Decorating houses with branches of plants that never shed their "clothing" began even before the spread of Christianity in Northern Europe. It was believed that spirits lived in the branches of trees, and, decorating the tree, they tried to appease them. Perhaps, for the ancient people, the branches of conifers symbolized eternal life. In addition, it was believed that the sun was especially favored by evergreen trees. Therefore, meeting the day of the winter solstice, the ancient Germans decorated their homes with spruce branches.

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The tradition connects the emergence of the custom of putting a fir tree in houses on the feast of the Nativity of Christ with the name of Saint Boniface (7-8 century). It is believed that while preaching among the pagans in Germany and telling them about the Nativity of Christ, he cut down an oak dedicated to Thor, the god of thunder, to show the pagans how powerless their gods were. The oak fell down and knocked down several trees, except for the spruce. And Saint Boniface called the spruce “the tree of the Christ Child”. Apparently, at first, the trees were erected on the Christmas holiday without decorations. And the actual custom of decorating spruce was established after the Reformation in Protestant countries. According to the most famous of the legends, the beginning of the tradition of decorating the Christmas tree was laid by Martin Luther in 1513. According to legend, it was the German reformer who decorated the top of the tree with a star on Christmas Eve in memory of the Star of Bethlehem.

The custom of decorating a fir tree for Christmas brought to Russia Peter I... On the eve of 1700, Peter commanded New Year celebrate January 1 (instead of September 1). At the same time, by decree of Peter I, it was ordered: "along the streets ... in front of the gates to put some decorations from trees and branches of pine, spruce and juniper ... to stand that decoration of January on the first day."

However, at that time, the tradition of decorating the tree did not take root - perhaps this is due to the fact that in Russia it was customary to line the path of the deceased to the churchyard with fir branches, so the coniferous tree was not associated with festive fun.

It is believed to have revived the tradition princess Alexandra Feodorovna (German by birth), who became the wife of the Russian Tsar Nicholas I. In 1818, on Christmas Eve, she ordered to put in the premises of the royal court in Moscow, spruce trees decorated with sweets and fruits. After Nicholas I ascended the throne, the tradition of installing a Christmas tree at Christmas spread outside the royal residence, and since the end of the 1840s, Christmas tree markets began to open every winter in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At the same time, according to some sources, the tradition still took root quite hard, and the Christmas tree became a ubiquitous decoration in Russia only at the end of the 19th century.

In Soviet times, the tree was initially not welcome, as it "reminded" of religion and Christmas. So, with the beginning of the persecution of Orthodoxy, the Christmas tree also fell out of favor: it became even dangerous to put it in the house. But on December 28, 1935, an article appeared in the Pravda newspaper under the heading "Let's organize a good Christmas tree for the children for the New Year!" Stalin supported the initiative, and the green beauty came out of disgrace and became a symbol of the coming new year: Christmas tree festivities were organized, Christmas tree decorations appeared in stores. So the Christmas tree was transformed into a New Year tree (in the USSR, instead of Bethlehem, they put a five-pointed star on its top).

Today, the coniferous tree is an integral symbol of the New Year for most families and is invariably associated with holiday fun, Santa Claus and gifts. At the same time, within the framework of church symbols, green beauties are one of the attributes of the festive decoration of churches for Christmas.

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The events of the Middle Ages, a period that lasted from the second half of the 5th century to the end of the 15th century, are rich in their diversity. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476 marked the beginning of this belief. under the blows of the barbarians. Ten years later, the state of the Franks arose, which eventually occupied the territory of almost all of Western and Central Europe. At the same time, the eastern Roman Empire was transformed into the Byzantine one. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope as Emperor of the Frankish Empire, which was to inherit the rights of the bygone Roman Empire. However, the state disintegrated into parts already in 843, from its fragments modern France and Germany were formed.

While the formation of "barbarian" kingdoms was taking place in Europe, Islam was born in the east. The states professing it quickly began an active aggressive activity, as a result of which the Khorezm state fell. In Central Asia, the expansion of China was stopped by the Turkic tribes, after which the Chinese emperors attacked the defensive, but already in the 13th century their state was captured by the Mongols of Genghis Khan. The appearance of the Golden Horde is one of the most serious events of the Middle Ages. This state captured a huge territory, conquered Khorezm, China and most of the Russian principalities. Their active conquest took place in 1223 - 1242. For Eastern Europe, the events of the Middle Ages ended with the liberation from the rule of the Golden Horde in 1480.

In the 10th century, events in the Middle Ages in Europe began to heat up. In the 10th century, the Holy Roman Empire was founded, the emperors of which entered into an active struggle against the Papal See. In 1080, the Norman conquest of England took place, which predetermined the entire future history of the development of Great Britain. Also, the Western and Eastern worlds entered into active confrontation on religious grounds. The climax of these conflicts was the massive crusades to the Holy Land, which lasted from 1096 to 1270. Moreover, one of these campaigns was carried out against the principality of Lithuania, which managed to fight back only with the help of Novgorod.

One of the most difficult centuries in the Middle Ages was the 14th. England unleashed a century-long war against France, which ended from 1337 to 1453. In the same century, from 1347 to 1350, one of the most terrible epidemics in European history took place - the bubonic plague, which was popularly called the Black Death. Scientists have not identified a specific date for the end of the Middle Ages, since each region developed according to its own laws. For Europe, this event was the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1492. It is interesting that in the same year the Zaporozhye Cossacks were founded on the territory of modern Ukraine (ataman Baida Vishnevetsky), the Reconquista in Spain was completed and the New Land was opened.

A Brief History of the Middle Ages: Era, States, Battles, People Khlevov Alexander Alekseevich

Chronology of the main events in Europe I-XVI centuries

5 – The troops of the emperor Tiberius go to Elba.

9 – The uprising of the Germans led by Arminius and the defeat of the Roman troops in the Teutoburg forest.

14–16 – Campaigns of the commander Germanicus across the Rhine. Victory over Arminius. Victory over the tribes of Mars and Hutts.

43 – The transformation of Britain into a Roman province as a result of the campaigns of Aulus Plautus and Claudius.

73–74 – Wars of the Romans in Upper Germany.

77–85 – Conquest of Northern Britain.

85–89 – Dacian Wars of the Romans.

98 – "Germany" of Tacitus.

101–106 – The conquest of Dacia and its transformation into a Roman province.

167–180 – The Marcomannian Wars. German invasions of Northern Italy.

212 – Edict of Caracalla granting the rights of Roman citizenship to all free-born inhabitants of the Empire.

238 – The invasion is ready across the Danube.

253 – The beginning of sea voyages is ready to Asia Minor.

258–274 – Usurpation by Postumus of power in the provinces, falling away from the empires of Gaul, Britain and Spain (the so-called Gallic Empire).

284 – The beginning of the dominance period.

286–287 – The uprising of Karauziy.

293 – Establishment of tetrarchy.

301 – Edict of Diocletian on the maximum prices for food and craft products.

303 – Edict against Christians.

313 – Milan Rescript on the Free Profession of Christianity. Official recognition of Christians as Constantine.

316–332 – Edicts of Constantine on attaching columns to the ground, artisans - to colleges, curials - to cities.

324 – The rise of Constantinople.

325 – The first ecumenical (ecumenical) council at Nicaea.

350–360 – The first invasions of the Franks, Alemanni and Saxons in Gaul.

361 – Edict of Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism. Return to the policy of religious tolerance.

374–375 – The defeat by the Huns of the Gothic tribal union (the Powers of Germanarich).

376 – The escape is ready across the Danube from the Huns to the Roman Empire. The uprising is ready on the Danube.

378 – The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople, the death of Emperor Valens.

382 – Settlement of the Goths in Moesia as federates.

392 – Theodosius banned the use of pagan cults.

395 – The final partition of the empire after the death of Theodosius. Revolt of Alaric and the Visigoths.

401–402 – Invasion of the Visigoths of Alaric in Italy and their defeat at Pollentia.

406 – The invasion of the barbarians in Gaul.

407 – The departure of the Romans from Britain.

409 – The invasion of the Vandals, Alans and Suevi in \u200b\u200bSpain.

418 – The emergence of the first barbarian kingdom of the Visigoths in Aquitaine.

429–439 – Formation of the kingdom of the Vandals in the province of Africa.

449 – The beginning of the conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons.

451 – Battle of the Catalaunian Fields.

452 – Attila's hike to Italy.

453 – Death of Attila. The collapse of the state of the Huns.

454 – The assassination of Aetius and the resettlement of the Ostrogoths in Pannonia.

455 – Vandals, having landed troops in Italy, seize Rome.

476 – Odoacer's overthrow of the emperor Romulus Augustulus and the disappearance of the empire in the West.

477 – Resettlement of the Britons to Armorica.

481–511 – Clovis is the king of the Salic Franks.

486 – The capture of the last Roman possession in Gaul by the Franks - the state of Syagria.

493 – The Ostrogoths capture all of Italy and the murder of Odoacer by Theodoric. The emergence of the Ostrogoth kingdom.

529 – Foundation of the first monastery in Monte Cassino by Benedict of Nursia.

535–555 – War of Byzantium with the Goths for Italy.

554 – The conquest of Southeast Spain by Byzantium.

560–570 – Founding of the Avar Kaganate in Pannonia.

568 – The invasion of Italy by the Lombard tribes.

597 – The beginning of the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons (baptism of King Kent Ethelbert I).

602 – Ethelbert's "Kent Truth" is the first record of legal customs and laws in England.

616–620 – The Goths conquer Spain from Byzantium.

622 – The flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina ("hijra"). The beginning of the Muslim chronology.

632 – Mohammed died. The emergence of the Islamic Caliphate.

680 – The Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV convened the 6th Ecumenical Council, which restored peace between the Eastern and Western Churches.

687 – Mayord of Austrasia, Pepin Geristalsky became the mayord of the entire Frankish state.

711–714 – The Arab Caliphate conquers Visigothic Spain.

714 – The beginning of the reign of the Mayordom of the Frankish state Karl Martell.

718 – In the Cavadonga Valley in Spain, the militia led by Pelayo defeated a detachment of Arabs. The beginning of the Reconquista and the formation of the Kingdom of Asturias.

720 – The Arabs began the conquest of southern Gaul.

726 – The Byzantine emperor Leo III laid the foundation for iconoclasm.

732 – Karl Martell defeated the Arabs at Poitiers.

751 – Mayord Pepin the Short was officially proclaimed King of the Franks. The beginning of the Carolingian (Pipinid) dynasty.

754–756 – Pepin's hike to Italy. Victory over the Lombards.

756 – Formation of the secular state of the popes.

757 – Offa becomes King of Mercia. Hegemony of Mercia among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

768 – The beginning of the reign of Charlemagne.

773–774 – Charlemagne conquered the Lombard Kingdom in Italy.

782 – Charlemagne defeated the Saxons at the Weser.

788 – Charlemagne abolished the ducal power in Bavaria and divided this area into counties.

788–803 – Wars of the Franks with the Avar Khaganate.

793 – The beginning of the Viking campaigns to the West.

796 – Liquidation of the Avar Kaganate.

800 – Pope Leo III in Rome crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the West.

801 – The Franks conquered Barcelona from the Arabs.

817 – The Frankish emperor Louis the Pious divided the administration of the Frankish state between his sons, retaining the supreme power.

825 – The beginning of Wessex's hegemony in Britain. King Egbert.

833 – The beginning of the regular raids of the Danes on the Anglo-Saxons.

840–842 – The internecine war of the sons of Louis the Pious: Lothair I, Louis the German and Charles the Bald.

843 – Treaty of Verdun on the final division of Charlemagne's empire between his grandchildren - Lothar, Karl the Bald and Louis the German.

847 – Campaign of the Arabs to Rome.

855 – The collapse of the state of Lothair. Formation of the kingdoms of Italy, Provence and Lorraine.

865–876 – A massive Danish invasion of England.

871–896 – War of King Alfred the Great of Wessex with the Danes. Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

888 – The agreement with the Danes of Guthrum on the division of England into two parts - the Anglo-Saxon and Danish.

890 – The beginning of the reign of the Norwegian king Harald the Fair-haired. The first unification of the country.

899 – The beginning of the Hungarian aggression.

911 – The French king Charles III the Rustic ceded the territory of Normandy to the Normans.

921–924 – The invasion of Italy by the Hungarians.

933 – The Hungarians invaded the lands of the East Franks, Gaul, and Italy. The victory of the German king Henry I over the Hungarians.

955 – Otto I defeated the Hungarians at Lech, after which their raids ceased.

951 – The first campaign of Otto I to Northern Italy.

961–962 – The second campaign of Otto I to Italy, his coronation with the imperial crown. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

967–971 – The third campaign of Otto I to Italy.

982 – Otto II tried to invade southern Italy, but was defeated by the Arabs.

987 – The beginning of the Capetian reign.

997–1038 – The beginning of the reign of the Hungarian prince (since 1000 - the first king of Hungary) Istvan (Stephen) I Saint. Baptism of Hungary.

1000 – Battle of Sjöld ("The Battle of the Three Kings").

1000 -1004 – Icelander Leif Eiriksson's voyages to North America.

1014 – The victory of the Irish king Boru Briand over the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf.

1016 – Treaty for the division of the kingdom of England between Edmund Ironside and the Great Whip.

1016 -1042 – Dominion in England by the Danish dynasty.

1017 -1029 – The beginning of the Norman conquests in Italy.

1022 – Pope Benedict VIII and Emperor Henry II at the Cathedral in Pavia spoke in favor of excluding violators of celibacy from the spiritual class.

1031 -1039 – Wars of King Henry of France with the rebellious feudal lords.

1037 – The emergence of the Kingdom of Castile.

1042 – The return to power in England of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty.

1044 – The marriage of King Henry I of France to Anna, daughter of Yaroslav the Wise.

1045 – Recognition by Hungarians of fief dependence on the emperor.

1046–1047 – Hike of Emperor Henry III to Italy (1046-1047). The period of maximum domination of the emperors over the popes.

1046 – Robert Guiscard conquered Calabria and Apulia.

1054 – The division of the Christian church into Western and Eastern.

1060–1091 – Conquest of Sicily by the Normans.

1066 – The defeat of the Norwegians at Stamfordbridge, the death of King Harald the Severe of Norway (September 25).

1066 – The landing of William the Conqueror's Normans in Britain, the beginning of the Norman conquest. The defeat of the Anglo-Saxons at Hastings (October 14).

1071 – In the battle of Manzikert (Asia Minor), the Seljuk Turks defeated the army of the Byzantine emperor Roman IV Diogenes. Loss of Armenia and almost all of Asia Minor by Byzantium.

1071 – Fall of Bari; the Normans conquered the possessions of Byzantium in Italy.

1076 – The first "Communal Charter".

1076–1077 – "Walking to Canossa" (December-January).

1085 – The Spaniards occupied Toledo.

1086 – "Salisbury Oath" - direct vassal dependence of all land holders on the king. "Book of the Last Judgment".

1095 – Pope Urban II at a church council in Clermont (France) called on Christians to liberate the Holy Land (November).

1096–1099 – First Crusade.

1097 – The crusaders occupied the capital of the Seljuk Turks, Nicaea.

1097 – Battle of Doriley.

1098 – The crusaders took possession of Edessa and Antioch, forming the first crusader states: the county of Edessa and the principality of Antioch.

1099 – The capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders. Creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

1100 – The first "Charter of Liberties" in England, guaranteeing the observance by the king of the rights and privileges of large owners (Henry I).

1108 – The beginning of the reign of the French king Louis VI. Strengthening the central power, fighting the feudal lords in the royal domain.

1122 – The "Worms Concordat" between Pope and Emperor - the end of the struggle for investiture.

1128 – Marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, and Count of Anjou Geoffroy V Plantagenet.

1135 – The beginning of feudal strife after the death of Henry I. Struggle for power of King Stephen of Blois with Matilda, daughter of Henry I, heir to the throne.

1135–1154 – The reign of the English king Stephen Bloisky.

1137 – The Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus established Byzantium's sovereignty over Antioch.

1137 – Catalonia and Aragon united to form the Kingdom of Aragon.

1137 – Marriage of Louis VII to Alienora, heiress of the Duchy of Aquitaine.

1144–1155 – As a result of the antipope uprising of the Romans under the leadership of Arnold of Brescia, the Roman Republic emerged, liquidated with the help of Frederick I Barbarossa.

1144 – The Seljuk Turks captured Edessa.

1147–1149 – Second Crusade.

1152 – Divorce of Louis VII from Alienora. Alienora's marriage to Henry II Plantagenet.

1152 -1190 – The reign of the German king Frederick I Barbarossa, since 1155 - the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

1153 – “Wallingford Agreement” - Matilda recognized Stephen as king, Stephen recognized Matilda's son Henry II Plantagenet as heir.

1154 – Accession to the English throne of Henry II Plantagenet. Accession to England of the possessions of the Angevin house.

1154 – The beginning of the campaigns of Frederick I Barbarossa in Italy (1154–1186).

1158 – "Roncal Agreement", prescribing the transfer of supreme power over Italian cities to the emperor.

1159–1299 – Franco-Angevin war.

1162 – Destruction of Milan by Frederick I Barbarossa.

1164 – "Clarendon Constitutions" - limiting the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts in England.

1166–1179 – Judicial reform of Henry II.

1167 – The emergence of the Lombard League - an alliance of Italian cities to fight the Germans.

1169 – The beginning of the conquest of Ireland.

1170 – Assassination of Thomas Becket by order of Henry II.

1170 – Foundation of the Principality of Mecklenburg.

1175–1193 – The reign of the Egyptian Sultan Salah ad-Din (Saladin).

1176 – Battle of Legnano.

1180–1223 – The reign of the French king Philip II Augustus.

1181 – Confiscation of the possessions of Henry the Lion in the empire.

1183 – Peace of Constance between Frederick I and the Lombard League, Frederick's rejection of the Roncal Agreement and the restoration of self-government rights in Northern Italian cities.

1186 – Marriage of the son of Frederick I, Henry VI, and Constance, heiress of the Kingdom of Sicily.

1187 – The defeat of the crusaders at Hattin. Saladin occupied Jerusalem.

1189–1199 – The reign of the English king Richard I the Lionheart.

1189–1192 – Third Crusade.

1195 – The Livonian Bishopric was established.

1195 – King of Castile Alfonso VIII defeated by the Arabs.

1196 – Henry IV's attempt to make the German crown hereditary.

1196 – The beginning of the active expansion of the Danes in the Eastern Baltic.

1198 – Founding of the Teutonic Order.

1200 – Founding of the University of Paris.

1201 – The founding of the Riga fortress by the crusaders.

1202 – Creation of the Order of the Swordsmen.

1202–1204 – Fourth Crusade.

1202 – The capture of Zadar by the crusaders (November).

1203 – The first assault on Constantinople by the crusaders. Restoration of Isaac II Angel to the throne (July).

1204 – The capture of Constantinople by the crusaders (April). The actual collapse of the Byzantine Empire.

1209–1229 – Persecution of the Albigensians and Cathars - Albigensian Wars.

1212 – Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa; decisive victory over the Moors.

1212 – Children's crusade.

1212–1250 – The reign of the German king Frederick II Hohenstaufen.

1214 – The French king Philip II Augustus defeated the British and their allies at the battles of Bouvines and Laroche-au-Moin.

1215 – "Magna Carta".

1217–1221 – Fifth Crusade.

1226 – The Teutonic Order begins the conquest of the lands of the Prussian tribe.

1226–1270 – The reign of the French King Louis IX Saint.

1228–1229 – Sixth Crusade. Temporary return of Jerusalem to Christians.

1233 – The Roman Curia established the Inquisition.

1237 – Merging of the Teutonic Order with the Order of the Swordsmen.

1240 – The Swedes were defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) in the battle on the Neva River.

1242 – "Battle on the Ice" - Alexander Nevsky's victory over the German knights on Lake Peipsi.

1242 – The detachments of Khan Batu defeated the army of the King of Hungary Bela IV, captured Hungary and invaded Slovenia.

1244 – Muslim seizure of Jerusalem. Pope Innocent IV blesses a new crusade.

1245 – Lyons Cathedral excommunicated Emperor Frederick II from the church.

1248–1254 – Seventh Crusade.

1250 – Louis IX was taken prisoner by the Muslims.

1259 – Treaty of Louis IX Saint (Treaty of Paris), according to which the English king renounced claims to Normandy, Maine and other French territories lost by England under John Lackland, but retained Guienne (Aquitaine).

1270 – Eighth Crusade.

1282 – "Sicilian Vespers" - the expulsion of the French from Sicily. Transfer of power to the Aragonese house.

1291 – Fall of Acre. Final of the Crusader States in Palestine.

1300 – The core of the Ottoman state was formed in the northwestern part of Asia Minor.

1302 – Convening of the first States General in France. "Bruges Matins" - the beating of the French garrison. The defeat of the French knights at the Battle of Courtras.

1370–1377 – The Avignon captivity of the popes - the forced stay of the popes in the city of Avignon (Southern France).

1315 – Battle of Mount Morgarten.

1337–1453 – Hundred Years War between England and France.

1340 – Battle of Sluis. British naval victory.

1346 – Battle of Crecy.

1356 – Battle of Poitiers, defeat of the French army by Edward ("Black Prince"), capture of King John the Good.

1381 – Wat Tyler's peasant revolt in England.

1406 – Florence took over Pisa.

1410 – Battle of Grunwald of the combined forces of Poles, Lithuanians, Czechs, Russians and Tatars with the Teutonic Order; defeat of the order.

1411 – Peace of Torun with the Teutonic Order.

1414 – Professor of the Prague University Jan Hus was burnt at the stake in the city of Konstanz.

1429 – The beginning of hostilities under the leadership of Jeanne d'Arc.

1431 – Jeanne d'Arc burned in Rouen (May).

1434 – The Medici rule was established in Florence.

1439 – Florentine Union of Eastern and Western Churches: the Patriarch of Constantinople has recognized the authority of Rome.

1445 – Johannes Gutenberg has published the first European printed book.

1453 – Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

1469 – Ferdinand II, heir to the throne of Aragon, married Isabella, sister of the king of Castile. The beginning of the unification of Spain into a single state.

1474–1477 – Burgundian Wars - wars of the French king against the Duke of Burgundy for the territorial unification of France.

1477 – The defeat of the Burgundians at Nancy, the death of the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold. Accession to France by Picardy, Nivernet and the Duchy of Burgundy.

1483 – The Balkan Peninsula was completely conquered by the Turks.

1492 – Fall of Granada in Spain, completion of the Reconquista.

1492 – Christopher Columbus is appointed admiral, viceroy and governor-general of all islands and lands that he can discover in the Western Ocean.

1494–1559 – Italian Wars of France.

1498 – The Portuguese sea expedition led by Vasco da Gama reached India.

1500 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvarez Cabral discovers Brazil.

1500 – Colonization of the Congo by the Portuguese.

1501 – The Portuguese establish the Cochin trading post in India. The beginning of the European colonization of Western Hindustan.

1501 – The voyage of Amerigo Vespucci along the coast of South America ends. Vespucci made the final conclusion that the open lands are a new continent.

1502 – The marriage of King James IV of Scotland and the daughter of Henry VII - Margaret Tudor, which determined the Stuarts' rights to the English throne.

1511–1514 – Anglo-French War.

1512 – Battle of Ravenna during the Italian Wars.

1513 – Final unification of Spain.

1513 – The Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa goes across the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean.

1516 – The Netherlands is annexed to Spain.

1517 – Martin Luther's speech in Wittenberg with 95 theses against indulgences. The beginning of the Reformation.

1519 – Election of Charles V of Spain as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

1519–1521 – The first circumnavigation Fernand Magellan.

1520 – Luther's excommunication.

1521 – Treaty of Worms on the division of the Habsburg Empire.

1525 – Secularization of the Teutonic Order. Taking a vassal oath to the Polish king.

1525 – Battle of Pavia. The defeat of the French and the capture of Francis I.

1531–1535 – Conquest of the Inca Empire by the Spaniards.

1534 – Founding of the Jesuit Order.

1557–1559 – War of England and Spain against France. Expulsion of the British from the port of Calais. Peace in Cato Cambresi.

Stone Age.

About 1.5 million years ago - The first archanthropus appeared in Europe

600-150 thousand years ago - The era of the Lower Paleolithic

150-40 thousand years ago - the Middle Paleolithic era

40-35 thousand years ago - The first Cro-Magnons - people of the modern type

40-10 thousand years ago - The era of the late Paleolithic

10-5 thousand years BC - Warming since the last ice age

6-3 thousand years BC - The Neolithic era. People are moving to a productive economy (cattle breeding and agriculture)

Bronze Age.

XIX-XVIII centuries BC. - The origin of the first kingdoms on the island of Crete.

XVII-XV centuries BC. - Cretan civilization.

XVII-XIII centuries BC. - Archean ancient Greek kingdoms.

XV-XIII centuries. BC. - The origin and development of the Mycenaean civilization.

OK. 1470 BC - The decline of the Mycenaean civilization began.

1240-1230 BC. - War for Troy.

End of XIII-XII centuries BC. - End of the Mycenaean civilization.

Iron Age.

The beginning of the 1st millennium BC - The Iron Age began in Europe.

Ser. VIII-end of VI centuries BC. - Greek Archaic. The era of Greek colonization.

776 BC - The origin of the Olympic Games.

753 BC - Founding of Rome.

VII-II centuries. BC. - Settlement of the Eastern European steppes by Scythians

616 BC - The capture of Rome by the Etruscans from Lydia.

594-593 biennium BC. - The Athenian rule of Solon.

451-450 BC BC. - The basic laws of the Roman Republic have been adopted.

447-432 biennium BC. - Construction of the Parthenon in Athens.

443-429 biennium BC. - The years of Pericles' reign in Athens.

431-404 BC BC. - War of Athens and Sparta (Peloponnesian).

405-367 BC. - The reign of the Greek tyrant Dionysius the Elder.

359-336 BC. - Board of Philip the Great.

343-290 biennium BC. - Samnite Wars.

340-338 BC. - Second Latin War. The victory of Rome and the abolition of the Latin Union.

338-337 biennium BC. - Corinthian Congress. Establishment of the hegemony of Macedonia in Greece. Formation of the Panhellenic Union.

336-323 BC. - Board of Alexander the Great.

334-324 BC. - Eastern campaign of Alexander the Great.

323-322 BC. - The Lamian War of Greece with Macedonia.

323 BC - Partition of the state of Alexander the Great.

306-305 BC. - Treaty of Rome with Carthage on the division of spheres of influence.

301 BC - Battle of Ipsus. The second section of the state of Alexander the Great.

The turn of the IV-III centuries. BC. - Celtic tribal formations in Western Ireland.

280-275 biennium BC. - The war of the Romans with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.

OK. 280-146 years BC. - Achaean Union

279 BC - "Pyrrhic victory" over the Romans at Ausculus.

267-262 biennium BC. - The Khremonides war. Siege of Athens by Antigonos Gonatus.

265 BC - The conquest of Italy by the Romans.

264-241 years. BC. - The first Punic war between Rome and Carthage. Establishment of Rome in Sicily.

238 BC - The conquest of Sardinia and Corsica by Rome.

225-222 biennium BC. - War of Rome with the Gauls. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.

219 BC - Second Illyrian War. The capture of Sagunta by Hannibal.

218-201 biennium BC. - Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage.

218 BC - Hannibal's victories over the Romans at Titinus and Trebia.

216 BC - The defeat of the Romans at Cannes.

215-205 BC. - The First Macedonian War, the struggle of Greek cities for independence.

200-197 biennium BC. - Second Macedonian War.

II century. BC – II century. AD - Zarubinets culture in Eastern Europe.

192-188 biennium BC. - The Syrian war between Rome and Antiochus III the Great.

171-167 biennium BC. - Third Macedonian War.

149-146 gg. BC. - Third Punic War. Siege and destruction of Carthage.

148 BC - The transformation of Macedonia into a Roman province.

146 BC - Achaean war of Greece against Rome. Taking and burning of Corinth. End of Greek independence.

133 BC - The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus in Rome. Agrarian law of Gracchus and his murder.

133 BC - Accession by the Romans of the Pergamon kingdom.

123-122 biennium BC. - Tribunat of Gaius Gracchus.

111-63 BC. - The reign of the Pontic king Mithridates IV Eupator. His conquest of the Bosporus kingdom.

100-44 years. BC. - Guy Julius Caesar.

89-84 years BC. - The first Mithridatic war between Rome and the Pontine kingdom.

88-82 years. BC. - Civil war between the Marcians and the Sullans.

83-81 years. BC. - The second Mithridates war.

82-79 years. BC. - The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, proscraction, restoration of the authority of the Senate.

74-63 years. BC. - The third Mitraditov war.

73-71 years. BC. - Rise of Spartacus

69 BC - The conquest of the capital of Armenia Tigranokert by Lucullus.

65 BC - Pompey's victory over Mithridates IV and Tigranes II.

64 BC - Establishment of the authority of Rome over the whole of Asia Minor. Formation of the provinces of Bithynia, Pontus and Syria.

63 BC - Consulate of Mark Tullius Cicero.

63-62 years BC. - Catiline's conspiracy, his defeat and death.

60 BC - The first triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.

59 BC - Consulate of Caesar.

58-51 BC - Caesar's conquest of Gaul.

55-54 BC - Campaigns of Caesar to Britain.

53 BC - The defeat and death of Crassus in the battle with the Parthians at Karakh.

49-45 BC - Civil war between Caesar and Pompey.

44 BC - Lifetime dictatorship of Caesar. Assassination of Caesar.

44-31 years. BC. - Civil wars.

34 BC - Accession of the Armenian Kingdom to Rome.

32 BC - War of Octavian against Egypt.

30 BC - Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra.

End of the 1st century BC. - the beginning of the 1st century AD - Unification of the Germanic tribes under the rule of Marobod.

The Roman Empire.

27 BC-14 AD - Principate of Augustus (Guy Julius Caesar Octavian)

19 BC - Completion of the conquest of Spain by Rome.

12-9 years BC. - Hikes Druse to Germany, the formation of the Roman province of Germany. Conquest of Pannonia.

OK. 4 BC-65 AD - Lucius Anaeus Seneca, Roman Stoic philosopher.

0 year - the Nativity of Jesus Christ. The beginning of a new era.

6 g - The transformation of Judea into a Roman province.

10g. - The law on the execution of all slaves in the case of the murder of one of them master.

14-68 years - Board Yuliev - Klavdiev.

33 AD - Crucifixion of Jesus Christ on Calvary on the outskirts of Jerusalem. The beginning of the preaching of Christianity by the Apostles.

43 AD - Claudius's campaign to Britain and the conquest of its southern part by the Romans.

77-83 years - Yuri Agricola's campaigns to Britain, the conquest of Northern Britain.

79 AD - the eruption of Vesuvius. Death of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabius.

OK. 90 - c. 160 - Claudius Ptolemy - ancient Greek astronomer and geographer.

96-122 years. - Board of Antonines.

II century. - Displacement of the Sarmatians from the Northern Black Sea region by the Alans.

II-V centuries - The widespread occurrence of heresies in Christianity (Manichaeism, Arianism, Nestorianism, etc.)

101-106 years - Wars of Trajan with Decebalus. Conquest of Dacia.

106 AD - the conquest of the Nabataean kingdom by the Romans, the formation of the provinces of Arabia, Adiabene, Ctesiphon.

115 AD - Formation of the provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria.

167-180 - Marcomannic wars of the Romans with the barbarian tribes of the Marcomanians, Dacians, Sarmatians, etc.

185-187 biennium - Unrest in Northern Italy, Gaul, Spain, Danube regions, Africa, Egypt.

193-235 biennium - Dynasty of the North.

213 - Wars of the Romans with the Germans and the Danube tribes.

250, 257 - Edicts against Christians. Persecution of Christians.

251 - The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths, the death of Emperor Decius.

OK. 260 - The conquest of the ancient cities of the Northern Black Sea region by the Goths; the addition of the unions of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths.

260s - Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire.

284-305 - Board of Diocletian. Military, monetary, tax and administrative reforms.

293 - Establishment of the tetrarchy of the board of four.

III-IV centuries. - Settlement is ready in the Northern Black Sea region.

III-IV centuries. - Chernyakhovsk culture in Eastern Europe.

306-337 - The reign of Constantine the Great.

313 - Edict of Milan on the freedom to practice Christianity.

325 AD - First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea

330 AD - Foundation of Constantinople.

337 - Resumption of the onslaught of the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. Death of Constantine the Great. The division of the empire into East and West.

350-375 - Kingdom of Germanarich in the Northern Black Sea region.

354-430 BC - Aurelius Augustine theologian, philosopher, Father of the Church.

361 - Edict of Emperor Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism.

364-375 - Section of the empire.

Great migration of peoples.

375 - The defeat of the Goths by the Huns in the Northern Black Sea region. Getaway ready to Danube

378 - The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople.

381 - Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople.

395 - Final division of the empire into Western and Eastern.

IV-VIII centuries - Tushemlinsky archaeological culture on the Upper Dnieper (Balts)

V-VIII centuries - Monuments of Prague culture (Slavs) in Eastern Europe.

410 - The capture of Rome by Alaric.

418 - Formation of the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul with the capital in Toulouse.

431 - The Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus. Condemnation of the heresy Nestorius.

434-453 - Attila's rule over the Huns.

449 - The beginning of the conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons.

451 - Battle of the Catalaunian Fields. Defeat of the Huns.

452 - Attila's campaign to Northern Italy.

453 - The disintegration of the state of Attila.

463 - Penetration of the Proto-Bulgarians and Savirs into the Northern Black Sea region.

470-80s - Movement of the Ostrogoths from Pannonia to Italy, the creation of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

476 - Deposition of Romulus Augustulus by barbarian leader Odoacer. Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

481-511 biennium - Clovis is the king of the Franks.

486 - The emergence of the Frankish state in Northern Gaul.

493-526 biennium - The heyday of the Ostrogothic kingdom (capital in Ravenna) under Theodoric the Great.

Early Middle Ages.

The beginning of the VI century. - Recording of "Salichskaya Pravda"

VI-VIII centuries. - Culture of the Pskov long burial mounds (Balts)

VI-VII centuries. - Prague-Penkovsky monuments (Slavic tribe of the Antes) on the Dniester and Dnieper.

529 - The emergence of the first monastic order - the Order of the Benedictines.

534 - Submission of the Burgundian Kingdom by the Franks.

535-555 biennium - War of Byzantium with the Ostrogoths, the annexation of Italy with Rome and Equal to Byzantium.

550s - Campaigns of the Slavs and Bulgarians to the northern provinces of the Byzantine Empire.

557 - Defeat of the Ants by the Turkic tribes of Avars.

561 - Avar invasion of Germany.

560-796 - Avar Kaganate.

568 - The beginning of the invasion of Italy by the Lombards.

597 - The beginning of the Christianization of England.

End of VI century-VII century - Settlement by Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.

End of the 6th century - The collapse of the Frankish kingdom.

623-662 - The first Slavic state Itself.

711-714 biennium - The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs.

715-741 biennium - Karl Martell - mayor of the state of the Franks.

732 - Karl Martell's victory over the Arabs at Pustye.

740 - The victory of the Byzantine emperor Leo I Isaur over the Arabs, the beginning of the expulsion of the Arabs from Asia Minor.

756 - the formation of the secular state of the popes.

768-814 biennium - The reign of Charlemagne.

772-804 - Wars of Charlemagne with the Saxons.

774 - Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charles the Great.

793 - The beginning of the Norman expansion into Europe.

800 AD - Crowning of Charlemagne with the imperial title.

812 - Campaign of Charlemagne to subjugate the Lutich Slavs in the area between the Elbe and Oder.

812-813 biennium - Campaigns of Charlemagne against the Arabs in Corsica.

829 - Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the Kingdom of England.

843 - Treaty of Verdun. Partition of the empire of Charlemagne.

845 - The capture of Paris by the Normans.

855 - The state of Lothair collapsed. Formation of the kingdoms Italy, Provence, Lorraine.

863 - Creation of the Slavic alphabet by the enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

End of the 9th century - Resettlement of Hungarians in Pannonia.

Late IX-early X centuries - Formation of the Czech state.

911 - Formation of the Duchy of Normandy

919-1024 - Saxon dynasty in Germany.

936-973 biennium - Board of Otto I in Germany. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

987-1328 biennium - The Capetian dynasty in France.

988 - The adoption of Christianity in Russia.

990s-1022 - Board of Olof Schoetkonung in Sweden.

Late X-early XI centuries - Formation of united kingdoms in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

OK. 1000 - Formation of the Hungarian Kingdom.

1016-1035 - The reign of Cnut the Great - King of England, Denmark and Norway.

1024-1125 biennium - Franconian dynasty in Germany.

1032-1034 - Accession of Burgundy to the Holy Roman Empire.

1054 - The division of the Christian church into Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodoxy)

1066 - Battle of Hastings, Norman conquest of England.

1066-1087 biennium - The reign of William I the Conqueror in England.

1071 - Norman conquest of southern Italy.

1075-1122 biennium - Struggle for investiture between popes and German kings.

1076-1077 biennium - Defeat of the German Emperor Henry IV in the fight against Gregory VII

1085 - Reconquest of Toledo during the Reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula.

1095 - The call of Pope Urban II to conquer Palestine.

1096-1099 - The 1st Crusade, accompanied by the plunders of the crusaders of Constantinople and other cities of the Empire. Formation of the states of the crusaders in the Middle East.

Developed Middle Ages.

1100 - "Liberties Charter" in England.

1130 - Unification of the South Italian Norman states into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

1137 - Unification of Catalonia and Aragon in the Kingdom of Aragon.

1138-1254 biennium - The Hohenstaufen dynasty in Germany.

1143-1155 - Antipope uprising in Rome.

1147 - The conquest of Lisbon from the Arabs.

1152-1190 - The reign of the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa.

1154-1399 biennium - The Plantagenet dynasty in England.

1169-1171 - Beginning of the English conquest of Ireland.

1176 - The defeat of Manuel I Comnenus by the Seljuk Turks at Myriokephalus, which stopped the Byzantine advance in Asia Minor.

1180-1223 biennium - The reign of Philip II Augustus in France.

1189-1192 - The 3rd Crusade, in which the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French king Philip I Augustus and the English king Richard I the Lionheart took part.

1199-1204 - 4th Crusade convened by Pope Innocent III

End of XI-beginning of XII centuries - The emergence of the Inquisition.

OK. 1200 - Foundation of the University of Paris.

1202 - Formation of the Order of the Swordsmen in the Baltic States

1202-1294 - 4th Crusade. The capture and destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders.

1212 - Crusade of children, which ended with the death and capture of most of its participants by Muslims.

1215 - Establishment of the Dominican monastic order.

1215 - “Magna Carta” in England.

1217-1221 - 5th Crusade led by Andrew II of Hungary, Austrian and Bavarian knights.

1228-1229 biennium - 6th Crusade led by Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen.

1229 - Treaty of Frederick II with Sultan Al-Kamil on the return to Christians of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem and other holy places.

1230-1263 - Board of Mindaugas in Lithuania. Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

1241-1242 - The invasion of the Mongols in Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.

1248-1254 biennium - 7th Crusade of the French king Louis IX, the capture of Damietta, then the defeat and capture of the king.

1249 - Completion of the Reconquista in Portugal.

1250-1364 - The Folkung dynasty in Sweden.

1251 - Peasant uprising of "shepherds" in France.

1254 - Formation of the Rhine Union of Cities in Germany.

1261 - Restoration of the Byzantine Empire by the Nicene Emperor Michael VIII.

1261-1453 - The Palaeologus dynasty in Byzantium.

1265 - Establishment of the English Parliament.

1272-1307 - The reign of Edward I in England.

1274 - Union of Lyons between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

1282 - "Sicilian Vespers" - popular uprising in Sicily against French oppression.

1285-1314 - The reign of Philip IV the Fair in France.

1291 - Formation of the Confederation of Swiss Cantons (Swiss Union)

1293 - "The establishment of justice" in Florence - deprivation of political rights of the feudal lords.

1296-1314 - Scotland's struggle for independence.

The beginning of the XIV century. - Formation of the principality of Wallachia.

1302 - Start of the States General in France.

1304-1307 - Dolcino uprising in Northern Italy.

1309-1378 “The Avignon Captivity of the Popes.

1315 - The victory of the Swiss over the troops of the Habsburgs at Morgarten. Swiss independence begins.

1319-1363 - Board of Magnus Eriksson - King of Sweden, Norway and Finland. "Magna Carta of Sweden".

1323 - Recognition by the British of Robert the Bruce as King of Scotland.

1327-1377 biennium - The reign of Edward III in England.

1328-1589 - The Valois dynasty in France.

1331-1355 - The reign of King Stephen Dusan in Serbia, who conquered Macedonia, Thessaly and Albania from Byzantium.

1337-1453 biennium - Hundred Years War between England and France.

1347-1378 - The reign of the German Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV.

1348-1353 biennium - The plague epidemic ("black death") in Western, Central and Eastern Europe. Death of 25 million inhabitants.

1348 - Foundation of the Prague University.

1356 - "Golden Bull" of Emperor Charles IV, consolidating the independence of the Electors.

1356 - The defeat of the French by the British led by Prince Edward of Wales (Black Prince), the capture of King John the Good.

1359 - Formation of the principality of Moldavia.

1367-1370 - War of the Germanic peoples (Hansa) with Denmark.

1382-1387 biennium - Revolt of the Tukins in Northern Italy.

1385 - Kreva Union of Lithuania and Poland.

1385 - Battle of Aljubarrota. Portuguese victory over the Castilians and their supporters.

1389 - Battle of the Kosovo field. The defeat of the Serbian army by the Turks.

1393 - The conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom of Tarnovo by the Turks.

1396 - The defeat of the European knighthood by the Turks near Nikopol on the Danube.

1397 - Kalmar Union of Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

1410 - Battle of Grunwald. Defeat of the Teutonic Order by the combined forces of Lithuanians, Poles, Czechs and Russians.

1411-1435 - Civil War in France, Armagnacs and Bourguignons.

1414-1418 - Constance Cathedral.

1415 - Burning of Jan Hus.

1415-1701 - The Hohenzollern dynasty in Brandenburg.

1419-1434 - Hussite wars.

1428-1429 - The siege of Orleans by the British.

1431 - Burning of Jeanne D'Arc in Rouen.

1434 - Establishment of the Medici tyranny in Florence.

1435 - The beginning of the Riksdag in Sweden.

1438 - Securing the throne of the Holy Roman Empire for the Habsburgs.

OK. 1445 - Johannes Gutenberg's invention of printing.

1450 - "Eternal Union" of Norway and Denmark.

1453 - The capture of Constantinople by the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II Fatih. Fall of the Byzantine Empire.

1453 - End of the Hundred Years War.

1455-1485 - War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England.

1459 - The capture of Serbia by the Turks.

1461-1485 - York dynasty in England.

1463 - The capture of Bosnia by the Turks.

1466 - Peace of Torun, recognition by the Teutonic Order of vassal dependence on Poland.

1468 - The beginning of the estate representation in Denmark.

1474-1477 - Burgundian War in France.

1475 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over the Crimean Khanate.

1476 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over Wallachia.

1478 - The fall of the independence of Novgorod.

1478-1479 - The conquest of Albania by the Turks.

1479 - Unification of Aragon and Castile, the emergence of a single Spanish state.

1485 - The beginning of the Tudor dynasty in England.

1491 - Accession of Brittany to France.

1492 - Conquest of the Emirate of Granada by Spain, end of the Reconquista.

1492 - Discovery of America by H. Columbus.

1494-1498 - Republic of D. Savanarola in Florence.

1494-1559 - Italian Wars.

1497-1498 - Vasco Da Gama expedition around Africa to India.

1499 - Separation of the Swiss Union from the Holy Roman Empire.

Late Middle Ages.

1501-1504 - The conquest of the Kingdom of Naples by Spain.

1514 - The uprising of Gyeri Doji in Hungary.

1514 - Russian troops conquered Smolensk from Lithuania.

1516-1700 - The Habsburg dynasty in Spain.

1517 - Presentation by Martin Luther with 95 theses against indulgences. The beginning of the Reformation.

1523 - Dissolution of the Castilian Union between Denmark and Sweden.

1523-1560 - The reign of Gustav I Vasa in Sweden.

1524-1525 - Peasant uprising in Germany.

1525 - Secularization of the Teutonic Order.

1526 - The defeat of the Hungarian troops by the Turks in the Battle of Mohacs, the formation of the monarchy of the Austrian Habsburgs in Central Europe.

1527-1539 - Reformation in Sweden.

1530 - "Augsburg Confession"

1532 - The final annexation of Brittany to France. Completion of the unification of the country.

1533-1584 - The reign in Russia of Ivan IV the Terrible (from 1547 - the tsar)

1534 - "Act of Suprematism" in England - recognition of the king as the head of the English church.

1534 - Founding of the Jesuit Order.

1534-1535 - Anabaptist commune in Munstrey (Germany)

1536-1542 - Joining Wales to England.

1537-1574 - The reign of Duke Cosimo I of Medici in Florence.

1541 - Partition of Hungary between the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Habsburgs.

1545-1563 - Cathedral of Trent.

1555 - Augsburg religious world.

1556-1598 - The reign of King Philip II in Spain.

1557-1559 biennium - War of England in alliance with Spain against Frania.

1558-1583 - The Livonian War of Russia with the Livonian Order, the Commonwealth and Sweden.

1558-1603 - The reign of Elizabeth I Tudor in England.

1559 - The first "index of forbidden books" in Rome.

1560-1598 - Religious wars in France.

1562 - The beginning of the English slave trade in America.

1566-1609 - Dutch bourgeois revolution, the struggle against Spanish rule.

1569 - Union of Lublin between Lithuania and Poland. Formation of the Commonwealth.

1572 - "St. Bartholomew's Night" in France.

1572-1584 - Board of the first stathauter of the Netherlands, William I of Orange.

1572-1573 - Expeditions of the English corsair Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies.

1575 - State bankruptcy of Spain.

1579 - Arras Union of the southern provinces of the Netherlands and the Utrecht Union of the northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1581 - The annexation of Portugal to Spain.

1585 - The capture of Antwerp by the Spanish troops.

1587 - Execution of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart in England.

1588 - The campaign of the Spanish fleet ("Invincible Armada") against England and its death.

1588 - "Lithuanian Statute"

1588-1648 - The reign of King Christian IV in Denmark.

1589-1792, 1814-1815, 1815-1830 - The Bourbon dynasty in France.

1592-1598 - The uprising of the "Crocans" in France.

1596 - Brest Union of the Orthodox Church in Ukraine and the Catholic Church.

1600 - Burning of Giordano Bruno in Italy.

1600 - Founding of the English East India Company.

1601 - Conflict of parliament with Queen Elizabeth I in England over the distribution of privileges and monopolies. Statute on the Charity of the Poor. Mutiny in Essex.

1603 - Accession to the English throne of King James I of Scotland Stuart. Union between England and Scotland.

1603-1649, 1660-1714 - The Stuart dynasty in England.

1604 Founding of the first East India Company in France. French colonization of the Atlantic coast of North America begins.

1606-1609 - Rokos (mutiny) Zebrzydowski in Poland.

1608 - Foundation of the Evangelical Union by Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire.

1609 - Expulsion of the Moriscos (Moorish Christians of Aquitaine and Granada) from Spain.

1609 - Formation by Maximilian of Bavaria of the Catholic League in the Holy Roman Empire. Struggle for domination in the duchies of Cleves and Julich, left after the death of Duke Johann-Wilhelm.

1610 - Assassination of the French king Henry IV.

1610-1617 - Russian-Swedish war.

1611 - Beginning of colonization of Wexford, Longford and other counties of Ireland.

1611-1613 - Kalmar War between Sweden and Denmark.

1611-1617 - Regency of Marie de Medici in France under the minor Louis XIII.

1611-1632 - the reign of King Gustav II Adolf in Sweden.

1617-1629 - The Swedish-Polish war for domination in the Baltic, which ended with the establishment of Swedish domination in the Baltic.

1618 - Inclusion of the Duchy of Prussia in Brandenburg.

1618-1648 - Thirty Years War.

1619 - Treaty of the Union of the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II with the Catholic League.

1620 - Demonstration against King Louis XIII Maria de Medici and rebellious princes. King's victory at Pont-de-Se.

1621 - Renewal of the Spanish-Dutch war.

1624-1642 - Board in France by Cardinal de Richelieu.

1625 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1628 - Presentation of the "Petition of Rights" by the English Parliament to King Charles I

1628-1631 - Franco-Austrian War of the Mantuan Succession.

1629 - The Edict of Mercy was published by Louis XIII, depriving the Huguenots of political rights, but preserving their freedom of religion.

1629 - Depriving the Protestant cities and principalities of the Holy Roman Empire of secularized lands and properties.

1629-1640 - Non-parliamentary reign of Charles I.

1632 - The defeat of the Austrian commander A. Wallenstein from the Swedes at Lutzen. Death of the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf at the battle of Lutzen.

1634 - The defeat of the Swedish troops at Nördlingen.

1635 - Separate peace between the Saxon Elector Johann Georg and the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.

1635-1659 - Franco-Spanish War.

1640 - "Short Parliament" in England and its dissolution by the king. "Long Parliament" and the beginning of the English Revolution.

1640 - Separation of Portugal from Spain.

1640-1652 - The uprising in Catalonia.

1640-1668 - Portuguese War of Independence.

1642 - The capture of Leipzig by the Swedish army.

1642-1646 - The Civil War in England.

1643-1661 (intermittently) - The reign of Cardinal Giulio Mazarin in France.

1646-1648 - Revolt in Naples and Sicily against Spanish rule.

1648 - Peace of Westphalia.

1648 - English Civil War.

New Time.

1649 - Execution of the English king Charles I, abolition of the royal rank and the house of Lords in England.

1649-1650 - O. Cromwell's campaign to Ireland.

1649-1653 - Republican rule in England.

1650-1651 - O. Cromwell's campaign to Scotland, the annexation of Scotland.

1651-1653 - "Fronde of Princes" in France.

1652-1653 - Peasant uprisings in Sweden.

1653 - The defeat of O. Cromwell "Long Parliament"

1653-1658 - Protectorate of O. Cromwell in England.

1654-1656, 1658-1667 - Russian-Polish war.

1655-1659 biennium - Anglo-French-Spanish war, which ended with the Iberian Peace, which gave large territorial gains to France at the expense of Spain.

1657 - The end of the vassal dependence of East Prussia from Poland.

1658 - Formation of the Rhine Union (Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden) against the Habsburgs.

1659 - Formal restoration of the republic in England.

1660 - War of Sweden against Denmark and Brandenburg.

1660 - Restoration of the Stuarts (Charles II) in England.

1662 - Sale of Dunkirk by England to France, West Indies campaign.

1665 - "The Great Plague" in England.

1665-1667 - Anglo-Dutch War.

1667 - Secret treaty between the English king Charles II and the French king Louis XIV.

1667-1668 - Devolutionary war between France and Spain, the transition of France to the Flanders cities.

1672-1679 - War of France and Sweden against the coalition of Holland, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Brandenburg and Denmark.

1674 - Revolt against Spanish rule in Sicily.

1675 - Peasant revolt of "red caps" in Brittany (France)

1675-1682 - Activities of the "Green Ribbon Club" in England - the center of future Whigs.

1679 - Adoption of the Personal Integrity Law by the British Parliament.

1683 - Siege of Vienna by Turkish army, lifting of the siege and defeat of the Turks the Polish king Jan III Sobessky.

1683-1684 - Franco-Spanish War.

1684 - Treaty of Regensburg, recognition of the territorial acquisitions of France by the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.

1685 - Revolt of the Duke of Monmouth in England.

1685 - Adoption of the "Potsdam Ejikt", allowing the Huguenots to settle in Brandenburg and Prussia and granting them benefits.

1685-1688 - Accession to the throne of King James II of England and his measures aimed at the restoration of Catholicism and the unlimited power of the king.

1686 - Creation of the Augsburg League between the Holy Roman Empire and Spain in order to stop the expansion of France.

1688 - "Glorious Revolution" in England. Flight of Jacob II Stuart and proclamation of William III of Orange, Stadhaler of the Netherlands, as king. Founding Parliament - Convention, "Bill of Rights"

1688-1697 - War of France with the Augsburg League (Holy Roman Empire, Spain, England, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony)

1689-1690 - The landing of Jacob II Stuart and the French troops in Ireland, their defeat.

1697 - Peace of Riswick between France and the Augsburg League. The return by France of territories captured during the war. Recognition of William III by Louis XIV as King of England.

1700-1721 - Northern Russia against Sweden.

1701 - Proclamation of Prussia as a kingdom.

1701-1714 - War of Spanish Succession between France, Austria and England.

1702-1705 - the peasant war of the Kamisars in France.

1702-1714 - The reign of Queen Anne Stewart of England.

1704 - The capture of the Strait of Gibraltar by England.

1705 - Establishment of the Vienna Academy of Arts.

1705-1706 - Peasant uprising in Bavaria.

1705-1711 - Bashkir uprising.

1706 - Capture of Madrid by Austrian troops.

1707 - Act of the Unification of England and Scotland, formation of Great Britain.

1708 - The victory of the British over the French at Oudenaard, the capture of the island of Menorca by England.

1709 - Foundation of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

1709 - The defeat of the Swedish army near Poltava.

1710 - Opening of the first porcelain manufactory in Europe in Meissen (Germany)

1711-1740 - The reign of Charles VI of Habsburg in Austria. Secret negotiations between England and France, weakening of the anti-French coalition.

1712-1715 - Cossack-peasant uprisings in Poland.

1713 - Peace of Utrecht in the War of the Spanish Succession between England, Holland, Prussia and France. Philip V of Anjou is recognized as King of Spain with the renunciation of the rights to the French crown; England received Gibraltar, possession in North America and on the island of Menorca and the right of the slave trade in the Spanish colonies.

1714 - The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut.

1714 - Peace of Rashtad, ending the War of Spanish Succession; Austria relinquishes rights to the Spanish crown, but gains Belgium, the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples.

1715-1716 - Jacobite uprising in Scotland.

1715-1774 - The reign of Louis XV in France.

1716 - Hike of the Swedish king Charles XII to Norway.

1718-1772 - "Era of Freedoms" in Sweden (Riksdag rule)

1718 - Treaty of Fire between Austria and Turkey, transfer to Austria of Malaya Wallachi and part of Serbia with Belgrade.

1718-1720 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1720 - The victory of the Russian fleet is necessary for the Swedish at Cape Grengam.

1720 - Stockholm peace treaty between Prussia and Sweden, according to which Stettin and Western Pomerania were transferred to Prussia.

1721 - Peace of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, which consolidated Russian acquisitions in the Baltic States; Finland returned to Sweden; loss of great power status by Sweden.

1725 - Franco-Prussian union treaty.

1727 The Irish are deprived of the right to elect parliament.

1727-1732 - Peasant uprising in the Black Forest (Germany)

1731 - Regulations on workshops in Austria, subjecting workshops to the authorities and prohibiting artisan strikes and apprentice unions.

1733-1735 - War of the Polish Succession.

1736-1739 - Russian-Turkish war (in alliance with Austria)

1737 - Establishment of the University of Göttingen in Germany.

1738-1765 The stay in power of Sweden "party of hats"

1739 - Creation of the Swedish Academy of Sciences.

1739-1748 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1740 - Russian-Prussian union treaty.

1740-1780 - The reign of the Empress Maria Theresa in Austria.

1740-1742 - The Silesian War between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia, which ended with the transfer of Silesia to Prussia.

1740-1786 - The reign of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great.

1740-1748 - War of the Austrian Succession.

1741-1743 - The Russian-Swedish war, which ended in the Abov peace, through which part of Finland withdrew to Russia.

1742 - The Swedish astronomer and physicist A. Celsius proposed a new temperature scale named after him.

1744-1745 - Second Silesian War of Austria and Prussia in Poland.

1746 - Defensive Russian-Austrian and Russian-Danish alliances.

1747 - The Anglo-Russian subsidy treaty, according to which Russia received 100,000 pounds sterling annually in service with the army.

1756-1763 - Seven Years War.

1759 - Opening of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in Munich.

1761 - Family pact between French and Spanish Bourbons.

1765 - Foundation of the Royal Berlin - ирirobank and the Loan Bank.

1767 - The expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain.

1768 - Purchase of the island of Corsica by France from Genoa.

1768-1772 - Bar Confederation against Stanislav Poniatowski in Poland.

1772 - The coup d'état of Gustav III in Sweden, the adoption of a new constitution limiting the power of the Riksdag.

1772 - The first partition of Poland between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

1773 - The Pope abolishes the Jesuit Order.

1774-1792 - The reign of King Louis XVI in France.

1775-1783 - War of England with the North American colonies.

1779-1783 - Anglo-Spanish War, Spain's return of Florida and Menorca.

1780-1784 - Anglo-Dutch war for the redistribution of colonial possessions.

1783 - Treaty of Versailles. Recognition of the independence of the United States by England.

1788 - Cancellation of the military registration system in Denmark.

1788-1792 - The four-year diet in Poland.

1788-1789 - Russian-Swedish war.

1789-1794 - The French Revolution.

1789 - Peasant unrest in Germany.

1791 - Proclamation of a new constitution by the Poles, preparation for war with Russia.

1791 - Creation of the Irish United Patriotic Society in Belfast.

1792-1797 - War of France with the 1st coalition.

1792 - Targowitz Confederation in Poland; the abolition of the new constitution and the halt of military preparations.

1793 - Execution of Louis XVI

1793 - Russian-English convention on general action against revolutionary France.

1793 - The second partition of Poland between Russia and Prussia.

1794 - Foundation of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris - the first technical higher educational institution.

1794-1795 - The Polish uprising of T. Kosciuszko, suppressed by Russian troops led by A. V. Suvorov.

1795-1799 - Directory in France.

1795 - Stanislav Poniatowski's abdication from the throne and the third partition of Poland between Prussia. Russia and Austria, ending the existence of Poland as an independent state.

1796-1797 - Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte.

1798-1801 - War of France with the II coalition (England, Turkey, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Russia, Austria, Portugal)

1799 - Capture of the islands of Corfu, Naples and Rome by FF Ushakov. A. V. Suvorov's Swiss and Italian campaigns

1799 - The coup of the 18th Brumaire by General Napoleon Bonaparte. Transfer of power in France to the first consul Bonaparte

1799-1804 - Consulate in France.

1800 - The defeat of the Austrian troops by Napoleon Bonaparte at Marengo.

1803-1805 - War of France with the III coalition (England, Austria, Russia)

1804 - Execution of Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien. "Civil Code of the French" (Code of Napoleon). Napoleon Bonaparte's acceptance of the title of emperor.

1805 - Victory of the English fleet over the Franco-Spanish at Trafalgar. Death of Vice Admiral G. Nelson.

1806-1807 - War of France with the IV coalition (England, Prussia, Russia)

1806 - Formation of the Rhine Union of 16 German states under the protectorate of Napoleon.

1806 - Refusal of Franz II from the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, the end of its existence.

1807 - The slave trade is banned in England.

1808-1813 - The occupation of Spain by France. Guerrilla war in Spain.

1809 - War of France with the V coalition. Schönbrunn world. Loss of Illyria by Austria, parts of Tyrol and Western Galicia. Revolt against French rule in Germany.

1812 - Napoleon's campaign to Russia. Patriotic War in Russia.

1812-1814 - War of France with the VI coalition (England, Russia, Prussia, Austria)

1814 - Treason of the French minister Ch. M. Talleyrand, entry of the allies into Paris.

1814 - Restoration of the Jesuit Order by Pope Pius VII.

1814-1815 - Vienna Congress. Restoration in France.

1815 - "One Hundred Days" of Napoleon.

1815 - War of France with the VII coalition. Battle of Waterloo.

1815-1830 - Restoration in France.

1821 - Military intervention Austria to the Kingdom of Naples and Piedmont.

1821-1829 - Greek national liberation revolution.

1827 - Battle of Navarino of the united Russian-Anglo-French fleet against the Turkish fleet.

1830 - July Revolution in France.

1830-1831 - Belgian revolution. Formation of the Kingdom of Belgium.

1830-1831 - Polish uprising in the Russian Empire.

1830-1848 - The July Monarchy in France.

1832 - Parliamentary reform in England.

1834 - Vienna conference on the struggle against revolutionary movements.

1837-1901 - The reign of Queen Victoria I in England.

1848 - February Revolution in France. Fall of the July Monarchy.

1848 - Publication in London of the Communist Manifesto.

1848-1849 - Revolution in the Austrian Empire. Suppression of the Hungarian revolution by Russian troops, and the Italian revolution by Austrian troops.

1848-1849 - The bourgeois democratic revolution in Germany.

1851 - Coup in France by Louis Napoleon, restoration of the monarchy (from 1852)

1852-1871 - Second Empire in France.

1853-1856 - Crimean War: Turkey, England, France, Sardinia against Russia.

1858 - The East India Campaign is liquidated, India is declared a possession of the crown.

1859 - Austro-Franco-Sardinian War.

1861 - Proclamation of the Italian Kingdom.

1861 - Founding of the First International in London.

1861 - Abolition of serfdom in Russia.

1864 - War of Austria and Prussia against Denmark for Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg.

1866 - Austro-Prussian ("Thirty-day") war for hegemony in Germany. Victory of Prussia.

1867 - Invasion of D. Garibaldi at the head of "red shirts" in the Papal States.

1867-1868 - War of England against Ethiopia.

1870-1871 - Franco-Prussian War. Fall of the Second Empire.

1870-1940 - The Third Republic in France.

Recent history.

1871 - Communes in Lyon, Marseille, Paris. May "bloody week" in Paris.

1871 - Formation of a unified German Empire.

1871-1890 - Otto Bismarck - Reich Chancellor of the German Empire.

1871-1878 - "Kulturkampf" in Germany.

1873 - "Union of three emperors" (Austria, Germany, Russia)

1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war.

1879 - Austro-German Union.

1880 - Dissolution of the Jesuit Order in France.

1881 - Renewal of the "Union of the Three Emperors"

1881 - Conquest of Tunisia by the French. The beginning of the colonial advance of France in Africa.

1882 - The Triple Alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy.

1882 - The occupation of Egypt by England.

1884 - Legalization of trade unions in France.

1884 - The beginning of the colonial conquests of Germany in Africa.

1885 - Construction of vehicles with internal combustion engines in Germany.

1887 - The collapse of the "Union of three emperors"

1890 - Anglo-French treaty on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Africa.

1891-1921 - The Erfurt program of the German Social Democrats.

1893 - First Congress of Free Trade Unions in Auto-Hungary.

1894-1906 - The Dreyfus espionage case in France, which had a great public response.

1895 - The Lumiere brothers invented the cinema.

1895 - Anglo-Russian delimitation agreement in Central Asia.

1896 - Creation of the Irish Socialist Republican Party.

1898 - Anglo-French colonial conflict in Africa.

1899 - Anglo-French convention on the division of colonial possessions in Africa.

1899 - The Hague International Conference on the Limitation of Arms, convened at the initiative of Russia.

1899-1902 - The Boer War.

1903 - The first flight of the brothers W. and O. Wright on an airplane with an internal combustion engine designed by them.

1904 - Anglo-French agreement. The beginning of the formation of the Entente.

1907 - Anglo-Russian agreement on Asian politics. Registration of the Alliance of the Entente (England, France, Russia)

1908 - Revolution of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire.

1908 - annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary.

1909 - An attempt at a counter-revolutionary coup in Turkey.

1911 - General workers' strike in Great Britain.

1911-1912 - Italo-Turkish war. The capture of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by Italy.

1912-1913 - Balkan crisis.

1912-1913 - War of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece against Turkey. Shaking Turkey Macedonia, Thrace, Albania and Elephant.

1913 - War of Serbia, Greece, Romania and Turkey against Bulgaria.

1913-1920 - Presidency of R. Poincare ("Poincare War") in France.

Peace between the two world wars.

1914-1918 - First world War... Deaths of 9.5 million people.

1914 - Battle of the Marne.

1914 - The encirclement of the Russian armies in East Prussia. The offensive of Russian troops in Galicia.

1915 - Warsaw-Ivangorod operation. The advance of German troops into the depths of the Russian Empire.

1915 - Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente countries, and Bulgaria on the side of Germany and Austria.

1915 - Zimmerwald Conference of Left Socialists Against War.

1916 - Franco-German battle for Verdun. Anglo-German Battle of the Somme.

1916 - Galician operation (Brusilov breakthrough) of Russian troops.

1916 - Romania's entry into the war, its defeat by the Germans and the formation of the Romanian front.

1916-1922 - Lloyd George David - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1917 - the February bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia. Overthrow of the monarchy. Transfer of power to the Provisional Government.

1917 - The United States entered the war on the side of the Entente countries.

1917 - The October Revolution in Russia.

1918 - Brest-Litovsk separate peace between Soviet Russia and Germany.

1918 - "Second Marne". Retreat of German troops from positions on the Marne.

1918 - Berlin Revolution. Fall of the German Empire.

1918-1919 - Bavarian Republic.

1918-1923 - National liberation revolution in the Ottoman Empire.

1919 - Republic of Hungary.

1919 - Slovak Republic.

1919 - Formation of the Comintern.

1919 - Signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty and adoption of the Weimar Constitution in Germany.

1919 - Peace Treaty in Saint-Germain. Collapse of Austria-Hungary.

1919-1946 - The League of nations.

1920 - Treaty of Sevres between Turkey and the Entente countries. Transfer of a large part of the former Ottoman Empire to England, France, Italy and Greece.

1922 - Genoa Conference on Economic and Financial Issues.

1922 - Establishment of the fascist regime in Italy.

1922 - Lausanne Peace Conference. Signing a peace treaty with Turkey.

1923 - Formation of the Workers' Socialist International.

1925 - Locarno Conference. The conclusion by Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy of the Rhine Guarantee Pact on the inviolability of the German-French and Belgian-German borders and the preservation of the demilitarized Rhineland.

1926 - A coup d'etat in Poland. Establishment of the regime of J. Pilsudski.

1928 - Signing by 15 states (France, USA, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, etc.) in Paris of the Kellogg-Briand Pact on the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.

1931 - Adoption by the British Parliament of the Westminster Statute, which gave the dominions sovereign rights in foreign and domestic policy. Conversion of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations.

1931 - Spain is proclaimed a republic.

1933 - Victory of the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany in the elections to the Reichstag, party leader - Adolf Hitler - Reich Chancellor. The establishment of a fascist regime in Germany.

1934 - "Night of the Long Knives" in Germany. Hitler proclaims himself the Fuehrer (leader) of the German nation.

1934 - The defeat of the anti-fascist uprising in Vienna and the victory of the anti-fascists in Paris.

1935 - Creation The Popular Front in France.

1936 - Agreement on cooperation between Germany and Italy (creation of the Berlin-Rome axis)

1936 - German occupation of the Rhine Demilitarized Zone.

1936 - Victory of the Popular Front in the elections in Spain.

1936 - Abdication of the English king Edward VIII from the throne because of his love for Wallis Simpson.

1936-1939 - The Spanish Civil War.

1938 - "Kristallnacht" (Jewish pogrom) in Germany.

1938 - Munich Agreement between England, France, Germany and Italy on the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.

1938 - Creation of the IV International in Paris.

1939 - The capture of Czechoslovakia and Klaipeda by Germany.

1939 - The occupation of Albania by Italy.

1939 - Establishment of a fascist regime led by Francisco Franco in Spain.

1939 - Signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact ("Molotov-Ribbentrop pact"). USSR annexation of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.

1939-1940 - Soviet-Finnish war.

1940 - German invasion of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. Capitulation of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Norway and France.

1940-1945, 1951-1955 - Winston Churchill - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1940 - annexation of Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina by the USSR.

1940 - Italy enters the war on the side of Germany.

1940 - The establishment of the fascist regime in Romania.

1940 - The Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan is signed in Berlin. Creation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis.

1941 - German invasion of Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Greece. Division of Yugoslavia between Italy, Bulgaria and Hungary. Formation of Serbia and Croatia.

1941 - German attack on the USSR along the entire line of the western border.

1941 - Soviet counter-offensive near Moscow. Failure of the myth of the invincibility of the German troops.

1942 - Washington Conference. Signing of the United Nations Declaration by representatives of 26 countries. Legal registration anti-Hitler coalition.

1942 - The beginning of the Holocaust - the mass extermination of Jews in Europe.

1943 - The beginning of the general offensive of the Soviet troops. The turning point in the course of the war.

1943 - The collapse of the fascist regime in Italy. Italy's surrender and her declaration of war on Germany. Formation of the fascist republic of Salo led by Mussolini in Northern Italy.

1943 - Tehran conference of the Big Three.

1944 - Restoration of the state border of the USSR. The entry of Soviet troops into Poland, Romania and Bulgaria.

1944 - Landing of the Allies in France. The opening of the second front.

1944 - the dissolution of the Comintern.

1944 - Liberation of Florence, Paris, Brussels, Antwerp, Belgrade, Warsaw.

1944 - An armistice agreement between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition and Romania, Bulgaria, Finland and Poland.

1945 - Yalta conference of the heads of state of the "Big Three", which defined the foundations of the post-war world order.

1945 - Berlin operation... Meeting on the Elbe in the Torgau area of \u200b\u200bthe Soviet and allied troops.

1945 - UN Conference in San Francisco. Development and adoption of the UN Charter.

1945 - Formation of the provisional government of Austria, which restored the state independence of the country.

1945 - Execution of Mussolini and suicide of Hitler.

1945 - The signing of the act of complete and unconditional surrender of Germany. The end of the Great Patriotic War THE USSR.

1945 - Berlin (Potsdam) conference.

1945 - Americans experience for the first time nuclear bomb during the attack on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1945 - Japan surrenders. End of World War II.

Europe after World War II.

1945 - Proclamation of the Federal People's Republic Yugoslavia.

1945-1946 - International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, which condemned the crimes of fascism.

1946 - Proclamation of the People's Republic of Bulgaria.

1946 - Speech by Winston Churchill at Fulton. The beginning of the Cold War.

1946 - Formation of the People's Republic of Albania.

1946 - Proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (since 1949 - Hungarian People's Republic)

1947 - Proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic.

1948 - Adoption by 17 European countries of a program to restore the development of Europe after World War II by providing it with US economic assistance.

1949 - Creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): USA, Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, France and Canada for joint defense against the enemy under the UN Charter.

1949 - Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA): USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia.

1949 - Adoption of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the proclamation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR)

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