Uranium use in technology
Section summary
The main areas of application of uranium.
Development of nuclear power. Achieved level and prospects. Estimation of the amount of uranium required for these purposes.
Uranium reserves and the uranium mining industry. The level of production of uranium concentrates. Trends and conjuncture of development of production and consumption of uranium.
The main stages (redistributions) in the technology of obtaining compounds, metal, uranium alloys, the manufacture of fuel elements (TVEL) and fuel assemblies (FA).
Uranium is a radioactive element and its application areas are largely determined by its isotopic composition. Natural uranium is composed of three isotopes:
The specific radioactivity of natural uranium is 0.67 microcurie / g (it is divided almost in half between U-234 and U-238, U-235 makes a small contribution). Natural uranium is radioactive enough to light up a photographic plate in about an hour.
Even in ancient times (1st century BC), natural uranium oxide was used to make yellow glaze for ceramics. Fragments of pottery with yellow glaze (containing more than 1% uranium oxide) were found among the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The appearance of uranium glass is estimated to be at least 79 AD, which is dated to a mosaic found in a Roman villa at Cape Posillipo in the Gulf of Naples (Italy) in 1912 and containing yellow glass with a uranium oxide content of about 1% (see below). Additional materials to Section 3). Beginning in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende (uranite) was mined from the silver mines of the Habsburgs near the town of Jáchymov in Bohemia (now Jáchymov, Czech Republic) and was used as a colorant in local glass production.
IN modern history The first application of technologically produced uranium compounds was also the preparation of colored (mainly red, orange and brown) glazes for ceramic products, as well as the manufacture of uranium glass, which has a yellow-green color and can fluoresce under the influence of sunlight or ultraviolet light.
Widespread production of uranium glass products was launched in Europe in the 20-30s. years XIX century and lasted until the 50s of the twentieth century. Bohemian master Joseph Riedl developed a method for melting glass of new shades - yellow and green, and such a mysterious glow was given to them by uranium dye. Riedl was engaged in the production of uranium glass products from 1830 to 1848. In the 1830s, the newfangled uranium glass began to be produced in Russia at the Gusevsky plant. For uranium glasses, calcium, zinc, barium compositions are recommended, preferably with a high content of potassium and boron, this provides a more intense fluorescence of the glass. Lead glass does not emit fluorescence because it absorbs ultraviolet rays. For uranium glasses without fluorescence, lead glass compositions can also be used, for example, in jewelry to imitate topaz - such glasses have a yellow color comparable to topaz. The uranium content should be relatively high, since the coloring power of uranium in glass compositions is low. The uranium content ranges from 0.3 ... 1.5% UO 3 to 4 ... 6% UO 3. However, with a higher introduction of uranium oxide, the fluorescence of the glass gradually weakens. Uranium is introduced into the charge in the form of oxides (UO 2, U 3 O 8 or UO 3), sodium uranate (Na 2 UO 4 or Na 2 U 2 O 7) or uranyl nitrate.
Currently, a small amount of uranium glass and products from it are produced in the Czech Republic. Uranium is also introduced into some types of optical glasses, for example, yellow boron-silicate optical glass ZhS19, containing 1.37% UO 3, or zinc-phosphate optical glass ZS7, green, containing 2.8% UO 3.
Most used in modern technology has an isotope of uranium 235 U, in which a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is possible. Therefore, this isotope is used as fuel in nuclear reactors, as well as in nuclear weapons. The separation of the U 235 isotope from natural uranium is a complex technological problem. The degree of U-235 enrichment in nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants ranges from 2-4.5%, for weapons use - at least 80%, and more preferably 90%. In the USA, weapon-grade uranium-235 is enriched to 93.5%; industry is capable of producing 97.65% - uranium of this quality is used in reactors for navy... In 1998, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Isotope Division supplied 93% U-235 at $ 53 / yr.
The isotope U 238 is capable of fission under the influence of bombardment with high-energy neutrons, this feature is used to increase the power of thermonuclear weapons (neutrons generated by a thermonuclear reaction are used). Fusion warheads often contain a layer of depleted uranium surrounding the main fusion charge. This layer initially serves as a reaction mass, which makes it possible to achieve a stronger compression during detonation and a more complete occurrence of a thermonuclear reaction. The high flux of high-energy neutrons resulting from a thermonuclear reaction leads to the fission of U-238, which increases the yield of the warhead. Such a weapon is classified as a fission-fusion-fission type of weapon, representing three successive stages of an explosion. The energy released during the final fission of depleted uranium makes up a significant fraction of the total power of the fusion device. For example, 77% of Ivy Mike's 10.4 megatons of fusion power in 1952 came from the fission of depleted uranium. Since depleted uranium does not have a critical mass, it can be added to a thermonuclear charge in almost unlimited quantities. The power released during the testing of the "king of the bomb" in the USSR in 1961 amounted to "only" 50 megatons (90% of which came from the thermonuclear reaction itself) because at the final stage of assembly, depleted uranium was replaced with lead. Using depleted uranium, the explosion power would be 100 megatons.
An important area of \u200b\u200bapplication for this uranium isotope is the production of plutonium-239. As a result of the capture of a neutron with the subsequent β-decay, 238 U can be converted into 239 Pu, which is then used as a nuclear fuel. Any reactor fuel containing natural or partially enriched uranium in the 235th isotope contains a certain proportion of plutonium after the end of the fuel cycle.
After the extraction of U-235 from natural uranium, the remaining material is called "depleted uranium". it is depleted in the 235th isotope. The USA stores about 560 thousand tons of depleted uranium hexafluoride (UF 6), in Russia - about 700 thousand tons.
Depleted uranium is half as radioactive as natural uranium, mainly due to the removal of U-234 from it. Due to the fact that the main use of uranium is energy production, depleted uranium is a useless product with low economic value. Finding ways to use depleted uranium is a big problem for enrichment plants.
Basically, its use is associated with the high density of uranium and its relatively low cost. The two most important uses for depleted uranium are its use for radiation shielding (oddly enough) and as ballast mass in aerospace applications such as the steering surfaces of aircraft. Each Boeing 747 aircraft produced before the mid-1980s contains 400-1500 kg of depleted uranium for this purpose. The problem with the use of uranium in civilian aircraft is that in the event of an accident, uranium burns in a fire and enters the environment as an oxide. In a collision of two Boeing 747s at Tenerife airport in 1977, 3000 kg of uranium burned out in a fire. Another well-known incident of this kind that resulted in the release of a crane into the environment was the 1992 disaster in Amsterdam. Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas do not currently use uranium counterweights in civil aircraft.
Depleted uranium is largely used in oil drilling in the form of percussion rods (wireline drilling), its weight immerses the tool in wells filled with drilling fluid. This material is also used in high-speed gyro rotors, large flywheels, as ballast in space descent vehicles and racing yachts. A somewhat unexpected application is the use of uranium in Formula 1 racing cars. According to the rules, the minimum weight of a car should be 600 kg, but the designers initially try to reduce the mass as much as possible, and then bring it to 600 kg, placing ballasts from depleted uranium and achieving best balancing.
But the most famous application of depleted uranium is as cores for armor-piercing projectiles (sub-caliber projectiles with a super-heavy core). With a certain alloy with other metals and heat treatment (alloying with 2% Mo or 0.75-3.5% Ti, rapid quenching of the metal heated to 850 ° C in water or oil, further holding at 450 ° C for 5 hours) uranium metal become harder and stronger than steel (tensile strength\u003e 1600 MPa). Combined with its high density, this makes hardened uranium extremely effective at penetrating armor, similar in efficiency to the much more expensive monocrystalline tungsten. The process of destruction of armor is accompanied by grinding into dust most of the uranium, the penetration of dust into the protected object and its ignition in air from the other side. About 300 tons of depleted uranium remained on the battlefield during the Desert Storm (mostly the remains of the 30mm GAU-8 cannon of the A-10 assault aircraft, each shell containing 272 g of uranium alloy). The US Army uses uranium in shells for 120 or 105 mm tank guns (M1 Abrams and M60A3) and 25 mm M242 cannon mounted on M2 Bradley and LAV-AT. Bullets with uranium cores (caliber 20, 25 and 30 mm) are used by the US Marine Corps, Air Force and Navy. The Russian (Soviet) army has been using depleted uranium in shells for tank guns since the late 1970s, mainly for the 115 mm gun of the T-62 tank and the 125 mm gun of the T-64, T-72, T-80 and T-tanks. 90. Shells for tank guns and naval guns containing depleted uranium are also used by the armies of Great Britain, Israel, France, China, Pakistan, etc. In total, such weapons are produced in 18 countries.
Due to its high density, depleted uranium is also used in modern tank armor (in the form of a "sandwich" between two sheets of armor steel), for example, M-1 Abrams tanks (modifications M1A1HA and M1A2) built after 1998.
Development is currently underway to replace lead with depleted uranium in the manufacture of counterweights for elevators and cranes.
The article tells about when such a chemical element as uranium was discovered, and in which industries this substance is used in our time.
Uranium is a chemical element in the energy and military industries
At all times, people have tried to find highly efficient energy sources, and ideally - to create the so-called. Unfortunately, the impossibility of its existence was theoretically proved and substantiated back in the 19th century, but scientists still never lost hope of realizing the dream of some kind of device, which would be capable of delivering large amounts of "clean" energy over a very long time.
This was partially realized with the discovery of such a substance as uranium. The chemical element with this name formed the basis for the development of nuclear reactors, which nowadays provide energy to entire cities, submarines, polar ships, and so on. True, their energy cannot be called "pure", but in last years many companies are developing compact "atomic batteries" based on tritium for general sale - they have no moving parts and are safe for health.
However, in this article we will analyze in detail the history of the discovery of a chemical element called uranium and the fission reaction of its nuclei.
Definition
Uranium is a chemical element that has atomic number 92 in the periodic table. Its atomic mass is 238.029. It is designated by the symbol U. Under normal conditions, it is a dense, heavy metal with a silver color. If we talk about its radioactivity, then uranium itself is an element with weak radioactivity. It also does not contain fully stable isotopes. And the most stable of the existing isotopes is uranium-338.
We figured out what this element is, and now we will consider the history of its discovery.
Story
Such a substance as natural uranium oxide has been known to people since ancient times, and ancient craftsmen used it to make glaze, which was used to cover various ceramics for waterproofing vessels and other products, as well as their decoration.
An important date in the history of the discovery of this chemical element was 1789. It was then that chemist and German by origin Martin Klaproth was able to obtain the first uranium metal. And the new element got its name in honor of the planet discovered eight years earlier.
For almost 50 years, the uranium obtained at that time was considered a pure metal, however, in 1840, a chemist from France Eugene-Melquior Peligot was able to prove that the material obtained by Klaproth, despite suitable external signs, was not metal at all, but uranium oxide. A little later, the same Peligo received real uranium - a very heavy gray metal. It was then that the atomic weight of such a substance as uranium was determined for the first time. The chemical element in 1874 was placed by Dmitry Mendeleev in his famous periodic table of elements, and Mendeleev doubled the atomic weight of the substance in half. And only 12 years later, it was experimentally proved that he was not mistaken in his calculations.
Radioactivity
But the really widespread interest in this element in scientific circles began in 1896, when Becquerel discovered the fact that uranium emits rays that were named after the researcher - Becquerel rays. Later, one of the most famous scientists in this field, Marie Curie, called this phenomenon radioactivity.
The next important date in the study of uranium is considered to be 1899: it was then that Rutherford discovered that the radiation of uranium is inhomogeneous and is divided into two types - alpha and beta rays. A year later, Paul Villard (Vuillard) discovered the third, the last type known to us today radiation - the so-called gamma rays.
Seven years later, in 1906, Rutherford, based on his theory of radioactivity, conducted the first experiments, the purpose of which was to determine the age of various minerals. These studies laid the foundation for, among other things, the formation of theory and practice
Fission of uranium nuclei
But, probably, the most important discovery, thanks to which the widespread mining and enrichment of uranium, both for peaceful and military purposes, began, is the process of fission of uranium nuclei. It happened in 1938, the discovery was carried out by the forces of German physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann. Later, this theory received scientific confirmation in the works of several more German physicists.
The essence of the mechanism they discovered was as follows: if the nucleus of the uranium-235 isotope is irradiated with a neutron, then, capturing a free neutron, it begins to fission. And, as we all now know, this process is accompanied by the release of a colossal amount of energy. This happens mainly due to the kinetic energy of the radiation itself and the fragments of the nucleus. So now we know how uranium fission occurs.
The discovery of this mechanism and its results is the starting point for the use of uranium for both peaceful and military purposes.
If we talk about its use for military purposes, then for the first time the theory that it is possible to create conditions for such a process as a continuous fission reaction of uranium nucleus (since nuclear bomb huge energy is needed), the Soviet physicists Zeldovich and Khariton proved. But in order to create such a reaction, uranium must be enriched, since in its normal state it does not possess the necessary properties.
We got acquainted with the history of this element, now we will figure out where it is used.
Applications and types of uranium isotopes
After the discovery of such a process as the chain fission reaction of uranium, physicists were faced with the question of where it can be used?
Currently, there are two main areas where uranium isotopes are used. These are the peaceful (or energy) industry and the military. Both the first and the second use the reaction of the isotope uranium-235, only the output power differs. Simply put, in an atomic reactor there is no need to create and maintain this process with the same power, which is necessary for the explosion of a nuclear bomb.
So, the main industries in which the uranium fission reaction is used have been listed.
But the production of the uranium-235 isotope is an extremely difficult and costly technological task, and not every state can afford to build enrichment factories. For example, to obtain twenty tons of uranium fuel, in which the content of uranium 235 isotope will be from 3-5%, it will be necessary to enrich more than 153 tons of natural, "raw" uranium.
The isotope of uranium-238 is mainly used in the design of nuclear weapons to increase their power. Also, when it captures a neutron with the subsequent process of beta decay, this isotope can eventually turn into plutonium-239 - a common fuel for most modern nuclear reactors.
Despite all the disadvantages of such reactors (high cost, complexity of maintenance, danger of an accident), their operation pays off very quickly, and they produce incomparably more energy than classical thermal or hydroelectric power plants.
Also, the reaction made it possible to create nuclear weapons of mass destruction. It is distinguished by tremendous strength, relative compactness and the fact that it is capable of making large areas of land unsuitable for human habitation. True, modern nuclear weapons use plutonium, not uranium.
Depleted uranium
There is also such a variety of uranium as depleted uranium. It has a very low level of radioactivity, which means it is not dangerous to people. It is used again in the military sphere, for example, it is added to the armor of the American Abrams tank to give it additional strength. In addition, in almost all high-tech armies you can find various In addition to their high mass, they have another very interesting property - after the destruction of the projectile, its fragments and metal dust ignite spontaneously. And by the way, for the first time such a projectile was used during the Second World War. As we can see, uranium is an element that has found application in various fields of human activity.
Conclusion
Scientists predict that all large uranium deposits will be completely depleted in about 2030, after which the development of its hard-to-reach layers will begin and the price will rise. By the way, it itself is absolutely harmless to people - some miners have been working on its extraction for whole generations. Now we figured out the history of the discovery of this chemical element and how the fission reaction of its nuclei is used.
By the way, it is known interesting fact - uranium compounds have long been used as paints for porcelain and glass (the so-called until the 1950s.
Uranium is not a very typical actinide; its five valence states are known - from 2+ to 6+. Some uranium compounds have a characteristic color. So, solutions of trivalent uranium are red, tetravalent - green, and hexavalent uranium - it exists in the form of uranyl ion (UO 2) 2+ - colors solutions in yellow... The fact that hexavalent uranium forms compounds with many organic complexing agents turned out to be very important for the technology of extracting element 92.
It is characteristic that the outer electron shell of uranium ions is always completely filled; valence electrons are in the previous electron layer, in the 5f subshell. If you compare uranium with other elements, it is obvious that plutonium is most similar to it. The main difference between them is the large ionic radius of uranium. In addition, plutonium is most stable in the tetravalent state, while uranium is most stable in the hexavalent state. This helps to separate them, which is very important: nuclear fuel plutonium-239 is obtained exclusively from uranium, ballast from the point of view of the energy of uranium-238. Plutonium is formed in the mass of uranium, and they must be separated!
However, earlier you need to get this same mass of uranium, going through a long technological chain, starting with ore. Typically a multicomponent uranium-poor ore.
Light isotope of a heavy element
Talking about the receipt of item # 92, we deliberately omitted one important step. As you know, not every uranium is capable of supporting a nuclear chain reaction. Uranium-238, which accounts for 99.28% in the natural mixture of isotopes, is not capable of this. Because of this, uranium-238 is converted into plutonium, and the natural mixture of uranium isotopes is sought either to be separated or enriched with the uranium-235 isotope capable of fission of thermal neutrons.
There are many ways to separate uranium-235 and uranium-238. The most commonly used method is gas diffusion. Its essence is that if a mixture of two gases is passed through a porous partition, then the light one will pass faster. Back in 1913, F. Aston partially separated the isotopes of neon in this way.
Most uranium compounds under normal conditions are solids and can be transformed into a gaseous state only at very high temperatures, when there can be no talk of any subtle isotope separation processes. However, the colorless compound of uranium with fluorine - hexafluoride UF 6 sublimes already at 56.5 ° C (at atmospheric pressure). UF 6 is the most volatile uranium compound and is best suited for separating its isotopes by gas diffusion.
Uranium hexafluoride is highly reactive. Corrosion of pipes, pumps, containers, interaction with the lubrication of mechanisms is a small but impressive list of troubles that the creators of diffusion plants had to overcome. We met even more serious difficulties.
Uranium hexafluoride obtained by fluorination of a natural mixture of uranium isotopes, from the "diffusion" point of view, can be considered as a mixture of two gases with very close molecular masses - 349 (235 + 19 * 6) and 352 (238 + 19 * 6). The maximum theoretical separation factor at one diffusion stage for gases that differ so slightly in molecular weight is only 1.0043. In real conditions, this value is even less. It turns out that increasing the concentration of uranium-235 from 0.72 to 99% is possible only with the help of several thousand diffusion stages. Therefore, plants for the separation of uranium isotopes occupy an area of \u200b\u200bseveral tens of hectares. The area of \u200b\u200bporous partitions in the separation cascades of factories is about the same order of magnitude.
Briefly about other isotopes of uranium
Natural uranium, in addition to uranium-235 and uranium-238, includes uranium-234. The content of this rare isotope is expressed as a number with four zeros after the decimal point. An artificial isotope, uranium-233, is much more accessible. It is obtained by irradiating thorium in the neutron flux of a nuclear reactor:
232 90 Th + 10n → 233 90 Th -β- → 233 91 Pa -β- → 233 92 U
According to all the rules of nuclear physics, uranium-233, as an odd isotope, is divided by thermal neutrons. And most importantly, in reactors with uranium-233, an expanded reproduction of nuclear fuel can (and is) taking place. In a conventional thermal reactor! Calculations show that when a kilogram of uranium-233 burns out in a thorium reactor, 1.1 kg of new uranium-233 should accumulate in it. A miracle, and more! They burned a kilogram of fuel, but the fuel did not decrease.
However, such miracles are possible only with nuclear fuel.
The uranium-thorium cycle in thermal reactors is the main competitor of the uranium-plutonium cycle of reproduction of nuclear fuel in fast reactors ... Actually, this is the only reason why element 90, thorium, was classified as a strategic material.
Other artificial isotopes of uranium do not play a significant role. It is worth mentioning only uranium-239, the first isotope in the chain of uranium-238-plutonium-239 transformations. Its half-life is only 23 minutes.
Uranium isotopes with a mass number greater than 240 do not have time to form in modern reactors. The lifetime of uranium-240 is too short, and it decays without having time to capture a neutron.
In super-powerful neutron fluxes of a thermonuclear explosion, the uranium nucleus manages to capture up to 19 neutrons in a millionth of a second. In this case, uranium isotopes with mass numbers from 239 to 257 are born. They learned about their existence by the appearance in the products of a thermonuclear explosion of distant transuranium elements - descendants of heavy uranium isotopes. The "founders of the genus" themselves are too unstable to beta decay and pass into higher elements long before the extraction of the products of nuclear reactions from the rock mixed by the explosion.
Uranium-235 is burned in modern thermal reactors. In already existing fast neutron reactors, the energy of the nuclei of a widespread isotope - uranium-238, is released, and if energy is a real wealth, then uranium nuclei will benefit mankind in the near future: the energy of element N ° 92 will become the basis of our existence.
It is vitally important to make sure that uranium and its derivatives burn only in nuclear reactors of peaceful power plants, burn slowly, without smoke and flames.
ANOTHER SOURCE OF URANIUM. Nowadays it has become sea \u200b\u200bwater... Pilot plants are already operating to extract uranium from water with special sorbents: titanium oxide or acrylic fiber treated with certain reagents.
WHO IS HOW MUCH. In the early 1980s, the production of uranium in the capitalist countries was about 50,000 g per year (in terms of U3Os). About a third of this amount came from the US industry. In second place is Canada, followed by South Africa. Nigor, Gabon, Namibia. Of the European countries, France produces the most uranium and its compounds, but its share was almost seven times less than the United States.
NON-CONVENTIONAL CONNECTIONS. Although it is not unreasonable to state that today the chemistry of uranium and plutonium is better studied than the chemistry of such traditional elements as iron, nevertheless, even today chemists are getting new uranium compounds. So, in 1977 the journal "Radiochemistry" v. XIX, no. 6 reported two new uranyl compounds. Their composition is MU02 (S04) 2-SH20, where M is divalent manganese or cobalt ion. The fact that the new compounds are precisely double salts, and not a mixture of two similar salts, was evidenced by X-ray diffraction patterns.
Uranium is a chemical element of the actinide family with atomic number 92. It is the most important nuclear fuel. Its concentration in earth crust is about 2 ppm. Important uranium minerals include uranium oxide (U 3 O 8), uraninite (UO 2), carnotite (potassium uranyl vanadate), othenite (potassium uranyl phosphate), and torbernite (hydrous copper and uranyl phosphate). These and other uranium ores are sources of nuclear fuel and contain many times more energy than all known recoverable fossil fuel deposits. 1 kg of uranium 92 U gives as much energy as 3 million kg of coal.
Discovery history
The chemical element uranium is a dense, solid, silvery-white metal. It is ductile, malleable and polished. In the air, the metal oxidizes and ignites in the crushed state. Relatively poorly conductive. The electronic formula of uranium is 7s2 6d1 5f3.
Although the element was discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named it after the newly discovered planet Uranus, the metal itself was isolated in 1841 by the French chemist Eugene-Melchior Peligot by reduction from uranium tetrachloride (UCl 4) with potassium.
Radioactivity
The creation of the periodic table by Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleev in 1869 focused attention on uranium as the heaviest known element, which it remained until the discovery of neptunium in 1940. In 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity in it. This property was later found in many other substances. It is now known that radioactive uranium in all its isotopes consists of a mixture of 238 U (99.27%, half-life - 4,510,000,000 years), 235 U (0.72%, half-life - 713,000,000 years) and 234 U (0.006%, half-life - 247,000 years). This makes it possible, for example, to determine the age of rocks and minerals to study geological processes and the age of the Earth. To do this, they measure the amount of lead, which is the end product of the radioactive decay of uranium. In this case, 238 U is the initial element, and 234 U is one of the products. 235 U gives rise to a series of actinium decay.
Opening a chain reaction
The chemical element uranium became the subject of widespread interest and intense study after German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission in it at the end of 1938 when bombarded with slow neutrons. In early 1939, an American physicist of Italian origin, Enrico Fermi, suggested that among the products of the fission of an atom there may be elementary particles capable of generating a chain reaction. In 1939, the American physicists Leo Szilard and Herbert Anderson, as well as the French chemist Frederic Joliot-Curie and their colleagues, confirmed this prediction. Subsequent studies have shown that, on average, 2.5 neutrons are released when an atom fissions. These discoveries led to the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction (12/02/1942), the first atomic bomb (07/16/1945), its first use in hostilities (08/06/1945), the first nuclear submarine (1955) and the first full-scale nuclear power plant ( 1957).
Oxidation states
The chemical element uranium, being a strong electropositive metal, reacts with water. It dissolves in acids, but not in alkalis. Important oxidation states are +4 (as in UO 2 oxide, tetrahalides such as UCl 4, and the green water ion U 4+) and +6 (as in UO 3 oxide, UF 6 hexafluoride and UO 2 2+ uranyl ion). In an aqueous solution, uranium is most stable in the composition of the uranyl ion, which has a linear structure [O \u003d U \u003d O] 2+. The element also has states +3 and +5, but they are unstable. Red U 3+ is slowly oxidized in water that does not contain oxygen. The color of the UO 2 + ion is unknown because it undergoes disproportionation (UO 2 + is simultaneously reduced to U 4+ and oxidized to UO 2 2+) even in very dilute solutions.
Nuclear fuel
When exposed to slow neutrons, the fission of a uranium atom occurs in the relatively rare isotope 235 U. This is the only natural fissile material, and it must be separated from the isotope 238 U. At the same time, after absorption and negative beta decay, uranium-238 turns into a synthetic element plutonium. which splits under the action of slow neutrons. Therefore, natural uranium can be used in converting reactors and breeders, in which fission is supported by the rare 235 U and plutonium is produced simultaneously with the transmutation of 238 U. The fissile 233 U can be synthesized from the widespread in nature thorium-232 isotope for use as a nuclear fuel. Uranium is also important as the primary material from which synthetic transuranium elements are derived.
Other uses of uranium
Compounds of a chemical element were previously used as dyes for ceramics. Hexafluoride (UF 6) is a solid with an unusually high vapor pressure (0.15 atm \u003d 15 300 Pa) at 25 ° C. UF 6 is chemically very reactive, but despite its corrosive nature in the vapor state, UF 6 is widely used in gaseous diffusion and gas centrifuge methods for producing enriched uranium.
Organometallic compounds are an interesting and important group of compounds in which metal-carbon bonds link metal to organic groups. Uranocene is an organo-uranic compound U (C 8 H 8) 2 in which a uranium atom is sandwiched between two layers of organic rings bonded to cyclooctatetraene C 8 H 8. Its discovery in 1968 opened up a new field of organometallic chemistry.
Depleted natural uranium is used as a means of radiation protection, ballast, armor-piercing shells and tank armor.
Processing
The chemical element, although very dense (19.1 g / cm 3), is a relatively weak, non-flammable substance. Indeed, the metallic properties of uranium seem to position it somewhere between silver and other true metals and non-metals, so it is not used as a structural material. The main value of uranium lies in the radioactive properties of its isotopes and their ability to fission. In nature, almost all (99.27%) metal consists of 238 U. The rest is 235 U (0.72%) and 234 U (0.006%). Of these natural isotopes, only 235 U is directly fissioned by neutron irradiation. However, when it is absorbed, 238 U forms 239 U, which ultimately decays into 239 Pu, a fissile material of great importance for nuclear power and nuclear weapons. Another fissile isotope, 233 U, can be produced by neutron irradiation of 232 Th.
Crystalline forms
The characteristics of uranium determine its reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, even under normal conditions. At higher temperatures, it reacts with a wide range of alloying metals to form intermetallic compounds. The formation of solid solutions with other metals rarely occurs due to the special crystal structures formed by the atoms of the element. Between room temperature and a melting point of 1132 ° C, uranium metal exists in 3 crystalline forms known as alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ). The transformation from the α to β state occurs at 668 ° C and from β to γ \u200b\u200bat 775 ° C. γ-uranium has a body-centered cubic crystal structure, and β - tetragonal. The α phase consists of layers of atoms in a highly symmetric orthorhombic structure. This anisotropic distorted structure prevents the alloying metal atoms from replacing uranium atoms or occupying the space between them in the crystal lattice. It was found that solid solutions form only molybdenum and niobium.
Ores
The earth's crust contains about 2 parts per million of uranium, which indicates its wide distribution in nature. The oceans are estimated to contain 4.5 × 10 9 tonnes of this chemical element. Uranium is an important constituent of over 150 different minerals and a minor constituent of another 50. Primary minerals found in magmatic hydrothermal veins and in pegmatites include uraninite and pitchblende. In these ores, the element occurs in the form of dioxide, which, due to oxidation, can vary from UO 2 to UO 2.67. Other economically significant products from uranium mines are autunite (hydrated calcium uranyl phosphate), tobernite (hydrated copper uranyl phosphate), coffinite (hydrated black uranium silicate) and carnotite (hydrated potassium uranyl vanadate).
It is estimated that over 90% of the known low-cost uranium reserves are found in Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, Russia, South Africa, Niger, Namibia, Brazil, PRC, Mongolia and Uzbekistan. Large deposits are found in the conglomerate rock formations of Lake Elliot, located north of Lake Huron in Ontario, Canada, and in the South African Witwatersrand gold mine. Sand formations on the Colorado Plateau and in the Wyoming Basin of the western United States also contain significant reserves of uranium.
Mining
Uranium ores are found both in near-surface and deep (300-1200 m) sediments. Under the ground, the seam thickness reaches 30 m. As in the case of other metal ores, uranium is mined on the surface with large earth-moving equipment, and deep sediments are mined using traditional methods of vertical and inclined mines. World production of uranium concentrate in 2013 amounted to 70 thousand tons. The most productive uranium mines are located in Kazakhstan (32% of all production), Canada, Australia, Niger, Namibia, Uzbekistan and Russia.
Uranium ores usually contain only a small amount of uranium-bearing minerals and cannot be smelted by direct pyrometallurgical methods. Instead, hydrometallurgical procedures should be used to extract and purify uranium. Increasing the concentration significantly reduces the load on the processing loops, but none of the conventional beneficiation methods commonly used for mineral processing, such as gravity, flotation, electrostatic and even manual sorting, are applicable. With few exceptions, these methods result in significant losses of uranium.
Burning
The hydrometallurgical treatment of uranium ores is often preceded by a high-temperature calcination stage. Roasting dehydrates clay, removes carbonaceous materials, oxidizes sulfur compounds to harmless sulfates, and oxidizes any other reducing agents that might interfere with subsequent processing.
Leaching
Uranium is extracted from roasted ores with both acidic and alkaline aqueous solutions. For the successful functioning of all leaching systems, a chemical element must either initially be present in a more stable 6-valent form, or be oxidized to this state during processing.
Acid leaching is usually carried out by stirring a mixture of ore and lixiviant for 4-48 hours at a temperature environment... Sulfuric acid is used except in special circumstances. It is fed in quantities sufficient to produce the final liquor at a pH of 1.5. Sulfuric acid leaching schemes typically use either manganese dioxide or chlorate to oxidize tetravalent U 4+ to 6-valent uranyl (UO 2 2+). Typically, about 5 kg of manganese dioxide or 1.5 kg of sodium chlorate per ton is sufficient for the oxidation of U 4+. In any case, oxidized uranium reacts with sulfuric acid to form the uranyl sulfate complex anion 4-.
Ore containing significant amounts of basic minerals such as calcite or dolomite is leached with 0.5-1 molar sodium carbonate solution. Although various reagents have been studied and tested, oxygen is the main oxidizing agent for uranium. Typically, the ore is leached in air at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 75-80 ° C for a period of time, which depends on the specific chemical composition... Alkali reacts with uranium to form the readily soluble complex ion 4-.
Before further processing, solutions resulting from acid or carbonate leaching must be clarified. Large-scale separation of clays and other ore sludges is accomplished through the use of effective flocculating agents, including polyacrylamides, guar gum and animal glue.
Extraction
Complex ions 4- and 4- can be sorbed from their respective ion exchange resin leaching solutions. These special resins, characterized by their sorption and elution kinetics, particle size, stability and hydraulic properties, can be used in various processing technologies, for example in fixed and moving bed, ion exchange resin in basket and continuous pulp. Usually, solutions of sodium chloride and ammonia or nitrates are used to elute sorbed uranium.
Uranium can be isolated from acidic ore liquors by solvent extraction. The industry uses alkyl phosphoric acids, as well as secondary and tertiary alkyl amines. As a rule, solvent extraction is preferred over ion exchange methods for acidic filtrates containing more than 1 g / L of uranium. However, this method is not applicable to carbonate leaching.
Then uranium is purified by dissolving in nitric acid with the formation of uranyl nitrate, extracted, crystallized and calcined with the formation of trioxide UO 3. Reduced UO2 dioxide reacts with hydrogen fluoride to form UF4 thetafluoride, from which uranium metal is reduced with magnesium or calcium at a temperature of 1300 ° C.
Tetrafluoride can be fluorinated at 350 ° C to form UF 6 hexafluoride, which is used to separate enriched uranium-235 by gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, or liquid thermal diffusion.
(according to Pauling)
U ← U 3+ -1.66V
U ← U 2+ -0.1V
| U | 92 |
| 238,0289 | |
| 5f 3 6d 1 7s 2 | |
| Uranus | |
Uranus (old name Uranium) - chemical element with atomic number 92 in the periodic table, atomic mass 238.029; denoted by the symbol U ( Uranium), belongs to the actinide family.
Story
Even in ancient times (1st century BC), natural uranium oxide was used to make yellow glaze for ceramics. Research into uranium has evolved like the chain reaction it generates. At first, information about its properties, like the first impulses of a chain reaction, came with long interruptions, from case to case. The first important date in the history of uranium - 1789, when the German natural philosopher and chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth reduced the golden-yellow "earth" extracted from the Saxon resin ore to a black metal-like substance. In honor of the most distant planet known then (discovered by Herschel eight years earlier), Klaproth, considering the new substance an element, called it uranium.
For fifty years Klaproth's uranium was considered a metal. Only in 1841, Eugene Melchior Peligot - French chemist (1811-1890)] proved that, despite its characteristic metallic luster, Klaproth's uranium is not an element, but an oxide UO 2... In 1840, Peligo managed to obtain real uranium, a heavy metal of steel-gray color, and to determine its atomic weight. The next important step in the study of uranium was made in 1874 by DI Mendeleev. Based on the periodic system he developed, he placed uranium in the farthest cell of his table. Previously, the atomic weight of uranium was considered equal to 120. The great chemist doubled this value. After 12 years, Mendeleev's foresight was confirmed by the experiments of the German chemist Zimmermann.
The study of uranium began in 1896: the French chemist Antoine Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered the Becquerel Rays, which Marie Curie later renamed radioactivity. At the same time, the French chemist Henri Moissan managed to develop a method for obtaining pure metallic uranium. In 1899, Rutherford discovered that the radiation of uranium preparations is inhomogeneous, that there are two types of radiation - alpha and beta rays. They carry different electrical charges; their range in matter and ionizing ability are far from the same. A little later, in May 1900, Paul Villard discovered a third type of radiation - gamma rays.
Ernest Rutherford carried out in 1907 the first experiments to determine the age of minerals in the study of radioactive uranium and thorium on the basis of the theory of radioactivity that he created jointly with Frederick Soddy (Soddy, Frederick, 1877-1956; Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In 1913 F. Soddy introduced the concept of isotopes (from the Greek ισος - "equal", "the same", and τόπος - "place"), and in 1920 predicted that isotopes can be used to determine the geological age of rocks. In 1928, Niggot implemented, and in 1939 A.O.K. Nier (Nier, Alfred Otto Carl, 1911 - 1994) created the first equations for calculating age and used a mass spectrometer for isotope separation.
In 1939, Frederic Joliot-Curie and German physicists Otto Frisch and Lisa Meitner discovered an unknown phenomenon that occurs with the uranium nucleus when it is irradiated with neutrons. An explosive destruction of this nucleus took place with the formation of new elements much lighter than uranium. This destruction was of an explosive nature, fragments of products scattered in different directions at tremendous speeds. Thus, a phenomenon called a nuclear reaction was discovered.
In 1939-1940. Yu. B. Khariton and Ya. B. Zel'dovich showed for the first time theoretically that with a small enrichment of natural uranium with uranium-235, conditions can be created for the continuous fission of atomic nuclei, that is, to give the process a chain character.
Being in nature
Uraninite ore
Uranium is widespread in nature. The clarke of uranium is 1 · 10 -3% (wt.). The amount of uranium in a layer of the lithosphere 20 km thick is estimated at 1.3 · 10 14 tons.
The bulk of uranium is found in acidic rocks with a high silicon... A significant mass of uranium is concentrated in sedimentary rocks, especially those enriched in organic matter. Uranium is present in large quantities as an impurity in thorium and rare earth minerals (orthite, sphene CaTiO 3, monazite (La, Ce) PO 4, zircon ZrSiO 4, xenotime YPO4, etc.). The most important uranium ores are pitchblende (uranium pitch), uraninite and carnotite. The main minerals - satellites of uranium are molybdenite MoS 2, galena PbS, quartz SiO 2, calcite CaCO 3, hydromuscovite, etc.
| Mineral | The main composition of the mineral | Uranium content,% |
|---|---|---|
| Uraninite | UO 2, UO 3 + ThO 2, CeO 2 | 65-74 |
| Carnotite | K 2 (UO 2) 2 (VO 4) 2 2H 2 O | ~50 |
| Casolite | PbO 2 UO 3 SiO 2 H 2 O | ~40 |
| Samarskite | (Y, Er, Ce, U, Ca, Fe, Pb, Th) (Nb, Ta, Ti, Sn) 2 O 6 | 3.15-14 |
| Brannerite | (U, Ca, Fe, Y, Th) 3 Ti 5 O 15 | 40 |
| Tuyamunit | CaO 2UO 3 V 2 O 5 nH 2 O | 50-60 |
| Zeinerite | Cu (UO 2) 2 (AsO 4) 2 nH 2 O | 50-53 |
| Otenit | Ca (UO 2) 2 (PO 4) 2 nH 2 O | ~50 |
| Schreckingerite | Ca 3 NaUO 2 (CO 3) 3 SO 4 (OH) 9H 2 O | 25 |
| Uranofan | CaO UO 2 2SiO 2 6H 2 O | ~57 |
| Fergusonite | (Y, Ce) (Fe, U) (Nb, Ta) O 4 | 0.2-8 |
| Thorburnite | Cu (UO 2) 2 (PO 4) 2 nH 2 O | ~50 |
| Coffinite | U (SiO 4) 1-x (OH) 4x | ~50 |
The main forms of finding uranium in nature are uraninite, pitchblende (uranium pitch) and uranium black. They differ only in the forms of finding; there is an age dependence: uraninite is present mainly in ancient (Precambrian rocks), pitchblende - volcanogenic and hydrothermal - mainly in Paleozoic and younger high- and medium-temperature formations; uranium blacks - mainly in young - Cenozoic and younger formations - mainly in low-temperature sedimentary rocks.
The content of uranium in the earth's crust is 0.003%; it is found in the surface layer of the earth in the form of four types of deposits. First, these are veins of uraninite, or uranium resin (uranium dioxide UO2), very rich in uranium, but rarely found. They are accompanied by radium deposits, since radium is a direct product of the isotopic decay of uranium. Such veins are found in Zaire, Canada (Big Bear Lake), Czech Republic and France... The second source of uranium is conglomerates of thorium and uranium ore, together with ores of other important minerals. Conglomerates usually contain sufficient amounts of gold and silver, and uranium and thorium become accompanying elements. Large deposits of these ores are located in Canada, South Africa, Russia and Australia. The third source of uranium is sedimentary rocks and sandstones, rich in the mineral carnotite (potassium uranyl vanadate), which contains, in addition to uranium, a significant amount vanadium and other elements. Such ores are found in the western states. USA... Iron uranium shale and phosphate ores constitute the fourth source of sediment. Rich deposits found in shales Sweden... Some phosphate ores in Morocco and the United States contain significant amounts of uranium, and phosphate deposits in Angola and the Central African Republic are even richer in uranium. Most lignites and some coals usually contain uranium impurities. Uranium-rich lignite deposits found in North and South Dakota (USA) and bituminous coals Spain and Czech Republic
Uranium isotopes
Natural uranium consists of a mixture of three isotopes: 238 U - 99.2739% (half-life T 1/2 \u003d 4.468 × 10 9 years), 235 U - 0.7024% ( T 1/2 \u003d 7.038 × 10 8 years) and 234 U - 0.0057% ( T 1/2 \u003d 2.455 × 10 5 years). The latter isotope is not primary, but radiogenic; it is part of the 238 U radioactive series.
The radioactivity of natural uranium is mainly due to the isotopes 238 U and 234 U, in equilibrium their specific activities are equal. The specific activity of the 235 U isotope in natural uranium is 21 times less than that of 238 U.
There are 11 known artificial radioactive isotopes of uranium with mass numbers from 227 to 240. The longest-lived of them is 233 U ( T 1/2 \u003d 1.62 × 10 5 years) is obtained by irradiating thorium with neutrons and is capable of spontaneous fission by thermal neutrons.
Uranium isotopes 238 U and 235 U are the ancestors of two radioactive series. The finite elements of these series are isotopes lead 206 Pb and 207 Pb.
In natural conditions, isotopes are prevalent mainly 234 U: 235 U : 238 U \u003d 0.0054: 0.711: 99.283. Half of the radioactivity of natural uranium is due to the isotope 234 U... Isotope 234 U formed by decay 238 U... For the latter two, in contrast to other pairs of isotopes and regardless of the high migration capacity of uranium, the geographic constancy of the ratio is characteristic. The magnitude of this ratio depends on the age of the uranium. Numerous field measurements showed insignificant fluctuations. So in rolls, the value of this ratio relative to the standard varies within the range of 0.9959 -1.0042, in salts - 0.996 - 1.005. In uranium-containing minerals (pitchblende, uranium black, cirtolite, rare earth ores), the value of this ratio ranges from 137.30 to 138.51; moreover, the difference between the forms U IV and U VI has not been established; in sphene - 138.4. In some meteorites, a deficiency of the isotope was revealed 235 U... Its lowest concentration in terrestrial conditions was found in 1972 by the French explorer Boujigues in the town of Oklo in Africa (a deposit in Gabon). Thus, normal uranium contains 0.7025% of uranium 235 U, while in Oklo it decreases to 0.557%. This confirmed the hypothesis of the presence of a natural nuclear reactor leading to isotope burnup predicted by George W. Wetherill of the University of California at Los Angeles and Mark G. Inghram of the University of Chicago and Paul K. Kuroda), a chemist at the University of Arkansas, who described the process back in 1956. In addition, natural nuclear reactors were found in the same districts: Okelobondo, Bangombe, etc. At present, about 17 natural nuclear reactors are known.
Receiving
The very first stage of uranium production is concentration. The rock is crushed and mixed with water. Heavy suspension components settle faster. If the rock contains primary uranium minerals, then they precipitate quickly: these are heavy minerals. Secondary uranium minerals are lighter; in this case, heavy waste rock settles earlier. (However, it is far from always really empty; it can contain many useful elements, including uranium).
The next stage is leaching of concentrates, transferring uranium into solution. Acid and alkaline leaching is used. The first is cheaper, since sulfuric acid is used to extract uranium. But if in the feedstock, as, for example, in uranium tar, uranium is in a tetravalent state, then this method is inapplicable: tetravalent uranium practically does not dissolve in sulfuric acid. In this case, one must either resort to alkaline leaching, or pre-oxidize uranium to a hexavalent state.
Acid leaching is also not used if the uranium concentrate contains dolomite or magnesite reacting with sulfuric acid. In these cases, use caustic soda (hydroxide sodium).
Oxygen flushing solves the problem of uranium leaching from ores. A stream of oxygen is fed into a mixture of uranium ore with sulfide minerals heated to 150 ° C. In this case, sulfuric acid is formed from sulphurous minerals, which washes out uranium.
At the next stage, uranium must be selectively separated from the resulting solution. Modern methods - extraction and ion exchange - can solve this problem.
The solution contains not only uranium, but also other cations. Some of them under certain conditions behave in the same way as uranium: they are extracted with the same organic solvents, settle on the same ion-exchange resins, and precipitate under the same conditions. Therefore, for the selective separation of uranium, it is necessary to use many redox reactions in order to get rid of one or another undesirable companion at each stage. On modern ion-exchange resins, uranium is released very selectively.
Methods ion exchange and extraction They are also good in that they allow enough to completely extract uranium from poor solutions (the uranium content is tenths of a gram per liter).
After these operations, uranium is transferred to solid state - into one of the oxides or into UF 4 tetrafluoride. But this uranium still needs to be cleaned of impurities with a large thermal neutron capture cross section - bora, cadmium, hafnium. Their content in the final product should not exceed one hundred thousandths and millionths of a percent. To remove these impurities, a commercially pure uranium compound is dissolved in nitric acid. In this case, uranyl nitrate UO 2 (NO 3) 2 is formed, which, upon extraction with tributyl phosphate and some other substances, is additionally purified to the required conditions. Then this substance is crystallized (or peroxide UO 4 · 2H 2 O is precipitated) and cautiously ignited. As a result of this operation, uranium trioxide UO 3 is formed, which is reduced with hydrogen to UO 2.
Uranium dioxide UO 2 at a temperature of 430 to 600 ° C is exposed to dry hydrogen fluoride to obtain tetrafluoride UF 4. Uranium metal is reduced from this compound using calcium or magnesium.
Physical properties
Uranium is a very heavy, silvery-white shiny metal. In its pure form, it is slightly softer than steel, malleable, flexible, and has slight paramagnetic properties. Uranus has three allotropic forms: alpha (prismatic, stable up to 667.7 ° C), beta (quadrangular, stable from 667.7 ° C to 774.8 ° C), gamma (with a body-centered cubic structure existing from 774, 8 ° C to melting point).
Radioactive properties of some isotopes of uranium (natural isotopes are identified):
Chemical properties
Uranium can exhibit oxidation states from + III to + VI. Uranium (III) compounds form unstable red solutions and are strong reducing agents:
4UCl 3 + 2H 2 O → 3UCl 4 + UO 2 + H 2
Uranium (IV) compounds are the most stable and form green aqueous solutions.
Uranium (V) compounds are unstable and easily disproportionate in aqueous solution:
2UO 2 Cl → UO 2 Cl 2 + UO 2
Chemically, uranium is a very active metal. It quickly oxidizes in air and becomes covered with an iridescent oxide film. Fine uranium powder ignites spontaneously in air, it ignites at a temperature of 150-175 ° C, forming U 3 O 8. At 1000 ° C, uranium combines with nitrogen to form yellow uranium nitride. Water is capable of corroding metal, slowly at low temperatures, and quickly at high temperatures, as well as when finely ground uranium powder. Uranium dissolves in hydrochloric, nitric and other acids, forming tetravalent salts, but does not interact with alkalis. Uranus displaces hydrogen from inorganic acids and saline solutions of metals such as mercury, silver, copper, tin, platinum andgold... When shaken vigorously, uranium metal particles begin to glow. Uranium has four oxidation states - III-VI. Hexavalent compounds include uranium trioxide (uranyl oxide) UO 3 and uranyl uranium chloride UO 2 Cl 2. Uranium tetrachloride UCl 4 and uranium dioxide UO 2 are examples of tetravalent uranium. Substances containing tetravalent uranium are usually unstable and become hexavalent when exposed to air for a long time. Uranyl salts such as uranyl chloride decompose in the presence of bright light or organic matter.
Application
Nuclear fuel
The greatest application is isotope uranium 235 U, in which a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is possible. Therefore, this isotope is used as fuel in nuclear reactors, as well as in nuclear weapons. The separation of the U 235 isotope from natural uranium is a complex technological problem (see isotope separation).
The isotope U 238 is capable of fission under the influence of bombardment with high-energy neutrons, this feature is used to increase the power of thermonuclear weapons (neutrons generated by a thermonuclear reaction are used).
As a result of neutron capture followed by β-decay, 238 U can be converted into 239 Pu, which is then used as a nuclear fuel.
Uranium-233, artificially obtained in reactors from thorium (thorium-232 captures a neutron and turns into thorium-233, which decays into protactinium-233 and then into uranium-233), may in the future become a widespread nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants (already now there are reactors that use this nuclide as fuel, for example, KAMINI in India) and the production of atomic bombs ( critical mass about 16 kg).
Uranium-233 is also the most promising fuel for gas-phase nuclear rocket engines.
Geology
The main industry of uranium use is the determination of the age of minerals and rocks in order to determine the sequence of the course of geological processes. This is done by Geochronology and Theoretical Geochronology. The solution of the problem of mixing and sources of matter is also of great importance.
The solution to the problem is based on the equations of radioactive decay described by equations.
where 238 U o, 235 U o - modern concentrations of uranium isotopes; ; - decay constants atoms respectively of uranium 238 U and 235 U.
Their combination is very important:
.Due to the fact that rocks contain different concentrations of uranium, they have different radioactivity. This property is used in the selection of rocks by geophysical methods. This method is most widely used in petroleum geology for geophysical studies of wells, this complex includes, in particular, γ-logging or neutron gamma-ray logging, gamma-gamma ray logging, etc. With their help, reservoirs and seals are identified.
Other areas of application
A small amount of uranium imparts a beautiful yellow-green fluorescence to the glass (Uranium glass).
Sodium uranate Na 2 U 2 O 7 was used as a yellow pigment in painting.
Uranium compounds were used as paints for painting on porcelain and for ceramic glazes and enamels (they are painted in colors: yellow, brown, green and black, depending on the oxidation state).
Some uranium compounds are photosensitive.
At the beginning of the 20th century uranyl nitrate It was widely used for enhancing negatives and coloring (toning) positives (photographic prints) in brown.
Uranium-235 carbide in an alloy with niobium carbide and zirconium carbide is used as fuel for nuclear jet engines (working fluid - hydrogen + hexane).
Alloys of iron and depleted uranium (uranium-238) are used as powerful magnetostrictive materials.
Depleted uranium
Depleted uranium
After the extraction of 235 U and 234 U from natural uranium, the remaining material (uranium-238) is called "depleted uranium", since it is depleted in the 235th isotope. According to some reports, about 560,000 tons of depleted uranium hexafluoride (UF 6) are stored in the United States.
Depleted uranium is two times less radioactive than natural uranium, mainly due to the removal of 234 U from it. Due to the fact that the main use of uranium is energy production, depleted uranium is a product of little use with low economic value.
Basically, its use is associated with the high density of uranium and its relatively low cost. Depleted uranium is used for radiation protection (oddly enough) and as ballast mass in aerospace applications such as aircraft steering surfaces. Each Boeing 747 contains 1,500 kg of depleted uranium for this purpose. This material is also used in high-speed gyro rotors, large flywheels, as ballast in space descent vehicles and racing yachts, when drilling oil wells.
Armor-piercing projectile cores
The tip (insert) of a 30 mm caliber projectile (GAU-8 cannon of the A-10 aircraft) with a diameter of about 20 mm made of depleted uranium.
The most famous use of depleted uranium is as cores for armor-piercing projectiles. When alloyed with 2% Mo or 0.75% Ti and heat treatment (rapid quenching of metal heated to 850 ° C in water or oil, further holding at 450 ° C for 5 hours), uranium metal becomes harder and stronger than steel (tensile strength is higher 1600 MPa, despite the fact that for pure uranium it is equal to 450 MPa). Combined with its high density, this makes the hardened uranium ingot an extremely effective armor penetration tool, similar in efficiency to more expensive tungsten. The heavy uranium tip also alters the mass distribution of the projectile, improving its aerodynamic stability.
Similar alloys of the "Stabila" type are used in arrow-shaped, feathered shells of tank and anti-tank artillery guns.
The process of destruction of armor is accompanied by grinding a uranium blank into dust and igniting it in air on the other side of the armor (see Pyrophoricity). About 300 tons of depleted uranium were left on the battlefield during Operation Desert Storm (mostly remnants of shells from the 30mm GAU-8 cannon of A-10 assault aircraft, each shell containing 272 g of uranium alloy).
Such shells were used by NATO troops in hostilities on the territory of Yugoslavia. After their application, the environmental problem of radiation pollution of the country's territory was discussed.
For the first time, uranium was used as a core for projectiles in the Third Reich.
Depleted uranium is used in modern tank armor such as the M-1 Abrams tank.
Physiological action
It is found in trace amounts (10 -5 -10 -8%) in tissues of plants, animals and humans. Mostly accumulated by some fungi and algae. Uranium compounds are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract (about 1%), in the lungs - 50%. The main depots in the body: spleen, kidneys, skeleton, liver, lungs and broncho-pulmonary lymph nodes. Content in organs and tissues of humans and animals does not exceed 10 −7 g.
Uranus and its compounds toxic... Aerosols of uranium and its compounds are especially dangerous. For aerosols of water-soluble uranium compounds the maximum permissible concentration in the air is 0.015 mg / m³, for insoluble forms of uranium the maximum permissible concentration is 0.075 mg / m³. When it enters the body, uranium acts on all organs, being a general cellular poison. The molecular mechanism of action of uranium is associated with its ability to suppress enzyme activity. First of all, the kidneys are affected (protein and sugar appear in the urine, oliguria). With chronic intoxication, disorders of the hematopoiesis and nervous system are possible.
Production by countries in tons of U content for 2005-2006.
Production by company in 2006:
Cameco - 8.1 thousand tons
Rio Tinto - 7 thousand tons
AREVA - 5 thousand tons
Kazatomprom - 3.8 thousand tons
TVEL OJSC - 3.5 thousand tons
BHP Billiton - 3 thousand tons
Navoi MMC - 2.1 thousand tons ( Uzbekistan, Navoi)
Uranium One - 1,000 tons
Heathgate - 0.8 thousand tons
Denison Mines - 0.5 thousand tons
Production in Russia
In the USSR, the main uranium ore regions were Ukraine (the Zheltorechenskoye deposit, Pervomaiskoe, etc.), Kazakhstan (Severny - Balkashinskoe ore field, etc.; Yuzhny - Kyzylsai ore field, etc.; Vostochny; they all belong mainly to the volcanogenic-hydrothermal type); Transbaikalia (Antey, Streltsovskoe, etc.); Central Asia, mainly Uzbekistan with mineralization in black shales with the center in the city of Uchkuduk. There are a lot of small ore occurrences and manifestations. Transbaikalia remains the main uranium ore region in Russia. A deposit in the Chita region (near the city of Krasnokamensk) produces about 93% of Russian uranium. Production is carried out by the mine method by the Priargunskoye Industrial Mining and Chemical Association (PIMCU), which is part of JSC Atomredmetzoloto (Uranium Holding).
The remaining 7% is obtained by in-situ leaching of ZAO Dalur (Kurgan region) and OAO Khiagda (Buryatia).
The resulting ores and uranium concentrate are processed at the Chepetsk Mechanical Plant.
Production in Kazakhstan
About a fifth of the world's uranium reserves (21% and 2nd place in the world) are concentrated in Kazakhstan. The total uranium resources are about 1.5 million tons, of which about 1.1 million tons can be mined by in-situ leaching.
In 2009, Kazakhstan came out on top in the world in uranium mining.
Production in Ukraine
The main enterprise is the Eastern Mining and Processing Plant in the city of Yellow Waters.
The cost
Despite the legends about tens of thousands of dollars per kilogram or even gram quantities of uranium, its real price on the market is not very high - unenriched uranium oxide U 3 O 8 costs less than 100 US dollars per kilogram. This is due to the fact that to launch an atomic reactor on unenriched uranium, tens or even hundreds of tons of fuel are needed, and for the manufacture of nuclear weapons, a large amount of uranium must be enriched to obtain concentrations suitable for creating a bomb.