Polovtsian Wars. Polovtsi

	Late 11th - mid 13th centuries
	Mainly South Russia and the steppes of the northern Black Sea region
	Moving the struggle to the Polovtsian steppe (except for the participation of the Polovtsians in civil strife in Russia)
Territorial changes:	The seizure of the Polovtsy of the Tmutarakan principality and White Vezha
Opponents
	Kievan Rus and Russian principalities
Commanders
Khans Tugorkan †, Bonyak, Sharukan, Konchak, etc.	Russian princes: Izyaslav Yaroslavich †, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Roman Mstislavich, etc.

A series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between Kievan Rus and Polovtsian tribes. Was just another clash of interests the old Russian state and nomads of the Black Sea steppes. The other side of this war was the intensification of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, whose rulers often made the Polovtsians their allies.

As a rule, there are three stages of hostilities: the initial (second half of the XI century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military leader Vladimir Monomakh (first quarter of the XII century), and the final period (until the middle of the XIII century) (part of it was the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in "The Lay of Igor's Regiment").

The situation in Russia and in the steppes of the northern Black Sea region by the beginning of the clashes

By the middle of the XI century. a number of important changes have taken place in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torks, who ruled over the "Wild Steppe" for a century, weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, were unable to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by aliens from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsy, also called the Cumans. The new masters of the steppes defeated the enemies and occupied their pastures. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of the neighborhood with neighboring countries. Long years of collisions eastern Slavs with the steppe nomads, they developed a certain model of relations, into which the Polovtsians were forced to fit in.

Meanwhile, the process of disintegration began in Russia - the princes began to wage an active and merciless struggle for inheritances and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Russia.

The balance of forces and the military organization of the parties

Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but their contemporaries considered their military organization quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe dwellers, were detachments of light cavalry, armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lasso and spears. Wealthy warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (from the second half of the XII century) about the use of heavy crossbows and "liquid fire" by the Polovtsians, borrowed, perhaps, from China since their time in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire). Polovtsi used tactics of surprise attacks. They operated mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In a field battle, the Polovtsian khans competently divided forces, used flying detachments in the vanguard to start the battle, which were then reinforced by the attack of the main forces. Thus, in the person of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. It is not for nothing that the old enemy of Russia, the Pechenegs, were utterly defeated by the Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.

Nevertheless, Russia had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century was already over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The success of the Polovtsians was primarily due to the fragmentation and contradictions in the camp of their opponents.

Ancient russian army in its structure in the era of fragmentation has changed significantly compared to the earlier period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. The military art of the Russians was at a fairly high level.

The first period of wars (second half of the 11th century)

Immediately after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), the Polovtsy invaded the Pereyaslavl principality, but made peace with Vsevolod Yaroslavich. In 1059 Vsevolod, and in 1060 all three senior Yaroslavichs in alliance with Vseslav of Polotsk inflicted a crushing defeat on the Torks in the steppes. The first clash between Russians and Polovtsians dates back to 1061. The Pereyaslav principality became a victim of the nomads. Since then, the nomads began to make frequent forays into the borders of Russia.

One of the largest Polovtsian invasions of Russia took place in 1068. The forces of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who together owned all of Russia at that time, came out against the Polovtsians. However, this army suffered a crushing defeat on the Alta River. Izyaslav Yaroslavich refused to give the Kievans horses and weapons from his arsenal for the second time in order to fight the Polovtsians, and on the left side of the Dnieper, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich on November 1, with 3,000 soldiers, was able to stop the advance of 12,000 Polovtsians in the battle on the Snov River, and the Novgorod first chronicle reports the capture Sharukana captured. An uprising took place in Kiev, forcing Izyaslav to flee to Poland.

For the first time, the Polovtsians were used in Russian civil strife not against the central government, but the central government:

After the death of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in the Kiev reign in 1076, Izyaslav Yaroslavich returned to Kiev, and Vsevolod Yaroslavich held Chernigov. Svyatoslavichs Roman and Oleg, in alliance with the Polovtsy, began a struggle for the former possessions of their father, which led to the death of Izyaslav Yaroslavich and Oleg's ally Boris Vyacheslavich in 1078 in the battle on Nezhatinnaya Niva. In 1079 Roman Svyatoslavich was also killed by the Polovtsians.

In 1078 Vsevolod Yaroslavich reigned in Kiev and left his son Vladimir as governor in Chernigov. A new powerful attack on the Russian lands, led by the khans Bonyak and Tugorkan, was timed to coincide with the illness of Vsevolod of Kiev in 1092. The following year Vsevolod died, and Tugorkan laid siege to the city of Torchesk. The united Kiev-Chernigov-Pereyaslavl army, led by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir and Rostislav Vsevolodovichi, came out to help the defenders, as well as 25 years earlier, but in the battle on the Stugna River it was defeated, and Rostislav from the rain waters of the river. Torchesk fell, and Svyatopolk was forced to conclude peace with Tugorkan by marrying his daughter.

In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsians besieged Vladimir Vsevolodovich in Chernigov. After a long siege, Vladimir openly left the city ( do not brag about nasty), passing between the enemy forces without a fight, but the strife continued in the northeastern lands - Rostov and Murom, during which the son of Monomakh Izyaslav (1096) died. Taking advantage of the lack of forces of Svyatopolk and Monomakh in southern Russia, two Polovtsian armies attacked the Russian principalities on both banks of the Dnieper. Khan Bonyak appeared near Kiev, and Tugorkan and Khan Kurya laid siege to Pereyaslavl. The latter were in for the first major defeat from the Russians. On July 19, 1096, on the Trubezh River, the army of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh defeated the enemy. Having learned about the defeat of Tugorkan, Bonyak, who had already plundered the surroundings of Kiev and burned down the Pechersky Monastery, hastily left for the steppe. A year earlier, Monomakh killed two khans, Itlar and Kitan, during negotiations in Pereyaslavl.

The second period of wars (first quarter of the XII century)

The blow inflicted on the Polovtsy on Trubezh was very painful for the nomads. The largest Polovtsian commander Tugorkan died in the battle. But the power of the steppe people was still great. In 1097, at the Lyubech Congress of Princes, a decision was made everyone keeps his fatherland (The Svyatoslavichs received a paternal inheritance), and Monomakh managed to convince the Russian princes of the need for retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians and the transfer of the struggle against them deep into the steppes.

In 1103, in early spring, the allied host of Russian princes moved into the steppe. The calculation was made to weaken the Polovtsian cavalry. After a long winter, the horses did not have time to gain strength, while the Russian army included, in addition to the princely squads, large forces of "peshtsy" - infantrymen. The foot army moved along the Dnieper on boats, the cavalry marched in parallel. Then the army turned into the depths of the steppes. The decisive battle of the campaign took place on April 4 near the town of Suten. Monomakh and Svyatopolk defeated the Polovtsians, Khan Urusob and 19 other princes were killed in this battle.

Four years later, the nomads went on the offensive again. In May, Khan Bonyak with his horsemen invaded the Pereyaslavsky principality and laid siege to the city of Luben. Monomakh was again forced to defend his domain. Together with Svyatopolk, he came to the aid of the besieged and attacked the Polovtsians. This time Bonyak and his warriors did not resist for long: they fled, abandoning the baggage train and prey. Once again, peace was concluded, sealed by two dynastic marriages: the daughters of Khan Aepa were married to the son of Vladimir Yuri and the son of Oleg Svyatoslavich Svyatoslav.

The truce did not last long. The Polovtsi were preparing a new blow to Russia, but this time Monomakh preempted them. Thanks to a sortie into the steppe of the army under the command of the voivode Dmitry, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers on a large campaign against the Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince suggested that the allies themselves attack the enemy. This time we performed in winter. On February 26, 1111, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, at the head of a large army, moved into the depths of the Polovtsian nomads. The army of the princes penetrated as far into the steppe as never before - to the very Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But Khan Sharukan brought the main forces out from under the blow. On March 26, hoping for the fatigue of the Russian soldiers after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the princely army returned home without hindrance.

After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kiev, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsi (1116). IN last years life Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army for the Don against the Polovtsians, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsi migrated away from the borders of Russia, to the Caucasian foothills.

The third period of wars (until the middle of the XIII century)

With the death of the heir to Monomakh Mstislav, Russian princes return to the practice of using the Polovtsians in civil strife. One by one, the Polovtsian khans returned to the Don nomads. So, Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsians under the walls of Kiev during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. Other princes did it too.

The resumption of the campaigns of the Russian princes in the steppe (to ensure the safety of trade) is associated with the great Kiev reign of Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).

In the 70s of the XII century, in the steppe expanses from the Don to the southern borderlands of Russia, a large association of Polovtsian tribes arose, headed by Khan Konchak. The outskirts of Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl again became victims of the frequent raids of newcomers from the steppes. In 1177 the Polovtsians defeated the Russian troops at Rostovts.

In 1183, the coalition forces of the southern Russian princes, led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kiev, moved into the boundaries of the Polovtsian nomads. A strong Russian army defeated near the river. A large detachment of Polovtsian horsemen was erected, taking 7 thousand prisoners, including Khan Kobyak, who then died in a Kiev prison. On March 1, 1185, Konchak himself was defeated on the Khorol River. After that Svyatoslav left for the northeastern lands of the Chernigov principality, gathering go to Don on Polovtsy for the whole summer, and the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich undertook a separate campaign in the steppe (this time unsuccessful, in contrast to the campaign of the previous year).

The army of the Seversky prince set out on a campaign on April 23, 1185. On the way to Igor, his son Vladimir Putivlsky, his nephew Svyatoslav Rylsky, Igor's brother, the Chernigov prince Vsevolod and the Chernigov kovui joined with his squads: only 5 regiments. Also in this campaign, the sixth regiment is first mentioned, consisting of archers from all regiments... The first meeting with the Polovtsians took place on the banks of the river. Syurli was successful for the Russians. Rich booty was captured, part of the Russian forces (except for the regiments of Igor and Vsevolod) took part in the pursuit of the defeated enemy. The next day the princely regiments clashed with the main forces of Khan Konchak. On the banks of the river. A bloody battle broke out in Kajala. Horse squads could flee, but they chose not to abandon black people, dismounted and began to make their way to the Donets. Wounded, Igor got back on his horse. The whole day Igor's warriors held back the onslaught superior forces enemy, but at dawn the next day they wavered. The princely army was defeated, Igor himself and his son Vladimir were captured.

The Polovtsi invaded Russia, laid siege to Pereyaslavl, and took Rimov. Svyatoslav of Kiev and his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich managed to build a defense, and when they heard about the crossing of the Dnieper, Konchak lifted the siege from Pereyaslavl and went into the steppe. The Novgorod-Seversk prince, who later escaped from the Polovtsian captivity, managed to take revenge on the enemies: he made several victorious campaigns against the nomads. After 1185, the Cumans invaded Russia only as allies of one of the coalitions of Russian princes fighting with each other. At the same time, the largest campaigns in the steppe were undertaken by Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1198 (the Polovtsians migrated south to avoid a collision), Roman Mstislavich in 1202 (for which he was awarded a comparison from the chronicler with his great ancestor Monomakh) and 1203.

In the first half of the 13th century, both Russians and Polovtsians became victims of the Mongol conquests. When the Mongols first appeared in Europe in 1222-1223, the Russian princes joined forces with the Polovtsian khans, although the Mongol ambassadors suggested that the Russian princes act together against the Polovtsians. The battle on the Kalka River ended unsuccessfully for the allies, but the Mongols were forced to postpone the conquest of Eastern Europe for 13 years. Western campaign of the Mongols in 1236-1242, referred to in oriental sources also kipchak, that is, the Polovtsian, did not meet the joint resistance of the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans.

Results of wars

The results of the Russian-Polovtsian wars were the loss by the Russian princes of control over the Tmutarakan principality and Belaya Vezha, as well as the cessation of the Polovtsian invasions of Russia outside the framework of alliances with some Russian princes against others. At the same time, the strongest Russian princes began to undertake campaigns deep into the steppes, but even in these cases, the Polovtsians preferred to retreat, avoiding a collision.

The Ruriks became related to many Polovtsian khans. Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Prince of Chernigov), Rurik Rostislavich, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (Prince of Vladimir) were married to Polovtsian women at different times. Christianity spread among the Polovtsian elite: for example, of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned by the Russian chronicles under 1223, two bore Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint campaign against the Mongols.

,
Vladimir Monomakh, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich,
Roman Mstislavich and others.

Russian-Polovtsian wars - a series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between Kievan Rus and the Polovtsian tribes. They were caused by the clash of interests of the ancient Russian state and the nomads of the Black Sea steppes. Another side of this war was the intensification of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, whose rulers often made the Polovtsians their allies and used the Polovtsian detachments in internecine wars.

As a rule, there are three stages of hostilities: the initial (second half of the XI century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military leader Vladimir Monomakh (first quarter of the XII century), and the final period (until the middle of the XIII century) (part of it was the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in "The Lay of Igor's Regiment").

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  By the middle of the XI century. a number of important changes have taken place in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torks, who ruled over the "Wild Steppe" for a century, weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, were unable to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by aliens from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsy, also called the Cumans. The new masters of the steppes defeated the enemies and occupied their pastures. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of the neighborhood with neighboring countries. Long years of clashes between the Eastern Slavs and the steppe nomads developed a certain model of relations, into which the Polovtsians were forced to fit in.

  Meanwhile, the process of disintegration began in Russia - the princes began to wage an active and merciless struggle for inheritances and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Russia.

  The balance of forces and the military organization of the parties

  Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but their contemporaries considered their military organization quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe dwellers, were detachments of light cavalry, armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lasso and spears. Wealthy warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (from the second half of the XII century) about the use of the Polovtsians military equipment - heavy crossbows and "liquid fire", borrowed, perhaps, from China since their time in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire).

  Polovtsi used tactics of surprise attacks. They operated mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In a field battle, the Polovtsian khans competently divided forces, used flying detachments in the vanguard to start the battle, which were then reinforced by the attack of the main forces. Thus, in the person of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. It is not for nothing that the old enemy of Russia, the Pechenegs, were utterly defeated by the Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.

  Nevertheless, Russia had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century was already over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The success of the Polovtsians was primarily due to the fragmentation and contradictions in their camp. opponents.

  The structure of the Old Russian army in the era of fragmentation changed significantly in comparison with the earlier period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. The military art of the Russians was at a fairly high level.

  XI century

  The truce did not last long. The Polovtsi were preparing a new blow to Russia, but this time Monomakh preempted them. Thanks to a sortie into the steppe of the army under the command of the voivode Dmitr, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers on a large campaign against the Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince invited the allies to attack the enemy themselves. This time we performed in winter. On February 26, 1111, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh and their allies, at the head of a large army, moved deep into the Polovtsian nomads. The army of the princes penetrated as far into the steppe as never before - to the very Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But Khan Sharukan brought the main forces out from under the blow. On March 26, hoping for the fatigue of the Russian soldiers after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the princely army returned home without hindrance.

  After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kiev, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsi (). In the last years of his life, Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army for the Don against the Polovtsians, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsi migrated away from the borders of Russia, to the Caucasian foothills.

  XII-XIII centuries

  With the death of the heir to Monomakh Mstislav, the Russian princes return to the practice of using the Polovtsy in civil strife: Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsians under the walls of Kiev during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich, then with their help Izyaslav Davydovich of Chernigov fought against Rostislav Mstislavich, then the Smolensk army Polovtsians were expelled from Kiev by Mstislav Izyaslavich (1169), then Rurik Rostislavich of Smolensky defended Kiev from the Olgovichs and Polovtsi (1181), then Kiev, under the rule of Roman Galician, was defeated by Rurik, Olgovich and Polovtsi (1203), then the Polovtsi were used by Daniil Volyurin and Vladimir Ryurik Kiev against the Hungarians, and then the Olgovichi against them in the civil strife of the mid-1230s.

  The resumption of the campaigns of the Russian princes in the steppe (to ensure the safety of trade) is associated with the great Kiev reign of Mstislav Izyaslavich (-).

  Usually Kiev coordinated its defensive actions with Pereyaslavl (which was in the possession of the Rostov-Suzdal princes), and thus a more or less unified line Ros - Sula was created. In this regard, the importance of the headquarters of such a general defense passed from Belgorod to Kanev. The southern border outposts of the Kiev land, located in the 10th century on Stugna and Sula, have now moved down the Dnieper to Orel and Sneporod-Samara

  In the early 1180s, the forces of the coalition of southern Russian princes led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kiev inflicted a decisive defeat on the Polovtsian Khan Kobyak, he was captured along with 7 thousand of his soldiers, and Khan Konchak on Khorol (according to traditional dating July 30, 1183 and 1 March 1185, according to the results of a comparative analysis of the chronicles by N. Berezhkov, July 30 and March 1, 1184, respectively).

  In the spring of 1185, Svyatoslav left for the northeastern lands of the Chernigov principality, gathering go to Don on Polovtsy for the whole summer, and the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich undertook a separate campaign in the steppe (this time unsuccessful, in contrast to the campaign of the previous year). The army of the Seversky prince set out on a campaign on April 23, 1185. On the way, Igor was joined with his squads by his son Vladimir Putivlsky, nephew Svyatoslav Rylsky, Igor's brother, Prince Kursk and Trubchevsky

  (1111)
  Polkosten (1125) Black Forest (1168) Rostovets (1176)
  Khorol (01.03.1184) Orel (30.07.1184) Kajala (1185)

  Russian-Polovtsian wars - a series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between the Old Russian state and the Polovtsian tribes. It was another clash of interests between the ancient Russian state and the nomads of the Black Sea steppes. Another side of this war was the intensification of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, the rulers of which often made the Polovtsians their allies.

  As a rule, there are three stages of hostilities: the initial (second half of the XI century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military leader Vladimir Monomakh (first quarter of the XII century), and the final period (until the middle of the XIII century) (part of it was the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in "The Lay of Igor's Regiment").

  The situation in Russia and in the steppes of the northern Black Sea region by the beginning of the clashes

  By the middle of the XI century. a number of important changes have taken place in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torks, who ruled over the "Wild Steppe" for a century, weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, were unable to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by aliens from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsians, also called the Cumans. The new masters of the steppes defeated the enemies and occupied their pastures. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of the neighborhood with neighboring countries. Long years of clashes between the Eastern Slavs and the steppe nomads developed a certain model of relations, into which the Polovtsians were forced to fit in.

  Meanwhile, the process of disintegration began in Russia - the princes began to wage an active and merciless struggle for inheritances and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Russia.

  The balance of forces and the military organization of the parties

  Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but their contemporaries considered their military organization quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe dwellers, were detachments of light cavalry, armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lasso and spears. Wealthy warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (from the second half of the XII century) about the use of heavy crossbows and "liquid fire" by the Polovtsians, borrowed, perhaps, from China since their time in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire). Polovtsi used tactics of surprise attacks. They operated mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In a field battle, the Polovtsian khans competently divided forces, used flying detachments in the vanguard to start the battle, which were then reinforced by the attack of the main forces. Thus, in the person of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. No wonder the old enemy of Russia - the Pechenegs were utterly defeated by the Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.

  Nevertheless, Russia had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century was already over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The success of the Polovtsians was primarily due to the fragmentation and contradictions in their camp. opponents.

  The structure of the Old Russian army in the era of fragmentation changed significantly in comparison with the earlier period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. The military art of the Russians was at a fairly high level.

  XI century

  Campaigns of Russian princes in the steppe at the beginning of the XII century

  The blow inflicted on the Polovtsy on Trubezh was very painful for the nomads. One of the main Polovtsian khans, Tugorkan, died in the battle. But the power of the steppe people was still great. In 1097, the Lyubech congress of princes stopped the strife in the east of Russia, the congress in Uvetichi (1100) - the strife in the west of Russia. At the Dolob Congress, a decision was made on a general campaign into the steppe, which became the first in a whole series of such campaigns.

  The truce did not last long. The Polovtsi were preparing a new blow to Russia, but this time Monomakh preempted them. Thanks to a sortie into the steppe of the army under the command of the voivode Dmitr, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers on a large campaign against the Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince invited the allies to attack the enemy themselves. This time we performed in winter. On February 26, 1111, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh and their allies, at the head of a large army, moved deep into the Polovtsian nomads. The army of the princes penetrated as far into the steppe as never before - to the very Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But Khan Sharukan brought the main forces out from under the blow. On March 26, hoping for the fatigue of the Russian soldiers after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the princely army returned home without hindrance.

  After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kiev, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsi (). In the last years of his life, Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army for the Don against the Polovtsians, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsi migrated away from the borders of Russia, to the Caucasian foothills.

  XII-XIII centuries

  With the death of the heir to Monomakh Mstislav, the Russian princes return to the practice of using the Polovtsians in civil strife: Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsians under the walls of Kiev during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich, then with their help Izyaslav Davydovich of Chernigov fought against Rostislav Mstislavich of Chernigov, then the Smolensk army Polovtsians were expelled from Kiev by Mstislav Izyaslavich (1169), then Rurik Rostislavich of Smolensky defended Kiev from the Olgovichi and Polovtsi (1181), then, under the rule of Roman Galician Kiev was defeated by Rurik, Olgovichi and Polovtsi (1203), then the Polovtsi were used by Daniil Volyurin and Vladimir Ryurin Kiev against the Hungarians, and then the Olgovichi against them in the civil strife of the mid-1230s.

  The resumption of the campaigns of the Russian princes in the steppe (to ensure the safety of trade) is associated with the great Kiev reign of Mstislav Izyaslavich (-).

  Usually Kiev coordinated its defensive actions with Pereyaslavl (which was in the possession of the Rostov-Suzdal princes), and thus a more or less unified line Ros - Sula was created. In this regard, the importance of the headquarters of such a general defense passed from Belgorod to Kanev. The southern border outposts of the Kiev land, located in the 10th century on Stugna and Sula, have now moved down the Dnieper to Orel and Sneporod-Samara

  In the early 1180s, the forces of the coalition of southern Russian princes led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kiev inflicted a decisive defeat on the Polovtsian Khan Kobyak, he was captured along with 7 thousand of his soldiers, and Khan Konchak on Khorol (according to traditional dating July 30, 1183 and 1 March 1185, according to the results of a comparative analysis of the chronicles by N. Berezhkov, July 30 and March 1, 1184, respectively).

  In the first half of the 13th century, both Russians and Polovtsians became victims of the Mongol conquests. When the Mongols first appeared in Europe in -1223, the Russian princes joined forces with the Polovtsian khans, although the Mongol ambassadors suggested that the Russian princes act together against the Polovtsians. The battle on the Kalka River ended unsuccessfully for the allies, but the Mongols were forced to postpone the conquest of Eastern Europe for 13 years. The western campaign of the Mongols -1242, also referred to in eastern sources kipchak, that is, the Polovtsian, did not meet the joint resistance of the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans.

  Results of wars

  The results of the Russian-Polovtsian wars were the loss by the Russian princes of control over the Tmutarakan principality and Belaya Vezha, as well as the cessation of the Polovtsian invasions of Russia outside the framework of alliances with some Russian princes against others. At the same time, the strongest Russian princes began to undertake campaigns deep into the steppes, but even in these cases, the Polovtsians preferred to retreat, avoiding a collision.

  The Ruriks became related to many Polovtsian khans. Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Prince of Chernigov), Rurik Rostislavich (Prince of Kiev), Mstislav Udatny, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (Prince of Vladimir) were married to Polovtsians at different times. Christianity spread among the Polovtsian elite: for example, of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned by the Russian chronicles under 1223, two bore Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint campaign against the Mongols.

  List of cities in Russia taken by the Polovtsy

  • between and - Starodub, Goroshin.
  • - Torchesk.
  • - in alliance with Oleg Svyatoslavich. Chernigov. Vladimir Monomakh decided to surrender the city to Oleg with the words do not brag about nasty... In payment for his help, Oleg gave the surroundings of the city to the Cumans for plunder.
  • - The mouth. Polovtsian Khan Kurya.
  • - Yuriev in Porosye. The garrison, which withstood a long siege and did not receive help from Kiev, decided to leave the city. Polovtsi burned down an empty city.
  • (possibly) - in alliance with Andrey Bogolyubsky. Kiev . The defenders said to their prince: What are you standing? Get out of town! We cannot overcome them
  • - Rimov (principality of Kursk).
  • - in alliance with Rurik Rostislavich. Kiev .

  see also

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  Notes

  Sources

  • Gumilev L.N. "Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe." - M .: OOO "Publishing house AST", 2002. - 839 p.
  • Egorov V.L. "". Domestic history, 1994, no. 6
  • Razin E.A. "History of military art of the 6th-16th centuries." S.-Pb .: LLC "Polygon Publishing House"; 1999 .-- 656 p.
  • Shefov N.A. "Most famous wars and the battle of Russia. -M .: Veche, 2000 .-- 528s.

  Wars Battles

  An excerpt characterizing the Russian-Polovtsian wars

  Often he said the exact opposite of what he had said before, but both were true. He loved to speak and spoke well, adorning his speech with affectionate and proverbs, which, it seemed to Pierre, he himself invented; but the main charm of his stories was that in his speech the events were the simplest, sometimes the very ones that Pierre saw without noticing them, acquired the character of solemn goodness. He loved to listen to fairy tales that one soldier told in the evenings (all the same), but most of all he loved to hear stories about real life. He smiled happily, listening to such stories, inserting words and asking questions that tended to grasp the goodness of what he was told. Affection, friendship, love, as Pierre understood them, Karataev did not have any; but he loved and lived lovingly with everything with which life brought him, and especially with a person - not with some famous person, but with those people who were before his eyes. He loved his mongrel, loved his comrades, the French, loved Pierre, who was his neighbor; but Pierre felt that Karataev, in spite of all his affectionate affection for him (with which he involuntarily paid tribute to Pierre's spiritual life), would not for a moment be grieved at being separated from him. And Pierre began to feel the same feeling for Karataev.
  Platon Karataev was for all the other prisoners the most ordinary soldier; his name was Sokolik or Platosha, they good-naturedly mocked him, sent him for parcels. But for Pierre, as he appeared on the first night, an incomprehensible, round and eternal personification of the spirit of simplicity and truth, this is how he remained forever.
  Platon Karataev knew nothing by heart, except for his prayer. When he spoke his speeches, he, starting them, did not seem to know how he would end them.
  When Pierre, sometimes struck by the meaning of his speech, asked to repeat what he had said, Plato could not remember what he said a minute ago, just as he could not in any way say to Pierre his favorite song in words. There was: "darling, birch and nauseous to me," but the words did not come out any meaning. He did not understand and could not understand the meaning of words taken separately from speech. His every word and every action was a manifestation of an activity unknown to him, which was his life. But his life, as he himself saw it, had no meaning as a separate life. It made sense only as a part of the whole, which he constantly felt. His words and actions poured out of him as evenly, necessary and directly as the smell is separated from the flower. He could not understand either the price or the meaning of a single action or word.

  Having received from Nicholas the news that her brother was with the Rostovs in Yaroslavl, Princess Marya, despite her aunt's admonitions, immediately prepared to go, and not only alone, but with her nephew. Whether it was difficult, not difficult, possible or impossible it was, she did not ask and did not want to know: her duty was not only herself to be near, perhaps, a dying brother, but also to do everything possible to bring him a son, and she got up go. If Prince Andrew himself did not notify her, then Princess Marya explained either by the fact that he was too weak to write, or by the fact that he considered this long journey too difficult and dangerous for her and for his son.
  In a few days Princess Marya got ready for the journey. Her crews consisted of a huge princely carriage, in which she arrived in Voronezh, chaise and carts. With her rode m lle Bourienne, Nikolushka with the tutor, an old nanny, three girls, Tikhon, a young footman and a hayduk, whom her aunt let go with her.
  It was impossible even to think about going to Moscow by the usual way, and therefore the roundabout route that Princess Marya had to make: to Lipetsk, Ryazan, Vladimir, Shuya, was very long, in the absence of post horses everywhere, it was very difficult and near Ryazan, where, as said the French were showing up, even dangerous.
  During this difficult journey m lle Bourienne, Desalles and Princess Mary's servants were surprised by her firmness of spirit and activity. She went to bed later than everyone else, got up earlier than everyone else, and no difficulty could stop her. Thanks to her activity and the energy that aroused her companions, by the end of the second week they were approaching Yaroslavl.
  During her recent stay in Voronezh, Princess Marya experienced the best happiness in her life. Her love for Rostov no longer tormented her, did not worry her. This love filled her whole soul, became an inseparable part of herself, and she no longer fought against her. Recently Princess Marya has become convinced - although she has never clearly said this to herself in words - she has become convinced that she was loved and loved. She was convinced of this during her last meeting with Nikolai, when he came to her to announce that her brother was with the Rostovs. Nicholas did not hint with a single word that now (if Prince Andrey recovered) the former relationship between him and Natasha could resume, but Princess Marya saw in his face that he knew and thought this. And, despite the fact that his relationship to her - cautious, tender and loving - not only did not change, but he seemed to be glad that now the relationship between him and Princess Marya allowed him to more freely express his friendship to her, as he sometimes thought Princess Marya. Princess Marya knew that she had loved for the first and last time in her life, and felt that she was loved, and was happy, calm in this respect.
  But this happiness of one side of the soul not only did not prevent her from feeling grief about her brother in all her strength, but, on the contrary, this peace of mind in one respect gave her a great opportunity to completely surrender to her feelings for her brother. This feeling was so strong in the first minute of her departure from Voronezh that those who accompanied her were sure, looking at her exhausted, desperate face, that she would certainly fall ill on the way; but it was precisely the difficulties and worries of the journey, for which Princess Marya undertook with such activity, that saved her for a while from her grief and gave her strength.
  As always happens during a trip, Princess Marya thought of only one trip, forgetting what was his goal. But, approaching Yaroslavl, when what might lie ahead of her was revealed again, and not many days later, but this evening, Princess Mary's agitation reached extreme limits.
  When a haiduk sent ahead to find out in Yaroslavl where the Rostovs were and what position Prince Andrey was in, met a large driving carriage at the outpost, he was horrified to see the princess's terribly pale face, which stuck out of the window.
  - I found out everything, Your Excellency: the Rostov people are standing on the square, in the house of the merchant Bronnikov. Not far away, just above the Volga, - said the hayduk.
  Princess Marya looked frightened and questioningly at his face, not understanding what he was saying to her, not understanding why he did not answer main question: what brother? M lle Bourienne made this question for Princess Marya.
  - What is the prince? She asked.
  - Their Excellency stands with them in the same house.
  "So he is alive," thought the princess and quietly asked: what is he?
  - People said, everyone is in the same position.
  What did it mean “everything is in the same position,” the princess did not ask, and only a glimpse of seven-year-old Nikolushka, who was sitting in front of her and rejoicing at the city, lowered her head and did not raise it until the heavy carriage rattled, swaying, did not stop somewhere. The reclining footrests thundered.
  The doors opened. There was water on the left — the river was large, on the right was a porch; on the porch there were people, a servant and some kind of rosy-faced girl with a big black braid who smiled unpleasantly, as it seemed to Princess Marya (it was Sonya). The princess ran up the stairs, the girl who was pretending to smile said: - Here, here! - and the princess found herself in the hall in front of an old woman with an oriental type of face, who, with a moved expression, quickly walked towards her. It was the Countess. She hugged Princess Marya and began to kiss her.
  - Mon enfant! - she said, - je vous aime et vous connais depuis longtemps. [My child! I love and know you for a long time.]
  Despite all her excitement, Princess Marya realized that it was the countess and that she had to say something to her. She, not knowing how, uttered some polite French words, in the same tone as those that were spoken to her, and asked: what is he?
  “The doctor says there’s no danger,” said the Countess, but as she spoke, she raised her eyes with a sigh, and there was an expression in this gesture that contradicted her words.
  - Where is he? Can I see him, can I? - asked the princess.
  - Now, princess, now, my friend. Is this his son? - she said, referring to Nikolushka, who entered with Desal. - We can all fit, the house is big. Oh, what a lovely boy!
  The countess ushered the princess into the drawing room. Sonya talked to m lle Bourienne. The Countess caressed the boy. The old count entered the room, greeting the princess. The old count has changed enormously since the last time the princess saw him. Then he was a lively, cheerful, self-confident old man, now he seemed a pitiful, lost person. As he spoke to the princess, he constantly looked around, as if asking everyone if he was doing what was needed. After the devastation of Moscow and his estate, knocked out of his usual rut, he apparently lost consciousness of his significance and felt that he had no place in life.
  In spite of the excitement in which she was, in spite of one desire to see her brother as soon as possible and to her annoyance that at that moment, when she only wanted to see him, she was occupied and pretended to praise her nephew, the princess noticed everything that was done around her, and felt the need to submit for a while to this new order into which she was entering. She knew that all this was necessary, and it was difficult for her, but she did not annoy them.
  - This is my niece, - said the count, introducing Sonya, - you don't know her, princess?
  The princess turned to her and, trying to extinguish the hostile feeling that arose in her soul towards this girl, kissed her. But it became hard for her because the mood of everyone around her was so far from what was in her soul.
  - Where is he? She asked again, addressing everyone.
  "He's downstairs, Natasha is with him," Sonya answered, blushing. - Let's go find out. I think you are tired, princess?
  Tears of annoyance came to the princess's eyes. She turned away and wanted to ask the countess again where to go to him, as light, swift, as if merry steps were heard in the doorway. The princess looked around and saw Natasha almost running in, that Natasha who had so disliked her on that long-standing meeting in Moscow.
  But before the princess had time to look at the face of this Natasha, she realized that this was her sincere comrade in grief, and therefore her friend. She rushed to meet her and, embracing her, wept on her shoulder.
  As soon as Natasha, who was sitting at the head of Prince Andrey, learned of Princess Marya's arrival, she quietly left his room with those quick, as it seemed to Princess Marya, as if with merry steps and ran towards her.
  On her agitated face, when she ran into the room, there was only one expression - an expression of love, of boundless love for him, for her, for everything that was close to a loved one, an expression of pity, suffering for others and a passionate desire to give all of herself for in order to help them. It was evident that at that moment not a single thought about herself, about her relationship to him was in Natasha's soul.
  The sensitive Princess Marya understood all this at the first glance on Natasha's face and cried with sorrowful pleasure on her shoulder.
  “Let's go, let's go to him, Marie,” Natasha said, leading her to another room.
  Princess Marya raised her face, wiped her eyes and turned to Natasha. She felt that from her she would understand and learn everything.
  “What…” she began the question, but suddenly stopped. She felt that words could neither ask nor answer. Natasha's face and eyes should have said more and more clearly.
  Natasha looked at her, but seemed to be in fear and doubt - to say or not to say everything that she knew; she seemed to feel that before those radiant eyes that penetrated into the very depths of her heart, it was impossible not to say the whole, the whole truth as she saw her. Natasha's lip suddenly trembled, ugly wrinkles formed around her mouth, and she, sobbing, covered her face with her hands.
  Princess Marya understood everything.
  But she still hoped and asked in words in which she did not believe:
  - But how is his wound? In general, what position is he in?
  - You, you ... will see, - only Natasha could say.
  They sat for some time downstairs near his room in order to stop crying and enter him with calm faces.
  - How did the whole illness go? How long has it gotten worse? When did it happen? - asked Princess Marya.
  Natasha said that at first there was a danger from fever and suffering, but in Trinity this passed, and the doctor was afraid of one thing - Antonov's fire. But this danger was over. When we arrived in Yaroslavl, the wound began to fester (Natasha knew everything about suppuration, etc.), and the doctor said that suppuration could go right. A fever developed. The doctor said that this fever was not so dangerous.
  “But two days ago,” Natasha began, “all of a sudden it happened…” She restrained her sobs. “I don’t know why, but you’ll see what he has become.
  - Loose? lost weight? .. - asked the princess.
  - No, not that, but worse. You will see. Ah, Marie, Marie, he is too good, he cannot, he cannot live ... because ...

  When Natasha, with her habitual movement, opened his door, letting the princess in front of her, Princess Marya already felt ready sobs in her throat. No matter how much she prepared herself or tried to calm down, she knew that she would not be able to see him without tears.
  Princess Marya understood what Natasha understood in words: this happened two days ago. She understood that this meant that he suddenly softened, and that these softening, these tenderness were signs of death. Approaching the door, she already saw in her imagination that face of Andryusha, which she had known since childhood, gentle, meek, tender, which so rarely happened to him and therefore always had such a strong effect on her. She knew that he would say quiet, tender words to her, like those that her father had told her before he died, and that she could not bear it and would burst into tears over him. But, sooner or later, it had to be, and she entered the room. The sobs came closer and closer to her throat, while with her myopic eyes she made out more clearly and more clearly his form and searched for his features, and so she saw his face and met his gaze.
  He was lying on the sofa, covered with pillows, in a furry squirrel robe. He was thin and pale. One thin, transparent white hand held a handkerchief, with the other, with quiet movements of his fingers, he touched his thin, overgrown mustache. His eyes were looking at those who entered.
  Seeing his face and meeting his gaze, Princess Marya suddenly moderated the speed of her step and felt that her tears had suddenly dried up and her sobs had stopped. Catching the expression on his face and look, she suddenly felt intimidated and felt guilty.
  "But what am I to blame for?" She asked herself. "In the fact that you live and think about living things, and I! .." - answered his cold, stern look.
  There was almost hostility in his deep, not out of himself, but in himself, when he slowly looked around at his sister and Natasha.
  He kissed his sister hand in hand, according to their habit.
  - Hello, Marie, how did you get there? He said in a voice as even and alien as his gaze. If he had screamed with a desperate cry, this cry would have terrified Princess Mary less than the sound of this voice.
  - And you brought Nikolushka? He said, also evenly and slowly, and with an obvious effort to remember.
  - How is your health now? - said Princess Marya, herself surprised at what she was saying.
  `` This, my friend, you have to ask the doctor, '' he said, and apparently making another effort to be gentle, he said with one mouth (it was obvious that he did not think what he was saying): `` Merci, chere amie , d "etre venue. [Thank you dear friend for coming.]
  Princess Marya shook his hand. He winced slightly at the shake of her hand. He was silent, and she did not know what to say. She understood what had happened to him in two days. In his words, in his tone, especially in this gaze - a cold, almost hostile gaze - there was a terrible alienation for a living person from everything worldly. He evidently had difficulty understanding now all living things; but at the same time it was felt that he did not understand the living, not because he was deprived of the power of understanding, but because he understood something else, something that the living did not understand and could not understand and that absorbed everything.
  - Yes, that's how strange fate brought us together! He said, breaking the silence and pointing at Natasha. - She keeps following me.
  Princess Marya listened and did not understand what he was saying. He, sensitive, gentle Prince Andrew, how could he say this with the one he loved and who loved him! If he had thought to live, he would have said it in a less coldly offensive tone. If he did not know that he was going to die, how could he not feel sorry for her, how could he say this in front of her! One explanation could only be for this, this is that he did not care, and all the same because something else, the most important, was revealed to him.
  The conversation was cold, incoherent and interrupted incessantly.
  “Marie drove through Ryazan,” Natasha said. Prince Andrew did not notice that she was calling his sister Marie. And Natasha, when he called her that, for the first time noticed it herself.
  - Well then? - he said.
  - She was told that Moscow was all burnt down, completely, that as if ...
  Natasha stopped: it was impossible to speak. He obviously made an effort to listen, and yet he could not.
  “Yes, it burned out, they say,” he said. “This is a pity,” and he began to look ahead, absentmindedly spreading his mustache with his fingers.
  - Have you met Count Nikolai, Marie? - said Prince Andrey suddenly, apparently wishing to please them. - He wrote here that he liked you very much, - he continued simply, calmly, apparently unable to understand all the complex meaning that his words had for living people. “If you fell in love with him too, it would be very good ... for you to marry,” he added rather more quickly, as if delighted with the words that he had been looking for for a long time and found at last. Princess Marya heard his words, but they had no other meaning for her, except that they proved how terribly distant he was now from all living things.
  - What to say about me! She said calmly and looked at Natasha. Natasha, feeling her gaze on her, did not look at her. Again everyone was silent.
  - Andre, you want ... - Princess Marya suddenly said in a shuddering voice, - do you want to see Nikolushka? He thought about you all the time.
  Prince Andrey smiled slightly for the first time, but Princess Marya, who knew his face so well, realized with horror that it was not a smile of joy, not tenderness for her son, but a quiet, meek mockery of what Princess Marya used, in her opinion , the last resort to bring him to his senses.
  - Yes, I am very glad to Nikolushka. He is healthy?

  When they brought Nikolushka to Prince Andrey, who looked frightened at his father, but did not cry because no one was crying, Prince Andrey kissed him and, obviously, did not know what to say to him.
  When Nikolushka was being taken away, Princess Marya went up to her brother again, kissed him and, unable to hold on any longer, began to cry.
  He looked at her intently.
  - Are you talking about Nikolushka? - he said.
  Princess Marya, crying, bent her head in the affirmative.
  - Marie, you know Evan ... - but he suddenly fell silent.
  - What are you saying?
  - Nothing. No need to cry here, ”he said, looking at her with the same cold look.

  Polovtsian stone statue. Archaeological Museum-Reserve "Tanais", Myasnikovsky district, Nedvigovka farm. XI-XII centuries Alexander Polyakov / RIA Novosti

  The formation of the Polovtsian ethnos took place according to the same laws for all the peoples of the Middle Ages and antiquity. One of them is that not always the people who gave the name to the entire conglomerate are the most numerous in it - due to objective or subjective factors it is moving to a leading position in the emerging ethnic massif and becomes its core. Half-ts did not come to an empty place. The first component that joined the new ethnic community here was the population that was previously part of the Khazar Kaganate - the Bulgarians and Alans. A more significant role was played by the remnants of the Pechenezh and Guz hordes. This is confirmed by the fact that, firstly, according to anthropology, outwardly the nomads of the X-XIII centuries almost did not differ from the inhabitants of the steppes of the VIII - early X centuries, and secondly, an unusual variety of funeral rites is recorded on this territory ... The custom that came exclusively with the Polovtsians was the construction of sanctuaries dedicated to the cult of male or female ancestors. Thus, from the end of the 10th century in this region, there was a mixing of three kindred peoples, a single Turkic-speaking community was formed, but the process was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.

  Polovtsi - nomads

  The Polovtsi were a classic nomadic pastoralist people. The herds had cattle, sheep, and even camels, but the main wealth of the nomad was the horse. Initially, they led a year-round so-called camp nomadism: finding a place rich in food for livestock, they located their dwellings there, when the feed was depleted, they went in search new territory... At first, the steppe could provide for everyone painlessly. However, as a result of demographic growth, the urgent task has become the transition to a more rational economy - seasonal nomadism. It assumes a clear division of pastures into winter and summer, the folding of territories and routes assigned to each group.

  
  Polovtsian silver bowl with one handle. Kiev, X-XIII centuries Dea / A. Dagli Orti / Getty Images

  Dynastic marriages

  Dynastic marriages have always been a tool of diplomacy. The Polovtsians were no exception. However, the relationship was not based on parity - the Russian princes willingly married the daughters of the Polovtsian princes, but did not send their relatives in marriage. An unwritten medieval law worked here: ruling dynasty could only give in marriage to an equal. It is characteristic that the same Svyatopolk married the daughter of Tugorkan, having suffered a crushing defeat from him, that is, being in a weaker position. However, he did not give up his daughter or sister, but he himself took a girl from the steppe. Thus, the Polovtsians were recognized as an influential, but not equal force.

  But if the baptism of the future wife seemed even a godly deed, then “betrayal” of one's faith was not possible, which is why the Polovtsian rulers were unable to get the daughters of Russian princes to marry themselves. There is only one known case when a Russian princess (the widowed mother of Holy Glory Vladimirovich) married a Polovtsian prince - but for this she had to flee home.

  Be that as it may, by the time of the Mongol invasion, the Russian and Polovtsian aristocracy were closely intertwined with kinship ties, the cultures of both peoples were mutually enriching.

  Polovtsi were a weapon in internecine feud

  The Polovtsi were not the first dangerous neighbor of Russia - the threat from the steppe always accompanied the life of the country. But unlike the Pechenegs, these nomads met not with a single state, but with a group of principalities at war with each other. At first, the Polovtsian hordes did not strive to conquer Russia, being content with small raids. Only when in 1068 the combined forces of the three princes were defeated on the Lyte (Alta) river, did the power of the new nomadic neighbor become apparent. But the danger was not realized by the rulers - the Polovtsians, always ready for war and plunder, began to be used in the struggle against each other. Oleg Svyatoslavich was the first to do this in 1078, bringing in the "nasty" to fight Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Later, he repeatedly repeated this "technique" in the internecine struggle, for which he was named the author of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" Oleg Gorislavich.

  But the contradictions between the Russian and Polovtsian princes did not always allow them to unite. Vladimir Monomakh was especially active in fighting against the established tradition. In 1103, the Dolob Congress took place, at which Vla-dimir managed to organize the first expedition to the territory of the enemy. The result was the defeat of the Polovtsian army, which lost not only ordinary soldiers, but also twenty representatives of the highest nobility. The continuation of this policy led to the fact that the Polovtsians were forced to migrate away from the borders of Russia.

  
  Warriors of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich capture the Polovtsian vezhes. Miniature
  from the Radziwill Chronicle. XV century vk.com

  After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the princes again began to bring the Polovtsians to fight with each other, weakening the military and economic potential of the country. In the second half of the century, there was another surge of active confrontation, which was led in the steppe by Prince Konchak. It was to him that Igor Svyatoslavich was captured in 1185, which is described in the "Lay of Igor's Regiment". In the 1190s, raids became less and less, and at the beginning of the XIII century, the military activity of the steppe neighbors also subsided.

  Further development of the relationship was interrupted by the arrival of the Mongols. The southern regions of Rus were endlessly exposed not only to raids, but also to the "drives" of the Polovtsians, which ruined these lands. After all, even a simple re-movement of the army of nomads (and there were cases when they went here and with the entire economy) destroyed crops, the military threat forced the traders to choose other paths. Thus, this people contributed a lot to the shift of the center of the country's historical development.

  
  Polovtsian anthropomorphic statue from the collection of the Dnepropetrovsk Historical MuseumThe female stele holds the vessel. Drawing by S. A. Pletneva "Polovets stone izvayaniya", 1974

  Polovtsi were friends not only with Russians, but also with Georgians

  The Polovtsians were noted for their active participation in history not only in Russia. Expelled by Vladimir Monomakh from the Seversky Donets, they partially migrated to the Ciscaucasia under the leadership of Prince Atrak. Here Georgia turned to them for help, constantly being raided from the mountainous regions of the Caucasus. Atrak willingly entered the service of King David and even became related to him, having given his daughter in marriage. He did not bring with him the entire horde, but only a part of it, which later remained in Georgia.

  From the beginning of the 12th century, the Polovtsians actively penetrated the territory of Bulgaria, which was then under the rule of Byzantium. They were engaged in cattle breeding here or tried to enter the service of the empire. Apparently, these include Peter and Ivan Aseni, who raised an uprising against Constantinople. With the tangible support of the Cuman detachments, they managed to defeat Byzantium, in 1187 the Second Bulgarian Kingdom was founded, the head of which was Peter.

  At the beginning of the 13th century, the influx of Polovtsians into the country increased, and the eastern branch of the ethnos had already participated in it, bringing with it the tradition of stone sculptures. Here, however, they quickly Christianized, and then disappeared among the local population. For Bulgaria, this was not the first experience of "digesting" the Turkic people. The Mongol invasion "pushed" the Polovtsians to the west, gradually, from 1228, they moved to Hungary. In 1237, the still powerful prince Kotyan appealed to the Hungarian king Bela IV. The Hungarian leadership agreed to the provision of the eastern outskirts of the state, knowing about the strength of the approaching army of Batu.

  The Polovtsi roamed the territories assigned to them, causing discontent in neighboring principalities, which were subjected to periodic robberies. Bela's heir Stefan married one of Kotyan's daughters, but then executed his father-in-law under the pretext of treason. This led to the first uprising of freedom-loving settlers. The next riot of the Polovtsians was caused by an attempt at their violent Christianization. Only in the XIV century they completely settled, became katol-kami and began to dissolve, although they still retained their military specifics and even in the XIX century they still remembered the prayer "Our Father" in their native language.

  We do not know anything about whether the Polovtsians had writing

  Our knowledge of the Cumans is rather limited due to the fact that this people never created their own written sources. We can see a huge number of stone statues, but we will not find any inscriptions there. We get information about this people from its neighbors. The 164-page notebook of a missionary-translator of the late 13th - early 14th centuries "Alfabetum Persicum, Comanicum et Latinum Anonymi ...", better known as "Codex Cumanicus", stands apart. The time of the appearance of the monument is determined by the period from 1303 to 1362, the Crimean city of Kafu (Feodosia) is called the place of writing. By origin, content, graphic and linguistic features, the dictionary is divided into two parts, Italian and German. The first is written in three columns: Latin words, their translation into Persian and Polovtsian languages. The German part contains dictionaries, grammar notes, Polovtsian riddles and Christian texts. The Italian component for historians is more substantial, since it reflected the economic needs of communication with the Polots. In it we find such words as “bazaar”, “merchant”, “money changer”, “price”, “coin”, listing of goods and crafts. In addition, it contains words that characterize a person, city, nature. The list of Polovtsian titles is of great importance.

  Although, in all likelihood, the manuscript was partially rewritten from an earlier original, it was not created at one time, why it is not a "slice" of reality, but it still allows us to understand what the Polovtsians were doing, what goods they were interested in, we can see their borrowing from Old Russian words and, which is very important, to reconstruct the hierarchy of their society.

  Polovtsian women

  A specific feature of the Polovtsian culture was the stone statues of the ancestors, which are called stone or Polovtsian women. This name appeared because of the emphasized breast, which always hangs on the stomach, which obviously carried a symbolic meaning - feeding the genus. Moreover, a fairly significant percentage of male statues have been recorded, which depict a mustache or even a beard and at the same time have a breast identical to the female.

  The 12th century is the heyday of the Polovtsian culture and the mass production of stone statues; there are also faces in which a striving for portrayal similarity is noticeable. Making idols out of stone was expensive, and the less wealthy members of society could only afford wooden figures, which unfortunately did not come down to us. The statues were placed on the tops of mounds or hills in square or rectangular sanctuaries, built of flagstone. Most often, male and female statues - the ancestors of the kosha - were placed with faces to the east, but there were also shrines with a cluster of figures. At their foot, archaeologists found the bones of rams, and once discovered the remains of a child. It is obvious that the cult of ancestors played a significant role in the life of the Polovtsians. For us, the importance of this feature of their culture is that it allows us to clearly define where the people roamed.

  
  Earrings of the Polovtsian type. Yasinovataya, Donetsk region. Second half of XII - XIII century From the article by O. Ya. Privalova “Rich nomadic burials from Donbass”. "Archaeological Almanac". No. 7, 1988

  Attitude towards women

  In Polovtsian society, women enjoyed considerable freedom, although they also had a significant part of the responsibilities at home. There is a clear gender division of the spheres of activity both in craft and in cattle breeding: women were in charge of goats, sheep and cows, men were in charge of horses and camels. During military campaigns on the shoulders of the weaker sex all the worries about the defense and economic activities of the nomads were heaped. Perhaps sometimes they had to become the head of the kosha. At least two female burials have been found with rods made of precious metals, which were symbols of the leader of a larger or smaller association. At the same time, women did not stay away from military affairs. In the era of military democracy, girls took part in general campaigns, the defense of a nomad during the absence of a husband also presupposed the presence of military skills. A stone statue of a heroic girl has reached us. The size of the statue is one and a half to two times larger than the common one, the chest is "tucked up", in contrast to the traditional image, it is covered with elements of armor. She is armed with a saber, a dagger, and a quiver for arrows, nevertheless her headdress is undoubtedly female. This type of warrior is reflected in Russian epics under the name Polyanyts.

  Where did the Polovtsians go

  Not a single nation disappears without a trace. History knows no cases of complete physical extermination of the population by alien invaders. The Polovtsians did not go anywhere either. In part, they went to the Danube and even ended up in Egypt, but the bulk remained in their native steppes. For at least a hundred years, they retained their customs, albeit in a modified form. Apparently, the Mongols forbade the creation of new sanctuaries dedicated to the Polovtsian soldiers, which led to the emergence of "pit" places of worship. In a hill or a mound, depressions were dug, not visible from afar, inside which the pattern of placing the statues, traditional for the previous period, was repeated.

  But even with the termination of this custom, the Polovtsians did not disappear. The Mon-Gols came to the Russian steppes with their families, and did not resettled with the whole tribe. And the same process took place with them as with the Polovtsians centuries earlier: having given a name to a new people, they themselves dissolved in it, assimilating its language and culture. Thus, the Mongols became a bridge from the modern peoples of Russia to the summer-written Polovtsy.

  The Polovtsi (11-13th centuries) are a nomadic people of Turkic origin, who became one of the main serious political opponents of the princes of Ancient Rus.

  At the beginning of the 11th century. the Polovtsians moved out of the Volga region, where they had lived before, towards the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pechenegs and Tork tribes along the way. After crossing the Dnieper, they reached the lower reaches of the Danube, occupying the vast territories of the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh. In the same period, the steppes occupied by the Polovtsy began to be called the Polovtsian steppes (in Russian chronicles) and Desht-i-Kypchak (in the chronicles of other peoples).

  Name of the people

  The people also have the names "Kipchaks" and "Kumans". Each term has its own meaning and appeared in special conditions... So, the name "Polovtsy", generally accepted on the territory of Ancient Russia, came from the word "stripes", which means "yellow", and came into use due to the fact that the early representatives of this people had light ("yellow") hair.

  The term "Kipchak" was first used after a serious civil war in the 7th century. among the Turkic tribes, when the loser nobility began to call itself "Kipchak" ("ill-fated"). Polovtsians were called "Kumans" in Byzantine and Western European chronicles.

  History of the people

  The Polovtsy were an independent people for several centuries, but by the middle of the 13th century. became part of the Golden Horde and assimilated the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, passing on to them part of their culture and their language. Later, Tatar, Kazakh, Kumyk and many other languages \u200b\u200bwere formed on the basis of the Kypchan language (which was spoken by the Polovtsians).

  The Polovtsi led a life typical of many nomadic peoples. Their main occupation was animal husbandry. In addition, they were engaged in trade. A little later, the Polovtsians changed their nomadic way of life to a more sedentary one; certain land plots were assigned to certain parts of the tribe, where people could conduct their economy.

  The Polovtsi were pagans, professed Tangerianism (worship of Tengri Khan, the eternal radiance of the sky), worshiped animals (in particular, the wolf was in the understanding of the Polovtsians their ancestor-totem). The tribes were inhabited by shamans who performed various rituals of worshiping nature and land.

  Kievan Rus and Cumans

  The Polovtsians are very often mentioned in the Old Russian chronicles, and this is primarily due to their uneasy relations with the Russians. Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsian tribes constantly committed cruelty, robbed villages and tried to seize local territories. In addition to many small forays, there are about 46 major Polovtsian forays into Kievan Rus.

  The first major battle between the Polovtsians and the Russians took place on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, when a Polovtsian tribe raided Russian territories, burned down several fields and plundered the villages located there. The Polovtsians quite often managed to defeat the Russian army. So, in 1068 they defeated the Russian army of the Yaroslavichs, and in 1078, during the next battle with the Polovtsian tribes, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich died.

  The troops of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh (who later led the all-Russian campaigns of Rus against the Polovtsy) and Rostislav during the battle in 1093 also fell from the hands of these nomads. In 1094, the Cumans reached the point where they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. However, the Russian princes constantly collected retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians, which sometimes ended quite successfully. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the struggle against Kievan Rus. In 1103 they were again defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Svyatopolk and Vladimir and were forced to leave the previously occupied territories and go to serve in the Caucasus to the local king.

  Finally, the Polovtsians were defeated in 1111 by Vladimir Monomakh and the Russian army of many thousands, which undertook crusade against their old opponents and invaders of Russian territories. To avoid the final ruin, the Polovtsian tribes were forced to leave back across the Danube and to Georgia (the tribe was divided). However, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Polovtsians were able to return again and began to repeat their early raids, but very quickly went over to the side of the Russian princes at war with each other and began to take part in the permanent ones on the territory of Russia, supporting one or another prince. Participated in the raids on Kiev.

  Another major campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians, which was reported in the annals, took place in 1185. In the well-known work "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" this event is called the battle with the Polovtsians. Igor's campaign, unfortunately, was unsuccessful. He failed to defeat the Polovtsians, but this battle entered the annals. Some time after this event, the raids began to subside, the Polovtsians split up, some of them converted to Christianity and mixed with the local population.

  End of the Polovtsian tribe

  The once strong tribe, which caused a lot of inconvenience to the Russian princes, ceased to exist as an independent and independent people around the middle of the 13th century. The campaigns of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Batu led to the fact that the Polovtsians actually became part of the Golden Horde and (although they did not lose their culture, but, on the contrary, passed it on) ceased to be independent.