even more soldiers and Cossacks (up to 16 thousand) died due to unsanitary conditions: the German Minich cared little about the health and nutrition of the Russian soldiers. Due to the huge loss of soldiers, Minich stopped the campaign of 1737 immediately after the capture of Ochakov. General Lassi, operating in 1737 east of Minich, broke through to the Crimea and dispersed detachments across the peninsula that ruined up to 1000 Tatar villages.
Through the fault of Minich, the military campaign of 1738 ended in vain: the Russian army, aiming at Moldavia, did not dare to cross the Dniester, as there was a large Turkish army on the other side of the river.
In March 1739, Minich crossed the Dniester at the head of the Russian army. Due to his mediocrity, he immediately fell into an almost hopeless encirclement near the village of Stavuchany. But thanks to the heroism of the soldiers who unexpectedly attacked the enemy in a half-passable place, Stavuchansky battle (the first clash of the Russians with the Turks in the open field) ended in a brilliant victory. Huge troops of the Sultan and the Crimean Khan fled in panic, and Minikh, taking advantage of this, took the nearby strong fortress Khotin.
In September 1739 the Russian army entered the Moldavian principality. Minikh forced his boyars to sign an agreement on the transfer of Moldova to Russian citizenship. But on the very crest of the successes, the news came that the Russian allies, the Austrians, were ending the war against the Turks. Upon learning of this, Empress Anna Ioannovna also decided to graduate. The Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739 ended with the Peace of Belgrade (1739).
Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 - briefly
This Russo-Turkish war began in the winter of 1768-69. Golitsyn's Russian army crossed the Dniester, took the Khotin fortress and entered Yassy. Almost all of Moldova swore allegiance to Catherine II.
The young empress and her favorites, the Orlov brothers, made bold plans, intending already during this Russian-Turkish war to expel Muslims from Balkan Peninsula... The Orlovs suggested sending out agents to rouse the Balkan Christians to a general uprising against the Turks and to move Russian squadrons into the Aegean Sea to support it.
In the summer of 1769, the fleets of Spiridov and Elfinston sailed from Kronstadt to the Mediterranean. Arriving on the shores of Greece, they instigated a revolt against the Turks in Morey (Peloponnese), but it did not reach the force that Catherine II had counted on, and was soon suppressed. However, the Russian admirals soon won a dizzying naval victory. Attacking the Turkish fleet, they drove it into the Chesme Bay (Asia Minor) and completely destroyed it, sending incendiary fire ships to the crowded enemy ships (Chesme battle, June 1770). By the end of 1770, the Russian squadron captured up to 20 islands of the Aegean archipelago.
Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774. Map
In the land theater of war, the Russian army of Rumyantsev, operating in Moldova, in the summer of 1770 utterly defeated the forces of the Turks in the battles of Larga and Cahul. These victories handed over to the Russians all of Wallachia with powerful Ottoman strongholds along the left bank of the Danube (Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman, Brailov, Bucharest). There were no Turkish troops north of the Danube.
In 1771, the army of V. Dolgoruky, defeating the horde of Khan Selim-Girey at Perekop, occupied the entire Crimea, placed garrisons in its main fortresses and placed Sahib-Girey on the khan's throne, who had sworn allegiance to the Russian empress. Orlov and Spiridov's squadron in 1771 made distant raids from the Aegean Sea to the shores of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, then under the control of the Turks. The successes of the Russian armies were so brilliant that Catherine II hoped, as a result of this war, to finally annex Crimea and ensure independence from the Turks of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were to come under the influence of Russia.
But this was opposed by the Western European Franco-Austrian bloc hostile to the Russians, and the formal ally of Russia, the Prussian king Frederick II the Great, behaved treacherously. Taking advantage of the brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Catherine II was prevented by the simultaneous involvement of Russia in the Polish unrest. Frightening Austria with Russia, and Russia with Austria, Frederick II put forward a project according to which Catherine II was offered to abandon extensive seizures in the south in exchange for compensation from Polish lands. In the face of the strongest Western pressure, the Russian empress had to accept this plan. It was realized in the form of the First Partition of Poland (1772).
Pyotr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky
The Ottoman sultan, however, wanted to get out of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768 without any losses at all and did not agree to recognize not only the annexation of Crimea to Russia, but even its independence. Peace negotiations between Turkey and Russia in Focsani (July-August 1772) and Bucharest (late 1772 - early 1773) ended in vain, and Catherine II ordered Rumyantsev to invade with an army across the Danube. In 1773 Rumyantsev made two trips across this river, and in the spring of 1774 - the third. Due to the small size of his army (part of the Russian forces had to be withdrawn from the Turkish front to fight against Pugachev at that time), Rumyantsev did not achieve anything outstanding in 1773. But in 1774 AV Suvorov with an 8-thousandth corps utterly defeated 40 thousand Turks at Kozludzha. With this, he brought such horror to the enemy that when the Russians headed for the strong fortress of Shumle, the Turks in panic rushed to flee from there.
The Sultan then hastened to resume peace negotiations and signed the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy peace, which ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774.
Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 - briefly
Russian-Turkish war 1806-1812 - briefly
For more details, see the article.
The brutal suppression of the Greek uprising of the 1820s by the Turks provoked a response from a number of European powers. Russia, one of the same faith with the Orthodox Greeks, acted most energetically; England and France joined it not without hesitation. In October 1827, the combined Anglo-Russian-French fleet utterly defeated the Egyptian squadron of Ibrahim, which helped the Turkish sultan suppress the rebellious Greece, in the battle of Navarino (near the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese).
Russian-Turkish War 1828 - 1829
| Parameter name | Value |
| Topic of the article: | Russian-Turkish War 1828 - 1829 |
| Category (thematic category) | Politics |
April 1828 ᴦ. Russia has declared war on Turkey. The main fighting unfolded in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. Nicholas I himself went to Balkan theater military action. The Turkish sultan had 80 thousand people. army. April 1828 ᴦ. 95 thous. the Russian army under the command of the aged Field Marshal P.Kh. Wittgenstein made a lightning march from Bessarabia and in a matter of days occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. The entire Turkish army also crossed the Danube and occupied all of northern Dobrudja. At the same time, the Caucasian army of I.F. Paskevich occupied Turkish fortresses on the eastern coast of the Black Sea - Anapa, Poti, Akhaltsikh, Akhalkalakhi, Bayazet, Kars. But the campaign is 1828 ᴦ. turned out to be unsuccessful. Early next 1829 ᴦ. I.I. was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Diebitsch. After that, the emperor retired from the active army, as his presence fettered the actions of the military command. I.I. Diebitsch reinforced the army, June 19, 1829 ᴦ. the well-fortified fortress of Silistria was taken. Further, the Russian army, having overcome incredible difficulties, unexpectedly for the Turks crossed the main Balkan ridge. During July 30 thous. the Russian army defeated 50 thousand Turks and in August marched to Adrianople, the second most important Turkish city after Istanbul. At the same time I.F. Paskevich defeated the Turkish army in the Caucasus. On August 7, Russian troops were already standing under the walls of Adrianople, the next day the city surrendered at the mercy of the victorious. The Turkish Sultan prayed for peace. Never since time Ancient Rus Russian troops were not so close to Istanbul (Constantinople). But the collapse of the Ottoman Empire posed a great threat to the general world. September 2, 1829 ᴦ. The Adrianople Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia gave Turkey all the conquered territories, but received Turkish fortress cities on the eastern coast of the Black Sea: Kars, Anapa, Poti, Akhaltsikh, Akhalkalaki. Porta recognized the independence of Greece, confirmed the autonomy of Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia (the rulers there were to be appointed for life).
Russia's successes in the fight against Turkey caused great concern among the powers Western Europe... Russia's impressive military successes once again showed that the decrepit Ottoman Empire is on the verge of collapse. England and France have already claimed the Balkan possessions. Οʜᴎ they feared that Russia alone would achieve the complete defeat of the Ottoman Empire, take possession of Istanbul and the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits, which at that time occupied the most important military-strategic importance in the world. An alliance of the strongest states was formed against Russia. England and France, in order to weaken Porto and Russia, began to push them to war.
Russian-Turkish War 1828 - 1829 - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Russian-Turkish war of 1828 - 1829." 2017, 2018.