People are legends. Ancient world

Cyrus II the Great (Greek Cyrus; Persian Kurush; Hebrew Koresh; English Cyrus the Great) was born around 593 BC. e. Son of Cambyses I of the Achaemenid clan, the leading clan in the Persian tribe called the Pasargadae.

Portrait of Cyrus II the Great. Modern reconstruction based on the image in relief in Pasargadae, according to a number of historians wearing the portrait features of Cyrus

In his appeal to the Babylonians, Cyrus called his ancestors, Teisp, Cyrus the First and Cambyses I, "the kings of Anshan." However, from biblical sources it is known that Elam, one of whose regions was Anshan, was conquered in 596 BC. BC, and it is possible that the Pasargadian dynasty of Teispa captured Anshan that same year. The Pasargadian kings of Anshan were vassals of the Medes Empire until the revolt of Cyrus, who (according to Herodotus, who claimed that Cyrus's reign lasted 29 years), probably became king in 558.The rebellion began in 553 and ended with the capture of the king of Media Astyages and the capture of Ektabana, the Median capital. From that time on, Cyrus began to call himself "King of the Persians".

There were several contradictory testimonies about the origin, childhood and adolescence of the creator of the great Persian state, Cyrus II. Cyrus's story soon became overgrown with legends. Herodotus mentions four versions of his origin. Another Greek historian, Xenophon, also writes that already in the 5th century. BC e. the life of Cyrus the Great was told in different ways. According to one version, Cyrus was the son of Mandana, the daughter of King Astyages. He was taken to the mountains, fed by a dog, and raised by a shepherd. It should be noted that the legitimacy of Cyrus's rule in Media was confirmed by his blood ties with Astyages, which, in addition to Herodotus, are mentioned by other historians (Justin, Elian). According to the most common version, Cyrus's father was the Persian king Cambyses I, and his mother was Mandana, the daughter of the Median king Astyages (Ishtuvegu), who was then subject to the Persians. According to Herodotus, once Astyages had a dream, interpreted by the court priests-magicians in the sense that his grandson Cyrus would become king in his place. Therefore, Astyages summoned a pregnant Mandana from Persia and after a while, when her son was born, he decided to destroy him.

He entrusted this task to his dignitary Garpag. In turn, Harpagus handed the child over to the shepherd Mithridates, one of Astyages' slaves, and ordered to leave him in the mountains, where it was full of wild animals. But when Mithridates brought the baby to his hut in the mountains, he learned that his wife had just given birth to a stillborn child. The parents decided to raise the tsar's son, who received the name Cyrus, as their own, and left the dead child in a secluded place in the mountains, dressing him in the luxurious clothes of the grandson of Astyages. After that, Mithridates reported to Harpagus that he had carried out his order. Garpagus, having sent loyal people to examine the corpse of the baby and bury him, was convinced that this was really so. Thus, Cyrus spent his childhood among the royal slaves. When the boy was ten years old, he was once elected king while playing with the children. But the son of one noble Median refused to obey him, and Cyrus punished him with beatings. The boy's father, Artembar, complained to Astyages that his slave was beating the children of the royal dignitaries. Cyrus was brought for punishment to Astyages, who immediately suspected that he was in front of his grandson, since he noticed in him features of a family resemblance. Indeed, having interrogated Mithridates under threat of torture, Astyages learned the truth. Then he severely punished Garpag: he invited him to dinner and secretly treated his own son, Cyrus's peer, to meat. Then Astyages again turned to the magicians with the question of whether he was still in danger from his grandson. They replied that the dream had already come true, since Cyrus was elected king while playing with the children, and therefore there was no need to be afraid of him anymore. Then Astyages calmed down and sent his grandson to Persia to his parents.

In the future, Harpagus rose under Cyrus and commanded an army that subjugated the peoples of the Asia Minor coast to the power of Cyrus. According to the third version, Cyrus was the son of a beggar Mardian robber Atradat (the Mardas were a nomadic Persian tribe), who later rose to the service of Astyages. The prediction of the future greatness, uttered by the Chaldeans, prompted Cyrus to escape to Persia and to the beginning of the rebellion. According to Aeschylus, who combined the Hellenic information with the eastern ones, Cyrus inherited the kingdom from a certain unnamed son of the Medes king Midas and, becoming a ruler blessed by heaven, conquered Lydia, Phrygia and Ionia.

Cyrus II the Great on horseback

Further biography of Cyrus is known mainly from the "History" of Herodotus. Some useful information can also be gleaned from the ancient historian Ctesias and the books of the Old Testament. The original sources are few in number. In addition to the cylinder with the appeal of Cyrus "to the Babylonians", only a few private Babylonian documents have survived, which help to keep the chronology of events in accordance with the dating of the Ptolemaic canon.

In 558 BC. e. Cyrus the Great became the king of the Persian sedentary tribes, among which the Pasargadae played the leading role. In addition to them, the union also included marathias and maspias. All of them were dependent on the Median king. The center of the then Persian state was located around the city of Pasargadae, the intensive construction of which dates back to the initial period of Kurush's rule. (The Kirtians, Mardas, Sagartias and some other nomadic tribes, who lived in the cities and steppes of Persia, as well as the settled tribes of Karmania, Panfialei and Derushi, were conquered by Cyrus later, apparently after the war with Media.)

Persian warriors

When Cyrus became king of Persia, there were four major powers in the Middle East: Media, Lydia, Babylonia and Egypt. All of them in the future were destined to become part of the Achaemenid state, the foundation of which was laid in 553 BC. e. revolt of the Persians against Media. According to Herodotus, the reason for the war between these two kingdoms was the conspiracy of the noble Median Harpagus, whom, as mentioned above, Astyages inflicted a severe offense. He managed to win over to his side many noble Medes, dissatisfied with the harsh rule of Astyages, and then persuaded Cyrus to raise an uprising.

Greek historian Herodotus

To arouse the warlike spirit of the Persians, Cyrus, according to Herodotus, went to cunning. One day he told them to come with sickles and clear a large piece of land from thorny bushes. After the work was done, the king ordered the slaughter of cattle and an abundance of bread and wine to serve the Persians. Turning to those who had gathered at the feast, Cyrus asked if they prefer to strain themselves from hard work, or spend time in feasts and merriment. As you might expect, the Persians chose the latter. Then Cyrus began to persuade his subjects to leave Medes and promised them that the success of the uprising would provide them all with an easy life. The Persians willingly responded to the call of their leader.

The outcome of the war was decided in three battles. In the first, Astyages himself did not participate, and his commander Harpagus, with most of the army, went over to the side of the Persians.

Then Astyages gathered a new army and himself led it into battle. The second battle lasted two days and ended with the complete victory of the Medes. The last battle took place in Persia under the walls of Pasargadae. It also lasted two days. On the first day, success was on the side of the Medes, but on the second day, the Persians, ashamed by their wives and mothers, began to fight more decisively. In the end, Cyrus's army managed to gain a complete victory and capture the Medes camp. Finding no more support from his subjects, Astyages fled to Ecbatana, but was soon forced to surrender to Cyrus and abdicate in his favor from the throne (in 550 BC). The Median nobility, although they retained their privileges under the new dynasty, ceded the primacy to the Persian. Thus, Persia, a previously little-known peripheral region of Asia, in the middle of the 6th century. BC e. entered the stage of world history to play a leading role in it over the next two centuries.

Soon after the capture of Media, Cyrus was attacked by the coalition of Babylon, Egypt and Lydia, also supported by Sparta, which possessed the greatest military power among the policies of Hellas. Immediately after the victory over Astyages, in 549 BC. e., Cyrus captured all of Elam and made the main city of this country - Susa - his capital. The following year, the countries that were part of the former Median state were conquered: Parthia, Hyrcania and, probably, Armenia. Then it was Lydia's time.

Cylinder with Cyrus the Great's appeal "to the Babylonians"

Herodotus tells about this new war in sufficient detail.

At that time, Lydia united the whole of Asia Minor under her rule. Its king Croesus was considered one of the richest and most powerful sovereigns of the East. Confident in his strength, he in 547 BC. e. invaded Cappadocia, which used to belong to the Medes, and then came under the rule of the Persians. A bloody battle between opponents took place on the Galis River and ended in vain. But Croesus thought it best to retreat to his capital Sardam in order to better prepare for war. He intended to return to Cappadocia in the near future, but Cyrus did not allow him to gather strength and suddenly appeared with all his army to Sardis. The Lydians did not at all expect such a hasty attack and only learned about it after the Persians appeared at their capital. Croesus led his army to meet Cyrus, which consisted mostly of cavalry armed with spears. In order to avoid her rapid attack, Cyrus, on the advice of his commander Harpagus, came up with such a trick: he ordered to release all camels traveling in the train from their load, put soldiers on them and put this peculiar cavalry in front of his army. When the battle began, the Lydian horses, not accustomed to the sight and smell of camels, fled. The horsemen were forced to jump off them and fight the enemy on foot. Despite desperate resistance, they were eventually defeated and fled to Sardis. The siege of this impregnable fortress lasted only 14 days. The Persians managed to find a secret path along which they climbed the steep walls of the acropolis. This unexpected assault decided the outcome of the entire war - the Lydians were subdued, and their king Croesus was captured by Cyrus.

Remnants of the former greatness of Persepolis

Soon after this, Harpagus, who received control of Lydia, conquered all the coastal cities of Asia Minor of the Greeks in Ionia and Aeolis. Over the next several years, the Persians, under the command of Harpagus, suppressed the Lydian rebellion, raised by a certain Pactius, and conquered the Ionian cities, as well as the lands of the Carians and Lycians. The king of Cilicia voluntarily recognized the Persian power over himself.

A monument depicting Cyrus the Great

After the Lydian campaign, Cyrus probably set about conquering the regions of Eastern Iran and Central Asia... The details of this war are completely unknown to us, and therefore historians do not know anything about how Drangiana, Margiana, Khorezm, Sogdiana, Bactria, Gedrosia, Arachosia and Gandakhara became part of the Achaemenid state. This probably happened in 545-540. BC e. And then came the turn of Babylonia, which included almost all of Mesopotamia, Syria, Phenicia, Palestine, part of the Arabian Peninsula and Eastern Cilicia. In the spring of 539 BC. e. the Persian army set out on a campaign and began to advance down the valley of the Diyala River. The summer was spent by the Persians on complex earthworks along the Gindh River. (Herodotus writes that one of the sacred white horses of Cyrus drowned in her; and then the king ordered to divide the waters of this river into 180 separate channels and thus punished her.) Meanwhile, the Babylonian king Nabonidus had time to prepare well for war. Babylonia had many powerful fortresses, of which Babylon stood out for its inaccessibility. (The city was surrounded by a double wall of raw and baked bricks, fastened with asphalt mortar. The outer wall had a height of about 8 m, and the inner one, located at a distance of 12 m from the outer one, was 11-14 m. At a distance of 20 m from each other on the walls In front of the outer wall of the rampart, at a distance of 20 m from it, there was a deep moat filled with water. The Euphrates River flowed through the city.

A decisive battle between the Persians and the Babylonians took place in August 539 BC. e. at Opis on the Tiger. Cyrus defeated Nabonidus' stepson Belsharruutsur here. In October, his troops took the well-fortified Sippar, and two days later - on October 12 - Cyrus also captured Babylon without a fight. (According to Herodotus, he ordered to divert the river and entered the city along its bed, but the modern events of the Babylonian Chronicle do not say anything about this, and therefore many historians consider Herodotus's message unreliable). The Persians killed the prince Belsharruutsur, but Cyrus treated the aged Nabonidus mercifully - he saved his life and only removed him from Babylonia, appointing Carmania as satrap. The Persian king ordered to return back the idols of the gods, taken by Nabonidus from the temples of the conquered cities. Many temples destroyed by the Assyrians and Babylonians were rebuilt with him (including the Jews received permission to restore their Jerusalem temple). The local Babylonian nobility basically retained all their privileges.

Xerxes Gate in Persepolis:

From the beginning of 538 BC. e. Cyrus begins to call himself "the king of Babylon, the king of countries." Following the capital, the Babylonian provinces of Syria also submitted to the Persians. In 538, Cyrus allowed the Jews, who had once been taken prisoner by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, return to Palestine and rebuild the destroyed temple in Jerusalem. According to Ctesias, Cyrus defeated the Bactrians and Sakas. The historians of Alexander the Great (Arrian, Strabo) also mention Cyrus's campaign through Gedrosia, in which he lost the entire army, with the exception of only seven soldiers, as well as the foundation of the city of Cyropolis on the banks of the Yaksart (Syr Darya).

After the fall of Babylonia, all countries west of it to the borders with Egypt, apparently, voluntarily submitted to the Persians.

At the same time, the Persians established their control over part of the Arabian Peninsula, which had previously been captured by Nabonidus. In 530, Cyrus, having made his son Cambyses king of Babylon, began new hike to the East.

Cyrus the Great undertook his last campaign against the Massagets, nomads who lived in the steppes between the Caspian and Aral seas, on the northeastern borders of his state. Here, the luck that accompanied the Persian king for so long betrayed him: during the battle on the eastern bank of the Amu Darya, Cyrus suffered a complete defeat and died himself. According to Herodotus, triumphant enemies cut off his head and threw it into a sack of blood. However, since it is known for certain that Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae (where Alexander the Great saw his body), this episode is considered unreliable. The tomb of Cyrus the Great is located in Pasargadae (now Murghab), a city that he built in his homeland and where he also erected a royal palace.

Tomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae

In a short time, the leader of a small, little-known tribe founded a powerful empire stretching from the Indus and Jaxartes to the Aegean Sea and the borders of Egypt. Cyrus was a great warrior and statesman. He became famous for his mercy towards the conquered peoples. In Babylon, he operated under a kind of "constitutional monarchy." In the memory of the Persians, he remained as "the father of the people". Opponents also recognized his greatness, which is confirmed by the Hellenic tradition.

Cyrus II is recognized as the founder of the Persian state, who is also called Cyrus the Great for his deeds.

Rise to power

Cyrus II came from a noble and ancient Achaemenid family. On the maternal side, as the ancient Greek sources testify, he was the grandson of the king of Media, Astyages.

At this time (i.e. in the first half of the 6th century BC), the regions where the Persians lived were subject to the kingdoms of Media, or Elam. Herodotus has a lot of information about the childhood of Cyrus, as well as another ancient Greek explorer and commander - Xenophon. According to their stories, Cyrus grew up at the court of Astyages and from early childhood stood out among his peers with intelligence and courage. It is believed that Cyrus rallied the Iranian tribes around his power and organized an uprising against the Medes and his grandfather. As a result, on the site of the kingdom of Media, a larger Persian state arose, which is also called Achaemenid by the name of the clan from which Cyrus originated.

Cyrus' campaigns of conquest

Having strengthened his new state, Cyrus began campaigns of conquest in all directions of his kingdom. Soon he annexed to the Persian state:

• Elam.
• Babylonia.
• Armenia.
• Lydia.
• Asia Minor and Ionian cities.
• Cilicia.

From Greek and other sources, we learn that Cyrus had the following approach regarding the conquered territories: if somewhere a local ruler agreed to surrender without resistance, then he left this ruler in his place and was content only with collecting tribute. In other cases, he could appoint the son of the former ruler and someone from the local aristocracy to the supreme position. In particular, he did this with Babylonia, where the son of the king who was fighting against him became the governor of Cyrus. Cyrus also gave freedom of religion, thereby persuading different nations.

After the conquest of large territories in the west, the sovereign sent ambassadors to the east of his state, where the nomadic Massagets lived, demanding to bow to him. However, he was refused and the Achaemenid soldiers were defeated in the campaign against them, and Cyrus himself was killed, and his tomb is in Pasargadae.

East of Mesopotamia stretches the vast Iranian plateau, surrounded on all sides by mountains. In the east, it borders the valley of the Indus River, in the north it reaches the Caspian Sea, and in the south it reaches the Persian Gulf. Most of it is home to the deshte-Lut and Deshte-Kevir (Great Salt Desert) desert plains, scorched by the sun. There was always very little rain here, and the few rivers were shallow, many of them dried up during a drought, so the water here was of great value. Farming here could only be done in the west, in the river valleys, but there were good conditions for the development of cattle breeding: in the hot season, cattle were driven to fat mountain pastures. In addition, the mountainous areas were rich in forest and natural resources such as copper, iron, silver and lead. Numerous tribes inhabited the Iranian Highlands, some of which are mentioned in the Mesopotamian annals. The largest tribal association inhabiting this territory was the Elamites, who conquered the ancient city of Susa located on a fertile plain and founded the powerful state of Elam there. In the Assyrian chronicles, you can also find references to those who inhabited these lands in the 9th century. BC e. large alliances of the Medes and Persians. In the VII century. BC e. on this territory a strong state of Media appeared, and then the Persian kingdom, headed by the king Kurash (Cyrus) Achaemenid. It should be noted that the Persian rulers considered the legendary leader Achaemen, who lived in the 8th-7th centuries, to be their ancestor. BC e. The Persian state achieved the greatest power under the successor of Kurash - Cyrus II the Great.

The birth of an empire

Cyrus II the Great (558-529 BC)

Cyrus the Great (Fig. 4) was one of the greatest leaders of the Persians. None of the rulers before had such a huge state and won so many brilliant victories as Cyrus II.

Figure: 4. Cyrus II the Great

It is believed that it was he who was the true creator of the Persian state, who united the Persian tribes under his rule - the Medes and Pasargads. There are many legends telling about the childhood and youth of this great ruler, but in almost each of them, genuine historical information is intricately intertwined with fairy tales. Some legends tell that Cyrus was a foundling who was raised by shepherds, others say that he, like Romulus and Remus, was fed by wild animals.

According to the information left by Herodotus, the mother of Cyrus was the daughter of the Median king Astyages - Mandana, who was predicted that she would give birth to a son who would become the ruler of the world. King Astyages, frightened by the prophecy, ordered the noble Median Garpagus to kill the baby, but he gave the baby to the shepherd and his wife, and they, instead of leaving the child to be eaten by wild animals, raised the boy as their own son. When Cyrus was ten years old, for a minor offense he was taken to Tsar Astyages, who recognized him as his grandson, forced his adoptive father to tell the truth and severely punished Harpagus for deceit. The boy was sent safe and sound to his real parents in Persia.

When Cyrus grew up, he became a brave warrior, and in 558 BC. e. - the king of the Persians, whose state during this period was dependent on the kings of Media. The new ruler decided to put an end to this and in 550 BC. e. captured the Median capital Ecbatana and annexed Media to his state. According to Babylonian historians, "the silver, gold and other treasures of Ecbatana were plundered and taken to Anshan." On the site of the decisive battle with the Medes, the first capital of the Persian kingdom was built - the city of Pasargadae. Cyrus did not stop there: he dreamed of creating a great and powerful Persian state.

In the VI century. BC e. the ancient Persian calendar arose. It consisted of twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days, which totaled only 354 days, so an additional thirteenth month was added every three years.

Continuing his policy of conquest, Cyrus the Great seized Armenia, Parthia and Cappadocia. Having defeated the troops of the Lydian king Croesus, who was known throughout the ancient world as the owner of untold riches, Cyrus annexed this country to his possessions. The historian Herodotus reported how the Lydian king Croesus asked the aracul in Delphi whether to start a war with Persia, and received the answer: "If the king goes to war against the Persians, he will crush the great kingdom." And when Croesus, defeated and taken prisoner, reproached the Delphic priests of deception, they declared that the great kingdom had really been crushed in the war, but not the Persian one, but the Lydian one.

It should be noted that not only the Persians were interested in creating a huge power: almost the entire population of Western Asia had long needed a strong state capable of ensuring the security of trade routes and relative stability for the activities of Phoenician and Asia Minor merchants interested in expanding their trade and opening a single market between West and East. On the way to the creation of such a powerful state was Babylon, which, despite its powerful, almost impregnable walls, Cyrus the Great managed to take in the fall of 539 BC. e. Then he showed himself as greatest politician and a diplomat: when wealthy citizens and priests opened the city gates to the Persians without a fight, the inhabitants were promised immunity, and some independence was retained for the Babylonian kingdom itself - Babylon became one of the residences of Cyrus the Great.

The manifesto of Cyrus tells about the peaceful entry of the Persian army into Babylon, in which he says that the capture of the city was a forced measure, and the king's desire was only to protect him from other enemies: “Concern for the internal affairs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries touched me. And the inhabitants of Babylon found their desires fulfilled, and the countless yoke was removed from them ... Marduk, the great ruler, blessed me, Cyrus, the king who honors him, and Cambyses, my son, and all my army with mercy ... " After Babylon, the Persian troops moved further towards the Mediterranean coast. Having annexed the lands of Palestine and Phenicia to his possessions, King Cyrus restored Jerusalem and many Phoenician cities and allowed the Jews to return from Babylonian captivity to their homeland. In Palestine, a theocratic state was created, headed by a high priest who was both a military leader and a judge.

Adding the conquered lands to their power, the Persians did not destroy the conquered cities, but, on the contrary, respected other people's traditions, faith and culture. The conquered lands were only declared a satrapy (province) of Persia and taxed with tribute. Cyrus proclaimed himself "the king of the universe, a great king, a powerful king, the king of Babylon, the king of Sumer and Akkad, the king of the four countries of the world." Under the rule of the Persians was a huge territory stretching from Iran and Central Asia to the Aegean Sea. Only Egypt remained the last independent state in the Middle East.

However, Cyrus did not dare to go to distant Egypt, since it was very restless in the east. Numerous tribes of Saks and Massagets, who were attacking the Persian possessions from Central Asia, lived there, the incessant wars with which were fought up to 529 BC. e., until Cyrus died in one of them. According to the testimony of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (484–425 BC), his entire army was also defeated: "Most of the Persian army fell on the site of the battle, Cyrus himself was killed." In his "History" he tells the legend that the queen of the Massagets, Tomiris, vowed to give Cyrus blood to drink, so after defeating the Persians, she ordered to find his body, and, having cut off his head, put it in leather fur filled with human blood. Cyrus the Great did not manage to complete the construction of the capital of the Persian state of Pasargadae. But already during his reign, houses of hewn stone and bricks, faced with light sandstone, were built on a high terrace, and a magnificent royal palace was erected in the center of the city, surrounded by beautiful four-level gardens and fenced with a high battlement wall. The entrance to the palace was guarded by majestic statues of bulls with human heads, and inside there were magnificent royal chambers and an apadana - a hall for ceremonial receptions with many columns. The tomb of Cyrus the Great has survived to this day. Built in the form of a stone house with a gable roof and a small door, it sits on a stone-paved terrace to which seven wide steps lead. The entrance to the tomb was decorated with an image of the symbol of the supreme god Ahura Mazda - a winged solar disk. The Greek author Strabo claimed that even during the reign of Alexander the Great, there was an inscription on the tomb that read: “Man! I am Cyrus, who left the domination of Persia and was the master of Asia. "

Cambyses II (529-523 BC)

After the death of Cyrus the Great, his eldest son Cambyses came to the throne. With his coming to power, riots broke out in the multi-tribal and multilingual Persian state. Having coped with them, Cambyses decided to undertake a campaign in Egypt. In 525 BC. e. thanks to his huge army and fleet of the Phoenicians, as well as the betrayal of the commander of the Greek mercenaries and the commander of the Egyptian fleet, Cambyses managed to conquer Egypt and was proclaimed its pharaoh, thus founding a new, XXVII dynasty.

The defeat of the strong Egyptian army so frightened some tribes of North Africa that they voluntarily submitted to the Persians. “The fate of Egypt frightened the Libyans living in the vicinity of Egypt, who surrendered to the Persians without a fight, imposed tribute on themselves and sent gifts to Cambyses. Similarly, the Libyans acted, being also frightened, by the Kireans and the Barquians, "wrote the Greek historian Herodotus.

Croesus is a household name due to the legendary wealth of the last king of Lydia (560–547 BC). Croesus became famous not only for his myriad fortune, but also for his generous sacrifices to Apollo of Delphic. According to one of the legends, Croesus asked the Greek sage Solon, when he once visited the capital of Lydia, Sarda, if the owner of such great wealth could be considered the happiest of mortals, to which Solon replied: "No one can be called happy before his death."

Having become the pharaoh of conquered Egypt, Cambyses also dreamed of conquering the mighty Carthage. But he failed to fulfill his plans, since the Phoenicians refused to provide him with a fleet for the war with their compatriots, and it was extremely dangerous to make a campaign through the scorching sands of the desert. Obsessed with victories, the king did not stop and decided to go deep into the African continent to conquer gold-rich Nubia and the western oases. However, the expedition sent by him to search for oases disappeared without a trace in the sands of the desert, and the soldiers sent to conquer Nubia died - some from Nubian arrows, some from the sweltering heat. The failures of the Persians provoked the revolt of the Egyptians, but the Persian ruler, returning to Memphis, dealt severely with the rebels - all the instigators were executed. While Cambyses was in Egypt, unrest began in Persia itself. During his absence, power in the country was seized by his younger brother Bardia, although later Darius I argued that power in the country under the guise of Bardia had been seized by the magician and impostor Gaumata. Upon learning of this, Cambyses hastened to return to Persia, but died on the way under mysterious circumstances. A great turmoil began in Persia: the country began to disintegrate, the states previously conquered by the Persians began to regain their independence. Egypt was one of the first to secede.

Thus, it took the Persians only about thirty years to create a great military empire. Like other empires like it, the Persian was created with the help of arms and maintained its superiority as long as ambitious and courageous leaders were in power.

At the peak of power

Darius I the Great (522-486 BC)

In the fall of 522 BC. e. as a result of the struggle for power, Darius I, who was a distant relative of Cyrus the Great, became the ruler of the Persian kingdom. He inherited the rebellious Persia. Relying on his army, Darius was able to re-subjugate the separated territories to his power and keep them in submission by fear. In the course of twenty battles, in which about 150,000 rebels died, the power of the Persian king was restored throughout the territory of the state. Unable to conduct punitive operations simultaneously in all directions, Darius pacified one uprising, and then threw the same army with which he suppressed the first uprising against other rebels.

As a sign of his successes, Darius I commanded to carve a giant inscription on a steep rock in Behistun, informing about the first years of his reign and the victories he won, in the three main languages \u200b\u200bof the state: Old Persian, Akkadian and Elamite. The inscription said that before Darius came to power, the state was in turmoil and chaos, people killed each other, and he "pacified everyone, putting both the rich and the poor in their place."

The inscription was located at a height of more than 100 m above ground level, its height, together with the relief, was 7 m 80 cm, and its width was 22 m. Above the text was placed the image of the supreme god Ahura Mazda, who held out a ring to Darius - a symbol of power. The king himself was depicted in full height - 172 cm, and a spearman and an archer stood behind him. Darius trampled down the magician Gaumata, who was trying to seize the royal throne, with his left foot; there were nine kings chained up next to him who opposed the king. In the east, the power of the Persians extended up to the Indus River, in the north, Darius enslaved the regions of Central Asia, and in the west he reached the Aegean Sea and seized the islands, he again conquered Egypt and Nubia. Thus, the Persian Empire covered vast territories in Asia and Africa.

“Gaumata is a Persian king who ruled in 522 BC. e. According to the official version set forth by Darius I on the Behistun rock, Gaumata, the Median magician (priest), taking advantage of the absence of Cambyses II, who was at the head of his army in Egypt, seized power into his own hands. To substantiate his rights to the throne, Gaumata passed himself off as Bardia, the younger brother of Cambyses, who was killed by the latter before his campaign in Egypt. Gaumata's reign lasted less than seven months. In September 522 BC. e. the magician was killed. " (Encyclopedic Dictionary).

Having restored great empire, created by Cyrus and Cambyses, significantly expanding its borders, the young ruler of the Persians began to organize it: the state under Darius I was divided into twenty satrapies, each of which was headed by a ruler appointed by the king - a satrap ("guardian of the kingdom"). The boundaries of the satrapies almost coincided with the boundaries of the former independent states. The satraps were accountable to the king about their deeds and had to monitor the prosperity of the provinces entrusted to them and for the timely payment of taxes to the royal treasury. Each satrap had his own court staff, no less magnificent than the royal one, with the same positions and ranks. In order to protect the king from betrayal, each satrap was looked after by the chief overseer, called the "royal eye", as well as secret messengers-spies. In addition to the satrap, a military leader was also appointed to the province, who was obliged to protect it from enemies, fight robberies and robberies, and guard the roads. The satrap was supposed to watch the military leader, and the military leader - the satrap. Darius established a new nationwide tax system. All satrapies were obliged to pay monetary taxes strictly fixed for each region, set taking into account the area of \u200b\u200bcultivated land and the degree of its fertility. For the first time, taxes were also imposed on temples in the conquered areas.

Persian army

Since the power of the Persians held on military force, they needed a well-trained and organized army. The Persian army consisted of infantry, cavalry and chariot troops, and later Greek mercenaries also began to be part of it. Even under Cyrus, cavalry regiments were formed, in which light military chariots were replaced with more durable ones, the drawbars and wheels of which were equipped with sickles. The warriors who fought on them were dressed in strong armor. The light Persian cavalry was equipped with canvas shells, scale armor, and armed with swords, bows, and shields. Heavy horsemen wore armor that covered the entire body of a warrior. In addition to swords, bows and shields, she was armed with long spears. The infantry was also divided into light and heavy. The light infantry was armed with spears, swords, bows, and shields, and clad in light armor; heavy infantry - with sabers, axes, axes and wore heavy armor. Many Greek historians wrote about the fighting qualities of Persian soldiers and the technical equipment of their battles. So, the ancient Greek writer and historian Xenophon in his "Greek history" described the battle of the famous Spartan king Agesilaus with the Persian commander Pharnabaz: before this incident, they had never been in danger, they suddenly encountered Pharnabaz (Persian military leader), who had about four hundred horsemen and two war chariotsarmed with sickles. Seeing that the troops of Pharnabazus were rapidly approaching them, the Greeks fled together, about seven hundred in number. Pharnabaz did not hesitate: putting the chariots forward and settling with his cavalry behind them, he ordered an advance. Following the chariots that crashed into the Greek troops and upset their ranks, the horsemen rushed and laid down on the spot up to a hundred people; the rest fled to Agesilaus, who was nearby with heavily armed soldiers. "

The privileged part of the Persian army was made up of the so-called "immortal" detachments, formed only from the Medes, Persians and Elamites. They had 2,000 selected horsemen, 2,000 spearmen on foot, and 10,000 foot soldiers. The personal bodyguard of the king, which consisted only of representatives of the Persian nobility, numbered a thousand soldiers.

The distinctive marks of the "immortals" were gold and silver balls set on the blunt ends of the spears. During the campaign in front of the troops carried a golden image of an eagle - the military sign of the Achaemenids. The training of these warriors began as early as childhood, they had to master weapons perfectly. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus, in his History in Nine Books (5th century BC), wrote about the education of future warriors: “The valor of the Persians is courage. After military prowess, it is considered a great merit to have as many sons as possible. The one who has the most sons, the king sends gifts every year. After all, they attach the main importance to numbers. They teach children from five to twenty years of age only three things: horseback riding, archery, and truthfulness. Until the age of five, the child is not shown to the father: he is among women. This is done so that in the event of the death of a child in infancy, not to give the father grief. " It is believed that the name "immortals" appeared because the number of soldiers in these units was unchanged: if one of them died or died, his place was immediately taken by another.

The bulk of the army was made up of the Persians, who began to serve at the age of twenty, as well as the Medes. The soldiers who were in the service received monthly payments for food and everything necessary. Those who retired received small plots of land and were exempted from paying taxes. In the event of a war, the king gathered a huge militia from all over the state: all the peoples inhabiting the huge Achaemenid empire were required to allocate a certain number of soldiers for this. In the conquered lands, Persian kings stationed military garrisons; so, for example, in Egypt there was always an army of 10,000-12,000 people. According to Xenophon's testimony (not later than 444 BC - not earlier than 356 BC), the king annually inspected his army, which was located around the royal residence. In satrapies, reviews were carried out by specially appointed officials. For the good maintenance of the army, the tsar rewarded the satraps, for the poor - removed from office and severely punished.

Under Darius, a fleet appeared in Persia, and for sea battles the Persians began to use Phoenician, and later Egyptian ships.

Images of Achaemenid royal standards have been preserved on the wall paintings of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis. During excavations in the capital of the Achaemenids, archaeologists discovered a standard depicting a golden eagle with outstretched wings, holding one golden crown in each paw. The standard was red and had a border of red-white-green triangles around the perimeter. The Achaemenid standard is mentioned by Xenophon in Anabasis (I, X) and Cyropedia (VII, 1, 4) as “a golden eagle raised on a long spear”.

Good and safe roads were of great importance for the development of trade and economic life of the country. Such roads were laid between Persian cities. Regular mail was organized at them: every 1.5-2 km a rider with a horse stood at the ready. As soon as he received the package, he rushed at full speed until the next post to convey the message to its destination. In addition to post office on the roads, every 15-20 km hotels were built for the rest of travelers, and special squads the guards were guarding the roads, making them safe. Those guilty of robbery on the roads were severely punished. According to Herodotus, it was often possible to see people with severed legs and arms near the roads - they were robbers who robbed travelers.

Introduced under Darius, the high-grade gold coin became the basis monetary system the Achaemenid powers. Its weight was 8.4 g. Only the king had the right to mint gold coins, called "dariks", silver - satraps, and copper money could also be minted in cities. In addition, Darius was engaged in extensive construction activities. During his reign, numerous roads, bridges, palaces and temples were built. Darius's most ambitious construction project was the construction of a canal that was supposed to connect the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. Such a channel had already been dug during the reign of the Egyptian queen Hatshepsut, but it fell into disrepair long ago. Herodotus reported that the canal, built under Daria and connecting the two seas, had a length of 84 km, was laid east of the Nile, crossed the lake; and it took the ship four days to cross it. Not far from the canal, by order of Darius, a stele was erected with the inscription: "I am a Persian from Persia ... I conquered Egypt ... I ordered to dig this canal ... And the ships went along this canal from Egypt to Persia as it was my will." The power of Darius was distinguished by its despotism. He surrounded himself with unheard of luxury and even outwardly, in his attire, had to be different from his subjects: wearing purple robes and a crown was the exclusive privilege of the king. At his service were many servants and courtiers, as well as a huge army of officials engaged in state affairs... Darius I continued the policy of conquest of Cyrus and Cambyses. In order to strengthen the power of the Persians, he undertook a large campaign against the Saks, and then against the Scythians. The Scythians did not fight the Persians in an open battle - they used the scorched earth tactics: they destroyed wells and food on the way of the Persian army, attacked the lagging forces of the Persians. Darius tried to impose a decisive battle on the Scythians, but they refused him. When the conquerors went deep into the steppes, the Scythians sent Darius an unusual gift - a bird, a mouse, a frog and five sharp arrows. The Persians wondered for a long time about the meaning of this gift, until the adviser Darius explained it. It was a kind of ultimatum: "If you, Persians, like birds, do not fly into the sky, or, like mice, do not bury yourself in the ground, or, like frogs, do not jump into a swamp, then you will not come back, struck by these arrows." The forces of the Persians gradually melted away, the king had to stop this unsuccessful campaign and turn back.

Nevertheless, as a result of the conquering policy of Darius, the Persians managed to seize the eastern part Balkan Peninsula, capture the Greek colony of Byzantium and a number of islands. The power of the Persians was also recognized by Macedonia. Only Athens and Sparta dared to openly oppose the Persian army. In 590 BC. e. the Athenian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians on the Marathon plain. Such unexpected resistance to the invasive aspirations of the Persian king and defeat did not rid Driya from the thought of a new campaign against the recalcitrant Greeks. But it had to be postponed - the uprising against Persian rule that broke out in Egypt prevented, and Darius, never having time to restore his power in this country, died at the age of 64.

Persian culture

Culturally, the Persians lagged behind many of the peoples they conquered, who possessed a rich centuries-old cultural heritage. For this reason, the Persians had to acknowledge their superiority. The Persians did not even have their own writing: first they borrowed the Assyrian cuneiform writing, and then began to use the Aramaic language. The state religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, named after the legendary prophet Zarathustra. Sacred book The Persians were called "Avesta", and the supreme god was considered the god of light and good Ahura Mazda, who was depicted as a winged solar disk and personified every good beginning - light, fire, good, agriculture and sedentary cattle breeding. He was opposed by the god of evil and darkness, Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), who embodied evil, darkness, darkness and a nomadic lifestyle. By their actions and thoughts, the Persians were supposed to contribute to the victory of good over evil, light over darkness. It was believed that by doing this they would help the victory of Ahura Mazda over Angra Mainyu. According to the teachings of the Zoroastrian priests, all world history lasts twelve thousand years. The first three thousand years are the "golden age". Then Ahura Mazda ruled. At this time there was no cold, no heat, no disease, no death, no old age. There were many livestock on the land. But the "golden age" was over, and AngraManyu caused hunger, disease and death. However, a savior will soon come to the world. He will be from the lineage of Zoroaster, and then good will triumph over evil. Peace will come on earth, in which Ahura-Mazda will rule. The sun will shine forever, and evil will disappear forever.

The Persians also revered the ancient pagan gods - the patrons of earth, sky and water, among whom the sun god Mithra was the most worshiped. Subsequently, a belief in the afterlife was associated with his cult, which became widespread.

Since the Persian state was very large, several capital cities existed in it - Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon and Pasargadae. The kings lived in one capital, then in another: in the spring, Darius, along with the entire court, moved from Susa to the cool Ecbatana, and in the winter he preferred to live in Babylon. The custom required that once a year the ruler visit the ancestral city of the Persian kings - Pasargadae. So, Darius decided not far from Pasargadae to build a new luxurious palace in a picturesque valley, which later became a symbol of the power and splendor of the empire. But Darius himself did not have to see the completion of its construction, and the palace was already completed by his successors. The palace and other buildings of the city were erected from limestone on a giant, almost rectangular stone platform fifteen meters high and an area of \u200b\u200b135,000 m 2. Greek writers enthusiastically reported its splendor, calling it Persepolis, which means "City of the Persians." The city was defended by a triple system of fortifications.

Beyond Persepolis, on the slopes of the mountain, archaeologists discovered the tombs of the kings, Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III, carved into the rock, and the unfinished tomb of Darius III. A few kilometers to the north, on the opposite bank of the Pulvara River, on a sheer cliff, are the tombs of Darius I, Xerxes, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Nowadays this place is called Nakshi-Rustem ("Drawings of Rustem").

The main hall of the royal palace with an area of \u200b\u200b3,600 m2 was square, and its ceiling rested on 72 twenty-meter stone columns. Further there was another grandiose ceremonial room - the "Hall of a Hundred Columns", which was already erected by Darius' son Xerxes. A wide, two-span, seven-meter wide staircase carved into the rock led to the high stone terrace on which the palace was built, consisting of 110 steps. Opposite the stairs was the main gate, decorated with giant sculptures of winged bulls carved out of limestone. On the other side, the gate was guarded by majestic winged bulls with a human head, similar to the Assyrian shedu. An inscription was placed on the gate: "This is what the king Xerxes said: by the grace of Agur-Mazda I built this gate, called the World one." The walls of the palace chambers were decorated with magnificent sculptural reliefs, glorifying the king and telling about the luxurious life of the court. The palace in Persepolis embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bDarius about a single state. So, on one of the stairs, a bas-relief was carved with the image of the procession of representatives of 33 peoples inhabiting the state, who carried all kinds of gifts and taxes to the Persian king. Each nation was depicted in its own national dress, various faces and hairstyles corresponded to their ethnic type: the leaders of the Saks walked in high pointed hats and with long beards, the inhabitants of Babylon walked in long clothes, and here you could see noble Syrian, Indian and Persian nobles. Thracians and Ethiopians. And they all carried expensive gifts: precious robes and gold ornaments, magnificent weapons, led horses, two-humped camels, wild lions and giraffes. On the bas-reliefs that adorned the outer side of the main staircase, a solemn procession of the royal guard was depicted.

The palace also housed living quarters and the royal treasury. Darius did not spare funds for the construction of his magnificent palace, for its decoration from different parts of the empire the necessary materials were delivered: precious wood of the Lebanese cedar, teak and ebony, gems and ivory, gold and silver. In biblical legends, you can find a mention of his decoration: “White paper and yahont-colored woolen fabrics, attached with fine linen and purple cords, hung on silver rings and marble pillars ... Gold and silver boxes were on a platform covered with green stones and marble, and mother-of-pearl , and stones of black color ”. ( Old Testament... Book of Esther. Ch. one).

To the right of the apadana, the central large hall, was the residential palace of Darius I. In the palace itself there is an inscription: “I, Darius, great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenides, built this palace. " Wooden doors were sheathed with thin bronze sheets and decorated with reliefs made of precious metals. During archaeological excavations, fragments of similar sheets were found. Persian craftsmen have achieved amazing skill in metalworking: they created amazing things, amazing with their delicate finishing and originality of forms. A golden goblet in the form of a horn, the lower part of which is executed in the form of an animal, has reached our time.

In addition to city palaces, the tsar owned country estates with luxurious and landscaped parks, orchards, and grounds for the royal hunting. According to legend, the magnificent palace at Persepolis was destroyed and burned by Alexander the Great. According to the famous Greek historian Plutarch, in order to transport all the wealth captured by Alexander in the city, it took 10,000 pairs of mules and 5,000 camels. The death of the sacred city of the Persians - the city where the kings were buried and where tribute from all the subject lands was delivered - marked the end of the greatest Achaemenid empire.

Empire decline

Darius' dream of the domination of Persia over the whole world was also attempted by his successor, the son of Xerxes. Herodotus, who at one time described the Greco-Persian wars in his History, put the following words into the mouth of Xerxes: “If we conquer the Athenians and the neighboring people, occupying the lands of the Phrygian Pelop, then we will expand the Persian land to the ether of Zeus. The sun will not look at any country outside ours: I will travel with you all over Europe and turn all the earth into one. If we conquer the peoples named here, then, as they say, there will be no more city, not a single people that would dare to fight with us. So, we will impose the yoke of slavery on both the guilty before us and the innocent. " Xerxes begins to vigorously prepare for a new campaign against Greece. He enlisted the support of Carthage and decided to attack the Greeks from the sea. Xerxes used all the engineering experience he had accumulated before. By his order, a canal was built across the isthmus in Halkidiki. Many workers from Asia and the adjacent coast were herded into the construction. Food warehouses were created along the coast of Thrace, and two pontoon bridges, 7 stages long (about 1360 m) each, were thrown across the Hellespont. The reliability of the bridges allowed Xerxes to move troops back and forth as needed. And in the summer of 480 BC. e. the huge Persian army, numbering, according to the research of modern historians, about 75,000 people began to cross the Hellespont. Long-term Greco-Persian wars (500–449 BC) ended with the victory of the Greeks, who, having united, were able to defend the freedom and independence of their homeland. The battles of Marathon, Plataea and Salamis, the feat of three hundred Spartans led by King Leonidas, went down in history. The Persian soldiers participating in the new battle were able to hold the superior enemy forces for two days, but all died in this unequal battle. Their mass grave was engraved with the inscription “Wanderer! Take the message to all the citizens of Lacedaemon. Honestly fulfilling our duty, here we lie in the grave. " The defeat in this war showed the fragility of the Persian empire, whose power began to melt before our eyes.

According to the teachings of the Zoroastrian priests, the whole world history lasted 12,000 years. The first 3000 years are the "golden age". Then Ahura Mazda ruled. At this time there was no cold, no heat, no disease, no death, no old age. But the "golden age" was over, and Angra Mainyu caused hunger, disease and death. However, a savior will soon come to the world. He will be from the lineage of Zoroaster, and then good will triumph over evil.

Sensing the weakness of Persia, the former Persian provinces began to revolt and gradually separated: Babylonia, Egypt, Media, Asia Minor, Syria, etc. In 336, Darius III came to power; later he would be called the king who lost the empire. In the spring of 334 BC. e. in a campaign against the Persians at the head of the united Macedonian army was made by Alexander the Great (Fig. 5).

Figure: 5. Alexander the Great

His army consisted of 30,000 infantry: heavily armed and lightly armed soldiers, as well as five thousand cavalry. The Persian army was several times superior to the army of Alexander, but most of it were soldiers recruited from the conquered countries. The first major battle between the Macedonians and the Persians took place on the banks of the Granik River. The Macedonian troops, led by Alexander, defeated the Persians, and then captured the Greek cities in Asia Minor and went inland. They captured the cities of Palestine and Phenicia, Egypt, crossed the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. A decisive battle took place near the city of Gaugamela, from which the Macedonians emerged victorious again. Having lost his composure, Darius III (about 38-30 BC), without even waiting for the outcome of the battle, fled with the pitiful remnants of his army to Ecbatana, where he was killed by order of the satrap Bess, who hoped that this would slow down the advance of the troops Alexandra. Alexander ordered to find and execute the murderers of Darius, then arranging a magnificent funeral for the Persian king. Darius III became the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty. So the great Achaemenid Persian empire completed its historical path, and all of its possessions became part of the empire of Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander the Great, the Iranian Highlands became part of the Seleucid state, which got its name from one of its commanders, and then into the Parthian state.

The Persian Empire had a huge impact on the history of the Ancient World. The Achaemenid state, formed by a small tribal union, existed for about two hundred years. The mention of the splendor and power of the country of the Persians is in many ancient sources, including the Bible.

Start

For the first time, the mention of the Persians is found in Assyrian sources. In an inscription dated to the 9th century BC. e., contains the name of the land of Parsua. Geographically this area was located in the region of Central Zagros, and during the mentioned period the population of this region paid tribute to the Assyrians. The unification of the tribes did not yet exist. The Assyrians mention 27 kingdoms under their control. In the VII century. The Persians, apparently, entered into a tribal union, since references to kings from the Achaemenid tribe appeared in the sources. The history of the Persian state begins in 646 BC, when Cyrus I. became the ruler of the Persians.

During the reign of Cyrus I, the Persians significantly expanded the territories under their control, including taking possession of most of the Iranian plateau. At the same time, the first capital of the Persian state, Pasargadae, was founded. Some of the Persians were engaged in agriculture, some led

The emergence of the Persian state

At the end of the VI century. BC e. the Persian people were ruled by Cambyses I, who was dependent on the kings of Media. The son of Cambyses, Cyrus II, became the ruler of the settled Persians. Information about the ancient Persian people is scarce and fragmentary. Apparently, the main unit of society was the patriarchal family, headed by a man who had the right to dispose of the life and property of his loved ones. The community, first tribal and later rural, was a powerful force for several centuries. Several communities formed a tribe, several tribes could already be called a people.

The emergence of the Persian state came at a time when the entire Middle East was divided between four states: Egypt, Media, Lydia, Babylonia.

Even in the era of its heyday, Media was actually a fragile tribal union. Thanks to the victories of the king Kiaksar of Media, the state of Urartu and the ancient country of Elam were subdued. The descendants of Kiaxar were unable to keep the conquests of their great ancestor. The constant war with Babylon required the presence of troops on the border. This weakened the internal policy of Media, which the vassals of the Medes king took advantage of.

The reign of Cyrus II

In 553, Cyrus II raised a revolt against the Medes, whom the Persians paid tribute to for several centuries. The war lasted three years and ended with a crushing defeat for the Medes. The capital of Media (Ektabana) became one of the residences of the Persian ruler. Having conquered the ancient country, Cyrus II formally preserved the Median kingdom and assumed the titles of the Median rulers. This is how the formation of the Persian state began.

After the capture of Media, Persia declared itself as a new state in world history, and for two centuries played an important role in the events taking place in the Middle East. In 549-548. the newly formed state conquered Elam and subdued a number of countries that were part of the former Median state. Parthia, Armenia, Hyrcania began to pay tribute to the new Persian rulers.

War with Lydia

Croesus, the ruler of the mighty Lydia, realized what a dangerous enemy the Persian state was. A number of alliances were concluded with Egypt and Sparta. However, the allies did not manage to start full-scale military actions. Croesus did not want to wait for help and marched alone against the Persians. In the decisive battle near the capital of Lydia, the city of Sardis, Croesus brought his cavalry, which was considered invincible, to the battlefield. Cyrus II set up the warriors astride camels. The horses, seeing unknown animals, refused to obey the riders, the Lydian horsemen were forced to fight on foot. The unequal battle ended with the retreat of the Lydians, after which the city of Sardis was besieged by the Persians. Of the former allies, only the Spartans decided to come to Croesus to help. But, while the campaign was being prepared, the city of Sardis fell, and the Persians subjugated Lydia.

Expanding boundaries

Then came the turn of the Greek policies, which were on the territory.After a number of major victories and the suppression of rebellions, the Persians subdued the policies, thereby acquiring the opportunity to use them in battles

At the end of the 6th century, the Persian state expanded its borders to the northwestern regions of India, to the Hindu Kush cordons and subdued the tribes living in the basin of the river. Syr Darya. Only after strengthening the borders, suppressing revolts and establishing royal power Cyrus II drew attention to the mighty Babylonia. On October 20, 539, the city fell, and Cyrus II became the official ruler of Babylon, and at the same time the ruler of one of the largest powers of the Ancient World - the Persian kingdom.

Board of Kambiz

Cyrus died in a battle with the Massagets in 530 BC. e. His son Kambiz successfully pursued his policy. After thorough preliminary diplomatic preparation, Egypt, the next enemy of Persia, found itself completely alone and could not count on the support of the allies. Cambyses fulfilled his father's plan and conquered Egypt in 522 BC. e. Meanwhile, in Persia itself, discontent was ripening and a rebellion broke out. Cambyses hurried home and died on the road under mysterious circumstances. After some time, the ancient Persian state provided an opportunity to gain power to the representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenids - Darius Gistaspus.

The beginning of the reign of Darius

The seizure of power by Darius I caused discontent and murmur in enslaved Babylonia. The leader of the rebels declared himself the son of the last Babylonian ruler and began to be called Nebuchadnezzar III. In December 522 BC. e. Darius I won. The rebel leaders were put to death in public.

Punitive actions distracted Darius, and in the meantime, revolts arose in Media, Elam, Parthia and other areas. It took the new ruler more than a year to pacify the country and restore the state of Cyrus II and Cambyses within its former borders.

Between 518 and 512, the Persian Empire conquered Macedonia, Thrace and parts of India. This time is considered the heyday of the ancient kingdom of the Persians. The state of world importance united dozens of countries and hundreds of tribes and peoples under its rule.

The social structure of Ancient Persia. Darius' reforms

The Persian state of the Achaemenids was distinguished by a wide variety of social structures and customs. Babylonia, Syria, Egypt long before Persia were considered highly developed states, and the recently conquered tribes of nomads of Scythian and Arab origin were still at the stage of a primitive way of life.

Chain of uprisings 522-520 showed the inefficiency of the previous government scheme. Therefore, Darius I carried out a number of administrative reforms and created a stable system of state control over the conquered peoples. The result of the reforms was the first ever effective administrative system, which served the Achaemenid rulers for more than one generation.

An effective administrative apparatus is a clear example of how Darius ruled the Persian state. The country was divided into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. The sizes of the satrapies were much larger than the territories of the early states, and in some cases coincided with the ethnographic boundaries of the ancient peoples. For example, the satrapy Egypt geographically almost completely coincided with the borders of this state before its conquest by the Persians. The districts were headed by government officials - satraps. Unlike his predecessors, who were looking for their governors among the nobility of the conquered peoples, Darius I put in these positions exclusively nobles of Persian origin.

Functions of governors

Previously, the governor combined both administrative and civil functions. The satrap of the time of Darius had only civil powers, the military authorities did not obey him. Satraps had the right to mint coins, were in charge of the country's economic activities, tax collection, and judged. In peacetime, the satraps were provided with a small personal guard. The army was subordinate exclusively to military leaders, independent of the satraps.

Implementation state reforms became the reason for the creation of a large central administrative apparatus headed by the tsarist chancellery. Public administration led by the capital of the Persian state - the city of Susa. Big cities that time Babylon, Ektabana, Memphis also had their own offices.

Satraps and officials were under the vigilant control of the secret police. In ancient sources, it was called "the ears and eye of the king." The control and supervision of officials was entrusted to the Hazarapat, the leader of the thousand. State correspondence was conducted on which almost all the peoples of Persia owned.

Culture of the Persian state

Ancient Persia left a great architectural heritage to descendants. The magnificent palace complexes in Susa, Persepolis and Pasargadae made a stunning impression on contemporaries. The royal estates were surrounded by gardens and parks. One of the monuments that have survived to this day is the tomb of Cyrus II. Many similar monuments, which appeared hundreds of years later, took as a basis the architecture of the tomb of the Persian king. The culture of the Persian state contributed to the glorification of the king and the strengthening of the royal power among the conquered peoples.

The art of ancient Persia combined the artistic traditions of Iranian tribes, intertwined with elements of Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian cultures. Among the objects that have come down to descendants there are many ornaments, bowls and vases, various cups decorated with exquisite paintings. A special place in the finds is occupied by numerous seals with images of kings and heroes, as well as various animals and fantastic creatures.

Economic development of Persia during the time of Darius

The nobility occupied a special position in the Persian kingdom. The nobles owned large land holdings in all conquered territories. Huge plots were placed at the disposal of the "benefactors" of the tsar for personal services to him. The owners of such lands had the right to manage, transfer allotments to their descendants, and they were also entrusted with the exercise of judicial power over their subjects. The land use system was widely used, in which the plots were called allotments for a horse, bow, chariot, etc. The king distributed such lands to his soldiers, for which their owners had to serve in the army as horsemen, archers, charioteers.

But still huge tracts of land were in the direct possession of the king himself. They were usually rented out. As payment for them, the products of agriculture and cattle breeding were accepted.

In addition to the lands, the canals were in the immediate royal power. The managers of the royal property rented them out and collected taxes for the use of water. For irrigation of fertile soils, a fee was charged, reaching 1/3 of the landowner's harvest.

Manpower of Persia

Slave labor was used in all sectors of the economy. The bulk of them were usually prisoners of war. Collateral slavery, when people sold themselves, did not spread. Slaves had a number of privileges, for example, the right to have their own seals and participate in various transactions as full partners. A slave could redeem himself by paying a certain rent, and also be a plaintiff, witness or defendant in legal proceedings, of course, not against his masters. The practice of hiring hired workers for a certain amount of money was widespread. The work of such workers was especially widespread in Babylonia, where they dug canals, arranged roads, and reaped crops from royal or temple fields.

Darius's financial policy

The main source of income for the treasury was taxes. In 519, the king approved the main system of state taxes. Taxes were calculated for each satrapy, taking into account its territory and land fertility. The Persians, as a conqueror nation, did not pay a monetary tax, but they were not exempt from tax in kind.

Various monetary units that continued to exist even after the unification of the country brought a lot of inconvenience, so in 517 BC. e. the king introduced a new gold coin called the darik. The medium of exchange was a silver shekle, which cost 1/20 of a gift and served at that time. On the reverse of both coins there was an image of Darius I.

Transport highways of the Persian state

The spread of the road network facilitated the development of trade between the various satrapies. The royal road of the Persian state began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and passed through Babylon, and from there to Susa and Persepolis. The sea routes laid by the Greeks were successfully used by the Persians in trade and for the transfer of military power.

The sea expeditions of the ancient Persians are also known, for example, the journey of the sailor Skilaka to the Indian shores in 518 BC. e.

Cyrus the Great - founder of the Achaemenid Empire

The Persian Empire, which replaced the mighty Medes kingdom on the stage of world history, arose as a result of a successful rebellion raised persian king, in which veins flowed Median blood. The last Median king, Astyages, the son of the warlike Cyaxar, was forced to defend his kingdom from his own grandson, the Persian king Kurush, known in history as Cyrus.

There are many legends about the birth and youth of Cyrus, which is not surprising for such a brilliant politician of the Ancient World. So, about Cyrus they said that he was a foundling like the Assyrian king Sargon. Like the Greek king, Oedipus was carried to the mountain and there supernaturally fed by wild animals, which reminds us of the fate of the Egyptian pharaohs or the legendary founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus. Cyrus is such a remarkable personality and his influence on the course of further world history is so great that the history of his birth, youth and political and religious activity is worth dwelling on in more detail.

Satrapies of the Achaemenid kingdom

Cyrus was not the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty - even his grandfather Achaemen proclaimed himself king of the Pasargad Persians. Militant and energetic Achaemen made an attempt to unite the scattered Persian tribes into a single military-political alliance, but the blow of the Median king Fraort prevented his plans. The Medes imposed a tribute on the Persians, which the son of Achaemenus Teisp refused to pay, taking advantage of the fact that the Medes directed all their forces to fight the Scythian invasion, which lasted about three decades. However, the Medes, having recovered from a grueling struggle with the Scythians, pacified the Persians, who had gone out of control. The Median king Cyaxarus struck a blow at the Persians, who united under the leadership of Cyrus (son of Achaemenus and brother of Teisp), as a result of which the Persians again recognized themselves as tributaries of the Median king.

The policy of the heir to the Persian throne, Cambyses, was much more loyal to the Medes. Cambyses led a peaceful life in Pasargadae - then still a small fortress in the center of the possessions of the Persians, and regularly paid tribute to Media. The Median king Astyages, who also did not have a special predilection for military campaigns, in order to strengthen friendly relations between Media and Persia, gave his daughter Mandana to the Persian king Cambyses under his control. The dynastic marriage was supposed to ensure the unity of the political union of the two states in the struggle against the powerful Assyria. Surely it was this goal that the Median king Astyages, the grandfather of the future ruler of all Asia, pursued.

Herodotus, with the prejudice characteristic of the Greeks towards the Persians and the Medes, tells the fantastic story of the birth and upbringing of Cyrus, a story devoid of logic, but full of caustic mockery of the Median magicians, presented in the narrative of the "father of history" by utter fools. Since the Persians were the sworn enemies of Hellas, we should not take Herodotus's tendentious presentation as the ultimate truth.

Herodotus writes that Astyages did not have an heir to the throne, but had a daughter, Mandana, whom he was not going to marry to anyone, because he had a prophetic dream about his daughter, which he considered a bad omen. According to Herodotus, who tended to represent the Medes and Persians in the most negative light, Astyages dreamed that Mandana had emitted so much urine that it flooded all of Asia. In search of an intelligible answer to the question: what could this mean, Astyages called on the magicians - the best interpreters of dreams, who interpreted Astyages' dream as a warning that his daughter would give birth to a son who would overthrow his grandfather from the throne and conquer all of Asia. Further, Herodotus begins to contradict himself. According to him, Astyages firmly decides not to marry Mandana and even assigns eunuchs to her, so that they day and night protect her chastity. But after a while, yielding to the requests of his daughter, Astyages nevertheless decides to marry her off, while, however, choosing the most potentially dangerous candidate for him, Astyages, as the groom. The Median king gives his only daughter in marriage to the king of the Persia subject to him, knowing full well that the Persian prince, born from this union, will try to raise Persia over the Median state. If Astyages really feared the birth of a grandson, he would never have given his daughter in marriage to a Persian, but would have preferred some noble Mede as a son-in-law, so that over time the power over Media would not pass into the hands of the Persian. Obviously, it was beneficial for Herodotus to present the Iranians, to whom both the Medes and the Persians belonged, in the most unfavorable light for them, otherwise such absurd facts would hardly have taken place in his narration.

Nevertheless, the "Herodotovsky" Astyages continued to suffer from nightmares. Some time after the wedding of his daughter, he dreamed that from the womb of Mandana a vine grew that covered all of Asia. The magicians who came at the call of the Median king interpreted the dream in the same vein: "the daughter of Astyages will soon give birth to a son who will overthrow his grandfather from the throne and conquer all of Asia."

Further, following the logic of Herodotus, the Medes king, who created a problem for himself by marrying his daughter not to a Mede, but to a Persian, had no choice but to kill his own grandson. The question arises: what was Astyages thinking when he married Mandana, already having a warning that his grandson would rise above him and over all of Asia? Perhaps he hoped that his daughter would not have offspring, or had the idea of \u200b\u200binfanticide worried him for a long time? In any case, judging by the presentation of Herodotus, the Median king Astyages was a man with an obvious mental disorder, extremely inconsistent in his actions. To take nightmares for a guide to action, then cancel your own decision, and after another ominous dream, again return to repressive measures, but no longer in relation to his daughter, but to his own grandson - only a person who was clearly out of his mind could do this. It is unlikely that such a person could have ruled the huge Median state for thirty years.

Persepolis. Palace of Darius, Xerxes, reconstruction

Unlike Herodotus, Xenophon in Cyropedia portrays the Median king Astyages as a completely decent man. Astyages rejoices at the birth of his grandson and brings him up at his court, surrounding him with care and attention. It is difficult to imagine that a prince brought up in love went to war against his own grandfather. Reverence for ancestors is distinctive feature Iranian peoples. Grandchildren were often named after their paternal grandfather. So Astyages named his son Kyaxaros in honor of his powerful father Kyaxaros, Cyrus named his son Cambyses in honor of his father Cambyses, and the great-grandson of Cambyses, Artaxerxes, named his son Xerxes in honor of his father Xerxes, famous for his wars against Hellas. If Cyrus went to war against his own grandfather, he would have acted not like a Persian, but like a Hellene and would have turned out to be an ungrateful monster, which he, of course, was not, otherwise Herodotus would not have failed to throw mud at him, as he did with Cambyses - the son of the great Cyrus. In general, the history of the Achaemenid dynasty as presented by Herodotus has a lot of Greek motives, the most striking of which is the story of the birth of Cyrus, in which the features of the famous Greek myth about King Oedipus are easily guessed.

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