The ancient Egyptians also achieved great success in scientific knowledge. Of course, these were scattered information, weakly connected with each other and not yet separated from the religious and mythological picture of the world. However, many of the results obtained by the ancient Egyptians are startling. The development of computing was facilitated by construction (the accuracy of construction measurements and perfect paint marking of the angles of slopes of the depth and levels of ledges on the pyramid masonry). The need to calculate the periods of the Nile flooding created Egyptian astronomy. As a matter of fact, they created one of the first calendars, the basic principles of construction of which remain valid to this day.

The year consisted of three times, each time of 4 months, each month of 30 days; over 360 days in a year, there were 5 additional, leap years, so that the calendar year was ahead of the natural one, consisting of 365 days, every 4 years by 1 day.

The ancient Egyptians did a great thing in the field of physics - to reduce the friction force, slaves poured oil under the runners of carts (building pyramids).

At the time of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians made a discovery in the field of chemistry - they invented colored pastes with which they cover large beads or make them from colored smalts. From this bead throughout history Ancient egypt made many different ornaments.

The first mathematical and medical texts belong to the period of the Middle Kingdom (some of them are problem books in the modern sense of the word).

Mathematics was especially developed in ancient Egypt - and this despite the cumbersome and inconvenient number system. The Egyptians knew complex problems with the formation of fractions, the concept of the unknown, the experience in calculating the surface of the hemisphere and the volume of the pyramid, including the truncated one; they are already using Pi \u003d 3.16. Together with trigonometry of volumetric bodies, a system of golden section rules is being developed.

Astronomers create fairly accurate pictures of the starry sky (lists of constellations on sarcophagi). Guesses appear that the corresponding constellations are in the sky during the day. They are invisible during the day, since the sun is in the sky.

Physics - a water clock was invented (a pocket clock, an Egyptian neck clock, instructions - "instructions" on the use of a sundial).

Medicine - therapies describing blood circulation, treatment of wounds, fracture of the skull and damage to the internal cavities of the nose.

Geography - Pieces of detailed drawings of the desert mining maps have come down to us.

Maybe, modern man this knowledge will seem too primitive, but one should not forget that this is - early stage human culture. It is no coincidence that the ancient Greeks considered the Egyptians the wisest of people, went to Egypt for wisdom, and learned from the Egyptian priests. The culture of Ancient Egypt in many ways became a model for many other civilizations, a model that was not only imitated, but also from which they started and which they tried to overcome.

Egypt gives us the most vivid example that stage of the formation of the ancient oriental culture, where the practical achievements and development of pragmatically oriented rationality are combined with the fundamental role of feelings and images inherited from the primitive myth.

The origins of Egyptian culture lie in ancient times. Chronologically, the history of Ancient Egypt is divided into:

Old Kingdom: 3197-2160 BC e.

Middle Kingdom: 2160-1580 BC e.

New Kingdom: 1580-1100 BC e.

Late period: 1100 BC e. - 395 AD e.

In the III millennium BC. e. Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt, which were three independent states, united. From this event the development of the culture and history of Ancient Egypt begins.

In the last period, Egypt is losing its power, and it is gradually conquered by other peoples: Persians, Assyrians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines. In the early Middle Ages, Islam penetrated Egypt.

Geographical position

The ancient Egyptian state originated along the Nile River in northern Africa. Its location was due to the fertility of the silt soils formed by the floods of the Nile, and the ability to get several crops per year. This geographical and climatic factor played a decisive role in the economic and political development of Egypt.

Administrative division into nomes (agricultural communities), which were ruled by nomarchs, allowed for a clear government of the country.

Features of the worldview

Social structure. The scheme of the social structure resembles a pyramid: the top was occupied by the pharaoh (king), who concentrated all forms of power in one person. Behind him - priests, ministers, military leaders, nomarchs. The next, lower level was occupied by scribes, tax collectors, who controlled the implementation of laws. A step below are peasants, even lower are artisans and merchants. At the foot of the pyramid are slaves who had no rights. The ranks of slaves were replenished with prisoners of war: Egypt waged wars of conquest.

For more than three thousand years, the Egyptian state was the most powerful of its time. This was facilitated by a strong state power, an established system of government, perfect legislation for that time, a high culture of agriculture, the development of science and the huge role of religion in the life of the Egyptians (the most religious people in the history of the ancient world).

Religion.

Ancient Egypt is considered a classic country of worship of the gods in the form of animals. In addition to the general Egyptian, each group of the population also had its own local sacred animals. Egyptian gods had a harsh, "bestial" appearance and had to intimidate, make them fear, obey and worship.

The gods in the image of the ancient Egyptians are creatures with a human body and animal heads, their divinity is depicted here through the images of creatures inhabiting sacred nature.

The most common ancient Egyptian cults are: the cult of animals, the cult of the Nile, the cult of the Pharaoh, the cult of the Sun, the cult of the dead (funeral cult), the cult of Osiris (the cult of nature).

The cult of animals is the oldest. The most popular animal gods are crocodile, cat, bull, snake, cow, scarab beetle. In all periods of its history, Ancient Egypt preferred the solar cult (the cult of the sun), associated with the worship of the Sun (Ra) and the deification of the Pharaoh. The god Amon - the patron saint of the pharaohs - symbolized their divine origin from Ra, and the union of two deities into one (Amon-Ra) affirmed the identity of the Sun and the supreme ruler.

The pantheon of the main gods can be considered Osiris, the god of the dead, whose cult personified the worship of a dying and eternally reborn nature. Associated with this cult is the worship of Isis (the goddess of fertility), her son Horus and Thoth (the god of wisdom). Their antipode was the god of evil - Seth.

One of the features of ancient Egyptian beliefs that determined the nature of ancient Egyptian art is the funeral cult, which is based on the belief in the afterlife and immortality of the soul ("Ba") and its patron ("Ka"). According to the Egyptians, a person consists of two elements - material (body) and spiritual ("Ka" and "Ba"). After death, the soul leaves the body through the eyes and the judgment of Osiris awaits it. The soul of a sinner should be given to be torn apart by a monster with the head of a crocodile and the body of a dog. The soul of the righteous is prepared for eternal life, for which it needs an outer shell. The consequence of these performances is embalming (making mummies). The mummy could be replaced by a statue - an exact copy of the deceased. The funeral cult led to the development of chemistry, medicine (surgery), and the art of sculptural portraiture.

Most of the rituals of Ancient Egypt were associated with the Nile - the source of the state's prosperity. The Nile festivals were important public agricultural holidays, such as the first furrow or the beginning of the harvest. When the time of the flood of the Nile came, the pharaoh threw papyrus into the river with the order to start the flood, he also began plowing, cut the first sheaf of the new crop.

Thus, the religious system of the Egyptians with a developed cult of gods and the dead, stable and conservative, fastened all manifestations of culture, art, science into a single ideological monolith.

12:00 30.10.2013

The mysterious ancient Egyptian civilization causes controversy among scientists to this day, because science has very contradictory information: on the one hand, the construction of pyramids, advanced medicine, shipbuilding, and on the other, the absence of an elementary wheel ... How developed were the different fields of science of these people from the distant past, who inhabited the banks of the Nile?

It is difficult to argue with the fact that the most incomprehensible and most famous achievement of ancient Egyptian civilization was the building of the pyramids.
Even modern scientists argue about the purpose of these magnificent structures. It is also widely discussed whether the people who inhabited the banks of the Nile 5 thousand years ago and used simple levers and ramps in construction could build them? Why in more ancient times of the Egyptian civilization were built pyramids larger in size and more regular proportions? Why did they not develop over time, but, on the contrary, became less perfect geometrically?
There are so many conjectures around the pyramids that it is difficult to make out what is true and what is fiction. Let's turn to the most authoritative sources.

Great Pyramid of Giza, golden ratio and phi (φ)

The connection between the "golden" phi (the number of the golden ratio) and the proportions of the pyramid was first described by the English writer John Taylor in the middle of the 19th century. According to his calculations, the perimeter of the pyramid divided by its height is approximately 2φ. In his book, published in 1859, he puts forward the theory that the pyramid symbolized the Earth, since the height of the pyramid was related to the radius of the globe, and the perimeter of the pyramid to the equator.

Later in the 19th century, Taylor's ideas were further developed by Charles Piazza Smith, professor of astronomy at the University of Edinburgh.

Contemporary American mathematician Ralph Greenberg, professor at the University of Washington, on the website of this educational institution writes that the perimeter of the pyramid, divided by its height, gives a fairly accurate number 2φ, and its slope is 4 / φ, and the level of error does not exceed 0.4%.

It seems unlikely that the ancient Egyptians could have known phi with their level of mathematical knowledge. The explanation for this may be that the ancient Egyptians used much simpler proportions, which gave almost the same accurate resultslike modern complex computing.

According to Greenberg, the "magic ratio" was due to the use of standard simple modules for measuring length. However, it is interesting that the proportions of the "golden ratio" were applied only in the Great Pyramid and the pyramids of Khafre and Mikerin, which were built side by side, as well as in the pyramid of Sahur. In later similar structures, the ratio of the height to the side is different.
There is an opinion that the pyramid was built by representatives of an even more ancient and advanced civilization, and the ancient Egyptians only tried to copy the majestic structure. Read more about the Egyptian pyramids in our article: Secrets of the Egyptian Pyramids.

Shipbuilding

The ancient people who inhabited the banks of the Nile knew how to build strong ships as early as 3000 BC, but they did it in a special way. So, the oldest boats found in the city of Abydos were "sewn" from boards with the help of belts. And the cracks between the boards were plugged with reed stalks and grass.

These boats were narrow, but very long: their length reached 23 meters! And in other ancient ships found, the boards were attached to each other even with the help of grooves.

Other technical advances

The Nile River flooded irregularly, and the ancient Egyptians needed constant irrigation to grow their crops - wheat, barley and buckwheat. For these purposes, common irrigation systems were built throughout the territory of Ancient Egypt.

In addition, the Egyptians had a potter's wheel and made so much pottery that it was enough not only for their own needs, but also for export.
But the people who inhabited the banks of the Nile did not use the wheels. Their first chariots appeared during the rule of the ancient Hyksos people, who seized power in the country.

The ancient Egyptians mined the minerals and ores they needed for construction and other needs, and even organized long-distance expeditions to extract such minerals. They were engaged in the extraction of building and decorative stone, copper, lead ores, gold, emeralds and semi-precious stones, as well as salt. They made plaster from a special mineral. Sulfur was used to create cosmetics.

And if the ancient Egyptians lacked something, they imported it from abroad: they had trade relations with their entire region. From neighboring countries imported gold, tin, copper, lapis lazuli, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, as well as exotic animals - monkeys and baboons. They mainly exported grain, fabrics, papyrus, glass, stone products and ... gold again.

home stuff

Judging by the artifacts that were preserved for the descendants of the tombs and pyramids, the wealthy ancient Egyptians had a well-established life: they made amazing furniture with legs stylized as animal paws, chairs, benches, tables and chests. The interiors were complemented by sculptures, painted ceramics, decorative vases, and glass products, which the ancient Egyptians made extremely skillfully. They even knew how to adjust the color and transparency of the material.

They were also familiar with the technology of making earthenware - glaze covered cups, amulets and other products. The ancient Egyptians perceived faience as an artificial semi-precious stone.
The women had combs, jewelry made of gold, lapis, ivory, and even meteorite alloys. The ancient Egyptians had several types of board games - senet and maehan, they also loved to listen to music. Ancient Egyptian musicians played flutes, harps, pipes, and later drums were also brought to the country. The rich Egyptians enjoyed hunting.
The houses of the ancient Egyptians themselves were built of raw bricks, which kept the temperature well. The walls of their premises could have been bleached with plaster. Each house had its own small mill - a stone for grinding grain - and an oven for baking bread. The floor was paved with mats, and tapestries could hang on the walls ...

This was the life and life of the ancient Egyptians, simple and developed at the same time, people who passed on to their descendants the unique majestic pyramids, but did not pass on any knowledge about these incomprehensible structures. Many unsolved mysteries still keep the lands on the banks of the Nile, on which one of the most ancient known civilizations was born.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

ANO VPO "New Siberian Institute"

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN SCIENCES

"The main achievements of Ancient Egypt"

Completed by: group student

Psychology 1 course

Filatova T.N.

Checked by the teacher

Gorina A.V.

Plan

Introduction

Major achievements:

1. Ancient kingdom

2. Middle Kingdom

3. New kingdom

Conclusion

List of references

Introductionenie

Since ancient times, people have been attracted by everything unknown, mysterious, never seen before. People were eager to learn more about what they had not seen before, what they had not "encountered" until a certain moment. I chose this topicbecause Ancient Egypt is unknown to me; in my essay, I will try to tell in more detail about the achievements in the field of art of ancient Egypt of different periods. I will talk about achievements in industrial and technical areas in general.

The civilization of Ancient Egypt existed for almost 3000 years, leaving the descendants with majestic monuments and fabulous treasures. Egypt became the cradle of the second (after the Sumerian) great civilization in world history. It originated in the Nile Valley several centuries later than the Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia, which had an undoubted influence on early development Ancient Egypt.

1. Ancient kingdom (2600-2150 BC)

In the era of the Old Kingdom, Egypt reached the pinnacle of stability and self-isolation, arrogantly ignoring the world around it. Almost immediately, the construction of stone monuments began, of which the most famous are the grandiose royal tombs - pyramids... The famous "step pyramid" in Saqqara, next to the ancient capital of Memphis, was erected for the king of the III dynasty Djoser according to the project of his adviser Imhotep. This semi-legendary sage and the first architect, known to us by name, later became the Egyptian god of healing. The largest pyramid was built in Giza for the pharaoh Cheops (Khufu). The pyramids, precisely oriented to the cardinal points, were built on the basis of the simplest technologies. Their construction was, in fact, a triumph for the organization of labor on an unprecedented scale. By the end of the era of the Old Kingdom, the influence of the large aristocracy increased, the central power weakened. During the I intermediate period (2150-1950 BC). Egypt split into several warring dynasties, and pyramids and other tombs were plundered.

One of the "seven wonders of the world" was called the pyramids of Cheops, Khephren and Mikerin (28th century BC) in Giza. Their image embodied the greatness and daring courage of human design to oppose the centuries with the activity of their hands and mind.

The Pyramid of Cheops

The Egyptian pyramid of Cheops in Giza is the oldest and at the same time the only wonder of the world that has survived to this day. It got its name from the name of its creator - Pharaoh Cheops (about 2551 - 2528 BC). Due to its enormous size, it is sometimes called the Great Pyramid and is placed first on the list of wonders of the world. Its height is 146.6 m, which roughly corresponds to a fifty-story skyscraper. The base area is 230x230 m. The weight of the huge structure is 6,400,000 tons. According to the Greek historian Herodotus (490 - 425 BC), the construction continued for another twenty years, about 100,000 people worked on the construction of the huge tomb of Cheops.

The young pharaoh Cheops gave the order to build the pyramid immediately after the death of his father Sneferu. Like all previous pharaohs from the time of Djoser (about 2609 -2590 BC), Cheops wanted to be buried after his death in a pyramid.

Before the first of the blocks that made up the pyramid was hewn in a quarry on the east bank of the Nile, complex preparatory work: it was necessary to find a suitable site for the construction of the pyramid (the weight of the huge structure is 6,400,000 tons) - the soil had to be strong so that the pyramid would not sink into the ground under its own weight. The construction site was chosen south of the modern Egyptian capital of Cairo, on the ledge of a plateau in the desert seven kilometers west of the village of Giza. First, the platform was leveled. For this, a waterproof shaft of sand and stones was built around it. A dense network of small channels intersecting at right angles was cut down in the resulting square. Having sailed on boats to the other bank of the Nile, the men went to the quarry, where they cut out a stone block, cut it with sledgehammers, wedges, saws and drills and received a block of the required dimensions - with sides from 80 cm to 1.45 m.Using ropes and levers , each group installed their block on wooden runners and dragged it to the banks of the Nile along the log deck. Along an inclined entrance 20 m wide, runners with a stone block were pulled to the upper platform of the pyramid under construction using ropes and levers. Then the most dangerous work began: laying the "pyramidon" - the upper block nine meters high, dragged upward along the inclined entrance. So twenty years later, the construction of the pyramid body, which consists of 128 layers of stone, was completed. However, the work did not end there: the steps were laid with stones, so that the surface of the pyramid, although not quite smooth, was already without ledges. At the end of the work, the four triangular outer faces of the pyramid were faced with slabs of dazzling white limestone. The edges of the slabs were fitted so precisely that it was impossible to insert even a knife blade between them. The outer slabs have been polished to a mirror finish using the hardest grinding stones. According to eyewitnesses, in the sun or in the moonlight, the tomb of Cheops mysteriously sparkled like a huge crystal glowing from within. "However, the Cheops pyramid does not consist entirely of stone. Inside it is a branched system of passages, which through a large passage 47 m long, the so-called large gallery, leads to the pharaoh's chamber - a room 10.5 m long, 5.3 m wide and 5 , 8 m. It is entirely faced with granite, but not decorated with any ornaments. There is a large empty granite sarcophagus without a lid. The sarcophagus was brought here during construction, as it does not pass through any of the pyramid passages.

Art

An integral part of the temple and tombs were statues of pharaohs, nobility, court scribes. All of them were performed within the strict canons. People were depicted in calm poses full of motionless grandeur, as if frozen in centuries. At the same time, the sculpture of the Old Kingdom is distinguished by sharp realism, enormous internal energy. The individualized faces of the subjects were even more enlivened by the bright colors, the inlaid eyes with rock crystal and ebony. Traditionally, the male statue is painted with reddish-brown paint, the female statue is yellowish, the hair is black, and the clothes are white.

The reliefs and paintings that adorn the walls of the tombs are also associated with the funeral cult. The reliefs are usually flat, almost do not protrude above the surface of the wall. The silhouette of the figures is clear and graphic. For the reliefs of the Old Kingdom, the principle of the frieze development of the plots that unfolds scene by scene is typical. The same purity of lines, restraint and calm clarity of rhythms. In wall paintings, usually golden, orange-red, green, blue and turquoise paints were used, applied to a dry surface. Often, special grooves were filled with colored pastes, similar to inlay. Generalized contour lines emphasized the plane of the wall, the monumental integrity of the ensemble.

In the workshop of a tanner and weaver

Leather processing and making various household items from it took an important place among the crafts. Belts were made of leather, which served to attach to the handle of the working part of many tools (axes, adzes, hoes), to fasten parts of the plow and furniture parts, water skins, purses, bags, covers and cases for scrolls of papyri and precious items, parchment, sandals, shields and quivers, and from the New Kingdom - details of military and ceremonial chariots, horse harnesses.

In the back of one of the workshops, a door has been opened to a small courtyard, where a group of men are busy processing skins. One puts the hides in a large earthenware vessel to be soaked, while the other two set about working the soaked hides. One tanner removes the hide from the hide; in his hand he holds an instrument with several points, like a comb. His neighbor removes hair from his skin with a scraper. The peeled skins are again put to soak in other vessels. In the workshop itself, workers are busy processing perfectly finished, clean and soaked skins. Some of them are coated with a thick layer of fat, and then they begin to crumple. The oil is absorbed into the pores of the skin, making it flexible and soft. Other skins "are simply stretched, cut out of them into pieces of the desired shape and stretched over prepared wooden frames; this is how shields, quivers, limbs and sides of chariots are obtained. All this is dried in the sun. When dry, leather objects become hard and durable. Of leather treated with fat. , make sandals, belts, horse bridles, dog collars, adding dyes to get colored leather.

One of oldest species Egyptian craft was weaving, which developed from basket weaving. In the workshop, weavers spun flax fiber made in the countryside. First, the fiber is stretched between two sticks and a thin thread is obtained. Then it is twisted, and the twisted threads, the so-called "roving", are twisted with the help of a spindle into one thread of yarn. The spindle is a wooden core with a stone or clay spindle put on it, it helps the spindle to rotate for a long time and evenly.

The spinners rotate the spindles in their hands and twist the yarn from several strands.

Joiner

The Egyptians have been able to make boards and thin plywood since ancient times.

According to popular belief, a wedge was inserted into the cut of the board, at the upper end of which a counterweight stone was fixed. The wedge allegedly served to widen the cut as the saw advanced, since the Egyptians still did not know its divorce (alternate bending of the teeth in both directions), which was necessary to prevent the saw from being pinched by the sawed parts of the trunk.

Joiners planed the boards with a copper adze, which replaced the plane for the ancient Egyptians. With a chisel-chisel, they hollowed out a groove on a board or block, and beat the handle of the chisel with a mallet. The grooves were hollowed out for the spikes, by means of which the individual parts of the wooden products were connected.

Craftpotter

Pottery was one of the oldest industries in Egypt. The manufacture of ceramic dishes began with the stirring of clay with feet, poured with water, to which finely chopped straw was sometimes added - to reduce the viscosity of the clay, speed up drying and prevent excessive shrinkage of the vessel. The molding of vessels in the Neolithic and pre-dynastic periods was done by hand; later, a round mat, the predecessor of the potter's wheel, was used as a rotating stand. Under the dexterous fingers of the molder, the clay mass took the form of pots, bowls, bowls, jugs, goblets, large vessels with a pointed or rounded bottom. In the painting of the new kingdom, an image of a large clay cone, molded on a potter's wheel, has been preserved - the vessel is made from its upper part, which is separated from the cone with a string. When making large pots, the lower part was molded first, and then the upper one. After the vessel was formed, it was first dried and then fired. Initially, this was probably done right on the ground - on a fire. The color of the ceramics depended on the type of clay, cladding (engobe) and firing. For its manufacture, clay was used mainly of two varieties: brown-gray with a fairly large amount of impurities and gray lime almost without organic impurities.

Water transport

Shipbuilding in Egypt has been practiced since ancient times, but initially boats and small ships, designed to sail only along the Nile or in the channels of the Delta, were tied from papyrus stalks.

Noteworthy is the indication of Herodotus that the ancient Egyptian ships did not have ribs, that is, they were built without a frame. This is confirmed by surviving boats and images of shipbuilding. Ancient Egyptian ships were built not only without a frame, but also without a keel and had a shallow draft, since they were intended for sailing on the river, where shallows were not uncommon. By the time of the Old Kingdom, shipbuilders, as a result of long experience, had developed a certain standard for ship hull parts. Most of the river and all sea vessels were not only adapted for oars, but also equipped with sails. On the ships of the Old Kingdom, the mast 3/4 of the length of the ship was placed closer to the bow, so that the stern had to be made higher than the bow, like in papyrus boats. But already from the time of the VI Dynasty, masts began to be made from one pole. The long sail was attached to the mast with a single yarn and tied to the side at the bottom. It is believed that the Egyptian ships were caulked, otherwise they would have leaked when launched. When caulking, parts of the body were tied with twine woven from papyrus fiber. When the grease at all joints dried out well, the triple row of twine on the bow and stern was apparently removed, since the sling was not visible on the images of the finished ships.

Middle kingdom(1950-1785 BC)

In the era of the Middle Kingdom (1950-1785 BC), the unity of Egypt was restored, and its capital was moved from the Memphis Delta, located just above the Delta to Thebes, in Upper Egypt. The nearby Valley of the Kings has become the burial place of many kings, and in the two regions of Thebes - Karnak and Luxor - one after another, beautiful temples and magnificent monuments grew. By that time, religion had acquired a very highly developed form, opening the possibility of an afterlife not only for kings, but - with proper preparation - for any Egyptian. Probably, this explains the new custom of putting wooden figurines of warriors, artisans or servants in burials, so that they accompany the master in the afterlife. These figurines (ushabti) \u200b\u200bhelped us a lot to present daily life ancient Egyptians. The later period of the Middle Kingdom was marked by the reign of powerful and successful pharaohs. They pacified the aristocracy, carried out major irrigation projects, and extended Egyptian rule to the south, conquering Nubia. However, with the onset of the II intermediate period (1785-1570 BC), the country again entered a period of strife and decline, and the culmination of all troubles was the seizure of the Nile Delta by Asian nomads - the Hyksos.

Art (21-18 centuries BC)

The first of the monuments that marked the search for new architectural images was the tomb of the Mentuhoteps at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes. An attempt was made here to connect the temple with the pyramid, and the beginning of large temple ensembles of a later time was made. The golden-pink color of the stone, the enormous length of the walled road leading to the temple with two terraces and a wide ramp, located among wild mountains, gave this unique ensemble a majestic scale. Of particular importance in the Middle Kingdom were the powerful colonnades that encircle the terraces of temples and courtyards, as well as colossal statues of rulers, as if emerging from the darkness of the temples and guarding them. An innovation was the pylons - two powerful towers with a narrow passage in the middle, which are a kind of border on the way of people entering the temple. In sculpture, new quests manifested themselves especially sharply in the second half of the Middle Kingdom. The sharp imperiousness of the rulers' features increased. The dignified clarity of the images of the Old Kingdom gave way to tension. Relief themes have become more diverse. New plots are taking an ever more important place in art, filling it with ever more concreteness. In the painting that adorned the walls of tombs and temples, attempts are also found to overcome the old compositional schemes. The austere, full of stately calm friezes are replaced by more loosely grouped scenes, the colors become softer and more transparent. Paintings are executed with tempera on dry ground. The golden color of the bodies is combined in them with the green of the herbs, the whiteness of the clothes, the blueness of the flowers. Not limited to local tones, masters use mixed paints, superimposed now thickly, now barely perceptible. The contours are indicated now sharply, now gently, which is why the still flat silhouettes become lighter and more picturesque.

Breakthrough in metalworking. New technologies

From the times of the XII dynasty, many objects have survived, in which a certain result of attempts to give copper the necessary qualities: hardness, wear resistance, strength is recorded. During the reign of the descendants of Amenemhat I began to use an alloy of copper with tin, which is similar in quality to bronze; with tin, copper begins to be alloyed at the end of the Transition Period. The centers of "bronze" production are practically all located close enough to the tin deposits. In addition to changes in the structure of the metal from which the tools were prepared, the enrichment of the range of products is taking place. In the Middle Kingdom, the device of metal tools has become much more complicated, much indicates the completeness of using the same basis for carrying out various work in everyday life. Detachable attachments for the product appeared, and, changing the attachments, it was now possible, for example, to scrape, drill and clean holes. It is possible to note the improvement of the constructive properties of objects known from ancient times and seemingly practically not amenable to improvement. However, gradually copper as the I common equivalent was replaced by gold and silver during the Middle Kingdom. The unification of the country made it possible to vary the material, finding the most suitable one for the needs of construction. Limestone is still used most often, but the use of red granite, alabaster and sandstone is increasing. .

Glass

During the Middle Kingdom, there was another technological breakthrough in Egyptian civilization - glassmaking was mastered. This enriched the possibilities of jewelers, people engaged in the manufacture of dishes and healing. Glass began to be used as an independent material from the time of the 17th dynasty. The composition of the glass was close to the modern one (sodium and calcium silicate), but it contained little silica and lime, more alkali and iron oxide, due to which it could melt at a lower temperature. For the most part, it did not let light through at all, sometimes it shone through, even less often it was transparent. In ancient Egypt, the so-called "rolled" glass was used. It was melted in crucibles, and only after the second melting did it acquire sufficient purity. The best workshops had old masters who knew the secrets of making colored glass masses. Through the experiments of the master, various colors of glass were established, obtained from adding dyes to the mass. To receive white it was necessary to add tin oxide, for yellow - antimony and lead oxide; manganese gave purple color, manganese and copper - black; copper in various proportions colored glass blue, turquoise or green, another shade of blue was obtained from the addition of cobalt.

Water transport

Water transport has been widely used since the days of the Old Kingdom. However, during the Middle Kingdom, they began to build stronger hulls of ships, which was achieved by reducing the size of individual parts of the ship and increasing their number. They began to install the mast in the middle of the ship, and the sail was made not longitudinal as before, but transverse, strengthening and pulling it between two yards.

New kingdom (1570-1075 BC)

The New Kingdom (1570-1075 BC) was the last great era in the history of Egyptian civilization. She also gave the country its most famous representatives. For Ancient Egypt, it was also an era of continuous conflicts with the Middle East - at first as a great power, and towards the end as a victim. The impetus for this was in no small measure the Hyksos. The Egyptians adopted from them new methods of warfare (in particular, war chariots) and, driving out the hated aliens, pushed them back to the borders of Palestine and Syria, turning Egypt into great empire, the size of which fluctuated at different times. All these events gave the New Kingdom a special atmosphere. They began to pay more attention to the exaltation of the pharaoh as an earthly conqueror and less to his divine image consecrated by tradition. Judging by the written sources, political life has become more complex. Among the most outstanding personalities of the New Kingdom is Queen Hatshepsut, who was portrayed with all the royal attributes, including a fake beard tied to her chin! A number of energetic rulers expanded the borders of the Egyptian Empire to the fertile bend of the Euphrates. Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power and prosperity under the warrior Pharaoh Thutmose III (1479-1426 BC). And from the correspondence Amenhotep III (1390-1353 BC) with his successor Amenhotep IV, preserved on clay tablets in Amarna, we learn about the extensive diplomatic ties of Ancient Egypt with the rulers of the entire Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East.

The last flowering of ancient Egyptian art during the period of unification under the rule of the Sais pharaohs (7th century BC) is characterized by the emergence of a cold refined style.

Art (16-11 centuries BC)

The period of the New Kingdom consisted of several major stages that characterize the complex paths of development of the culture of that time.

In Thebes, colossal temple ensembles dedicated to the god Amon were erected. The most widespread in the period of the New Kingdom was the type of temple with a clear rectangular plan. Its ensemble character was designed for a constant change of impressions from numerous participants in solemn religious processions. The facade of the temple turned to the Nile, from which there was a road framed on the sides by stone sphinxes or rams. The measured repetition of their figures created a calm rhythm. The avenue of sphinxes led to the entrance - a stone pylon - a grandiose, upwardly tapering trapezoidal wall, divided by a narrow passage in the middle. Colossal statues and obelisks were erected in front of the pylon. Behind the pylon was a rectangular open courtyard surrounded by columns. At the same time, thanks to the warm golden tone, delicate colors of the paintings, the beauty of the reliefs, the Egyptian temples of the New Kingdom did not produce the feeling of the oppressive power of the stone. The tombs of the kings and the funeral temples acquired a new character.

In painting, the masters of the New Kingdom were also looking for a bolder and more complex image of the world around them. Everyday life of the nobility, hunting, feasts, departures are shown extremely colorfully. The composition became more complex, the movements of the figures became more varied, the color was enriched with lilac, pink shades. A golden pink color is introduced into the coloring of the figures. Women in transparent clothes are shown dancing and playing music.

Amarna's art

At the beginning of the 14th century BC. Pharaoh Amenhotep IV carried out a religious reform. The sun itself, Aton, was proclaimed as a single deity. The best works of the Amarna period are notable for their penetration, they are fanned with the true breath of life, and are full of inner charm. The best that was created during this period - sculptural portraits of Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, made in relief and round plastic. For the first time in the history of Egyptian art, an image of the pharaoh with his family appeared. The solar disk of the god Aten extends its rays to them everywhere, blessing their love and deeds.

Painting abounds in bright colors. Bronze statuettes, covered with chased patterns and gold inlay, are elegant, but devoid of the inner warmth of the Amarna portraits.

Construction

This time was mainly characterized by extensive construction and numerous military campaigns. In accordance with ancient religious doctrine, the pharaohs were considered beings of divine nature, "children of the great gods of the universe" and therefore were objects of religious veneration. This was especially consistently observed in relation to Ramses II. In some temples there were even images of Ramses II, worshiping himself as a god. Some of the most remarkable temples are the two cave temples at Abu Simbel. One of them is thirty-three meters high, thirty-eight meters wide, and sixty-five meters deep. At the entrance to the temple there are four twenty-meter colossus, each of which depicts Ramses II. The giant statues seem to guard the ancient sanctuary. The unknown sculptor also immortalized all the children of the pharaoh, placing them at the feet of Ramses II. The entire design of the temple was conditioned by one idea - to exalt the power of the great pharaoh in all possible ways. In choosing a place for the temple, the ancient builders were guided by the peculiarities of the surrounding area, as well as the convenience of the location of the temple: when the temple is illuminated by the first rays of the sun, giant sculptures suddenly turn dark red and seem especially embossed against the background of the blue - black shadows cast by them. Hypostyle reliefs are dedicated to the glorification of the pharaoh's military victories. On the eastern wall there are traditional images - Ramses kills a group of prisoners in front of the gods, to the right of the entrance - Libyans, to the left - Nubians.

Another famous Egyptian temple of the New Kingdom period is the Luxor temple in Thebes. It enchants visitors with the beauty of its colonnades and reliefs. The temple was not built under any one pharaoh. Each of the sovereign rulers of Egypt considered it his duty to take part in decorating the monastery of the main Egyptian god Amun-Ra. The temple was constantly rebuilt, sometimes even entire halls were destroyed in order to build even more grandiose ones.

In addition to the buildings of the temple and the palace, there were many other buildings on the territory of the Ramesseum. Storerooms occupied a huge place. Long vaulted rooms built of bricks stretch here in endless rows, grouped into special, carefully guarded complexes that almost closely surrounded the temple from the north, west and south. They had different purposes and, accordingly, different design.

Transport. Chariots

During the New Kingdom, a new branch of woodworking craft flourished - the manufacture of chariots. In the XVI century. BC e. The Egyptians took Canaanite two-wheeled chariots and horses out of Syria as spoils of war.

Lightweight chariots were used for fighting and later as racing chariots for hunting fast-footed game. The chariots are almost entirely made of wood. The open rear body consisted of a semicircular curved wooden frame, covered with leather weaving, and a rounded front end. In front, the chariot was supported by a support, fastened with leather belts with a drawbar. The light racing chariot had only a wooden frame. The body of the royal traveling and war chariots in front and in the lower part was covered with leather or canvas, decorated with gilding, painted on the applied plaster, strewn with precious and semi-precious stones. ... If at the beginning of the XVIII dynasty Egyptian chariots still resembled Canaanite in their form, then from the XIV century. BC e. Egyptian masters managed to find new form the most stable chariots. Since that time, foreign craftsmen began to borrow their experience. .

Conclusion

So what is the ultimate significance of the events of Ancient Egypt? What influence did the history of Ancient Egypt have on further development of this country and world history in general?

Based on the foregoing, I concluded that the achievements of Ancient Egypt can rightfully be called the most valuable world discoveries. Thanks to the development of the carpentry and metallurgical regions, tools, weapons, furniture, and the construction system were improved. As the pace of construction increased, architectural schools began to appear, and later were widely developed. Of great importance was the ideological influence on the population, which was embodied in the temple building. From the moment the first land transport appeared, agriculture and construction began to develop extensively; water transport was of great importance in military campaigns, thanks to which many new territories were developed. In addition, economics, law and medicine were actively developing in Ancient Egypt (the Egyptians achieved great success in the field of anatomy thanks to the embalming technique).

Bibliography

A. Belov, N. Petrovsky. "Country of Big Hapi" Leningrad 1973

2. I.A. Stuchevsky. "Ramses II and Herihor". From the history of Ancient Egypt of the Ramses era "Moscow, 1984.

3. "World History" volume I (chapter: Perepelkin Yu.Ya., "Egypt of the Ancient Kingdom"), Moscow, 1955.

4. Hans Reichardt. "Seven Wonders of the World", 1996

5. A. Erman, "Life in Ancient Egypt"

6. Savelieva T.N., "How the Egyptians lived during the construction of the pyramids", Moscow, 1971.

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