LECTURE 13

FUNDAMENTALS OF THEORETICAL PHONETICS

What is phonetics.

Speech sounds.

Positional changes.

Phoneme system and phonetic system.

1. What is phonetics.The study of the sound side of the language is called phonetics... Without knowing phonetics, one cannot understand modern writing, understand grammar.

Phonetics did not immediately enter the science of language, even in the first half of the 19th century. scientists could hardly distinguish between sounds and letters. The need to compile grammars of indigenous languages \u200b\u200bin the colonies, the study of unwritten dialects and comparative historical descriptions of languages \u200b\u200band their groups moved phonetics forward.

Emerged experimental phoneticsassociated with the use of sound recording instruments, which made it possible not "by ear", but to objectively observe the differences and similarities of sounds. By the end of the XIX century. the successes of experimental phonetics absorbed the study of all other aspects of the sound structure of the language, and phonetics began to be considered as a natural science.

The physics section deals with the general theory of sound - acoustics... From the point of view of acoustics, sound is the result of vibrational movements of a body in any environment, carried out by the action of some driving force and available for auditory perception. Acoustics distinguishes the following features in sound:

- Height.

- Strength, which depends on the vibration amplitude. The larger it is, the stronger the sound.

- Duration or longitude, i.e. the duration of a given sound in time.

- Timbresound, i.e. the individual quality of its acoustic features. The timbre of a sound is a complex phenomenon, containing a fundamental tone and noise (or a combination of them), harmonic overtones (if there is a fundamental tone) and resonator tones.

The set of speech organs forms speech apparatus (it includes: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small uvula, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi - lungs, diaphragm). But the term should be understood conditionally. Language is a social phenomenon, not a biological one, and by nature there are no "organs of speech". All of these organs have direct biological functions as the organs of smell, taste, respiration, food intake and processing. It's created by nature. The use of these organs for the production of speech sounds is entirely the merit of mankind, which gave them an additional "cultural load". Speech apparatus:

The diaphragm, lungs, bronchi and trachea are the source of the air stream, which is used as a driving force in the formation of speech sounds;

Extension tube - oral and nasal cavities - source of overtones and resonator tones; in addition, various noises occur in the oral cavity when the organs are closed and narrowed.

2. Sounds of speech.The work of the speech organs, aimed at producing speech sounds, is called articulation... Articulation consists of three parts: attack(or excursions) sound when organs "go to work", middle part(or excerpts) when the organs are established for a given articulation, and indentation(or recursion) when the organs return to a non-working state.

All sounds can be divided into vowelsand consonants, and this division can come from both acoustic and articulatory signs. Acoustically, speech sounds are divided into sonorous (sonorous) and noisy... Exhalation force ( expiration) is not the same for different kinds of sounds: it is most strongly in deaf consonants (they are called fortes - strong), weaker in voiced consonants (they are called lenes - weak), even weaker in sonorants and, finally, the weakest in vowels. The "weakness" of vowels and most of the sonorant consonants is easy to see if you pronounce them without a voice.

Consonants the sounds of each mode of education can be qualified by place of educationthat will answer the question where? The place of formation is the point at which two organs approach or close on the path of the air stream and where, when directly overcoming an obstacle (explosive, affricate, fricative), noise occurs. When defining consonants with two coordinates - according to the method and place of articulation, it should be remembered that all noisy consonants (i.e. fricative, plosive and affricate) can be pronounced with a voice (voiced) and without a voice (deaf).

Signs characterizing consonants are not suitable for definition vowels.The consonants are clearly subdivided according to the method of formation, while the vowels all belong to the same method - free passage. The consonants can be divided according to the place of formation, vowels have no place of formation, since the organs of speech do not form a gap or a bow on the path of the air stream.

Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally along a number of, that is, for that part of the language that is raised when pronouncing this sound: vowels front row (such as [and], [e], [æ]) and back row (for example, [y], [o], [a]), the middle vowels include Russian [s] and its rounded pair [ý].

Vowels are vertically separated by rise, i.e. by the degree of elevation of a particular part of the tongue. The simplest scheme provides for three lifts: upper(such as [and], [s], [y], [ý]), middle (eg [e], [o], [ö]) and lower Are different a.

The idea of \u200b\u200bsuch a table was proposed by the English phonetician Bell and developed by H. Sweet (1845-1912).

The nine (or 18) cell table is convenient because it is simple and clear, but due to its straightforward schematism, it somewhat distorts the true vowel relationship. The newest phoneticists, criticizing this table, proposed another - in the form of a trapezoid and without internal division into cells - the table of the International Phonetic Association.

Vowels can vary in length. In Russian, vowels do not differ in length; all stressed vowels are longer, and unstressed syllables are shorter.

Speech phonetically represents sound stream or sound chain... This chain breaks down into subordinate links: 1) phrases, 2) measures, 3) syllables, 4) sounds.

- Phrase - this is the largest phonetic unit; phrases are separated in the speech chain pauses, i.e. stopping the sound. The phrase is united by intonation; each spoken phrase has a certain intonation scheme. The phrase breaks down into measures.

- Tact - this is a part of a phrase (one or several syllables), united by one stress. The bars break down into syllables.

- Syllable- a part of a measure, consisting of one or more sounds. Syllables are divided into sounds.

Z speech sound Is a part of a syllable pronounced in one articulation.

3. Positional changes.Since the sounds of speech are not pronounced in isolation, but in the sound chain of coherent speech, the sounds can influence each other, especially neighboring ones.

Changes in sounds (mostly vowels) in unstressed syllables - reduction... Reduction is closely related to stress.

Stress Is the selection of one syllable from a group of syllables. This is achieved in different languages \u200b\u200bby different means:

The strength or intensity of articulation is dynamic stress (otherwise: force, it is also called expiratory); There is a purely dynamic stress in the Czech language, where the stressed syllable is always the first in strength, but it is usually short, and the next unstressed syllable may have longitude; for example ležák - "couch potato".

Pronunciation length is quantitative stress (otherwise: quantitative or longitudinal); Languages \u200b\u200bwith purely quantitative stress are rare. For example, the modern modern Greek language, so is the Russian literary language, where the stressed syllable is always the strongest and the longest.

The movement of the voice tone (ascending, descending or combined) against the background of the neutral tone of other syllables is tonestress (otherwise: melodic, musical). Pure tone stress - in Chinese, Dungan, Korean, japanese; it is often combined with an emphasis on the stressed syllable, as in Norwegian and Swedish.

The place of stress in a word can be fixed and unfixed; thus, in Czech, the stress is always on the first syllable, in Polish - on the penultimate, in most Turkic languages \u200b\u200b- on the last. it single fixed stress. There is a fixed accent, but miscellaneous... Due to the ability to move, stress in Russian plays a large role in grammar, distinguishing grammatical forms, for example: hands - shoots, pour - pouretc.

Accommodation(adaptations) arise between consonants and vowels, usually standing side by side, and consist in the fact that the subsequent sound adapts to the previous one - progressive accommodation, or the previous sound adjusts to the next - regressive accommodation... Accommodations are always a partial adaptation of sounds, since vowels and consonants - sounds of different types and cannot be completely assimilated. AT different languages and in different periods of development of one language they accommodate: consonants to vowels and vowels to consonants.

Assimilation (assimilations) arise between sounds of the same kind (for vowels with vowels, for consonants with consonants) and therefore can be complete, i.e. as a result of assimilation, two different sounds can become completely similar and become the same; therefore one should distinguish between assimilation complete, for example, shoot down\u003e [z''b'it ’], boat\u003e [lótkλ], and incompletefor example, rest\u003e [breathe]\u003e [breathe].

Dissimilation (similarities) arise between sounds of the same type and are based on the opposite tendency of assimilation: from two identical or similar sounds, two different or less similar sounds are obtained. Assimilation and dissimilation are aimed at making pronunciation easier.

Assimilations do not so change the phonetic appearance of the language and are more widely accepted by the literary language; dissimilation dramatically change the phonetic appearance of the language and are more common in irregular speech (dialects, vernacular, children's speech).

4. Phoneme system and phonetic system.The relationship between sound and meaning has long been of interest to scientists. Most often, they tried to establish a direct connection between sounds and meaning. This is the so-called "symbolism of sounds" (Plato, scholastics, J. Grim, W. Humboldt, A. Schleicher). But the sounds of speech, as such, have no meaning and cannot have it.

Linguists of the 19th century stated that sounds and meanings in language exist and develop on their own, the connection between sounds and meanings is limited association... So phonetics was given over to natural sciences. In order not to break the unity of the language, understanding came from theory phonemesor phonology.

Russian science belongs to the priority of the first formulation of the theory of phonemes and the introduction of this term into linguistic use since the 80s. XIX century. Kazan linguistic school, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.V. Krushevsky. Basic provisions on phonemes were developed.

The concepts of "phoneme" and "sound of speech" do not coincide, since a phoneme can consist not only of one sound, but also of two (diphthongs, in English: fly, house).

Phonemes - these are the minimum units of the sound structure of the language, which serve to distinguish the significant units of the language: morphemes, words.

To fulfill this role - folding and distinguishing significant units of the language - phonemes must be opposed to each other in the language system. Such oppositions of phonemes are called opposition.

First of all, each phoneme is opposed to zero, i.e. the absence of this phoneme: cattle-cat, wolf-ox -distinguish different words, chair-chair - forms of one word (or word forms), etc.

Phonemes are the smallest units of a language; they cannot be further divided. A phoneme is a complex phenomenon, since consists of a number of features that do not exist independently, outside of phonemes (voiced, hard, explosive, etc.) Not all features in the composition of phonemes play the same role, some are semantic or word-distinctive; others are indistinguishable.

The same sign of phonemes different languages may have different functional characteristic: in one language it is distinctive (hardness and softness in Russian), in others it is indiscernible (hardness and softness in French).

To establish whether sounds in a language belong to different phonemes or are varieties of one phoneme, it is necessary to put them in the same pronunciation conditions and to establish whether they distinguish meaning without the help of other phonemes - these are different phonemes; if not, they are varieties of one phoneme.

There are no "universal" phonemes. Each language has its own number of phonemes, and the proportions of consonants and vowels.

For language learners, it is not so difficult to master the unusual articulation of sounds (for Russian - English interdental or French and Polish nasal vowels), how to pronounce unusual variations: the speaker involuntarily introduces the usual phonetic norms of his language, which forms accent (Russians stun final voiced consonants at the end of words in English, French, etc.).

He is engaged in the normalization of pronunciation in practical phonetics orthoepy -literally means correct pronunciation (spelling - "correct writing"), denotes a section on pronunciation norms. Only literary pronunciation can be normalized, which is necessary for radio, theater, school.

Auxiliary section - reading rules, i.e. pronouncing instructions for reading letters and their combinations when the letter and language do not correspond to each other.

Lecture number 2

The phonetic system of the Russian language.

Consonants and vowels

Plan

1. Vowel sounds and their classification.
2. Consonants and their classification

Vowel sounds - these are the sounds of speech, during the formation of which the outgoing air stream does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, and therefore, acoustically, they are characterized by the predominance of a musical tone, or voice.

There are 6 vowel sounds in Russian: [a], [o], [e], [i], [s], [y]. They are most clearly heard under stress.

Vowel sounds are characterized by three main features:

1) on the participation of active speech organs- lips - distinguishlabial (labialized - from Latin lip) [o], [y] andnonlabial (non-labialized) [a], [and], [e], [s];

2) at the place of education(movement of the tongue in the oral cavity back and forth):front row [e], [and]; middle row [OU]; when these sounds are formed, the front, middle or back of the tongue are activated, respectively;

3) by way of education(movement of the tongue in the oral cavity vertically: up and down): upper rise [and], [s], [y] (the front, middle or back of the tongue rises up), middle rise [o], [e] (front or the back of the tongue rises slightly), the lower rise [a] (the tongue is in a neutral position, below).

When pronouncing vowels, the shape and volume of the oral cavity can change. These changes depend on the participation or non-participation of the lips and the movement of the tongue vertically (the degree of elevation of the back of the tongue) and horizontal (the place where the back of the tongue rises).

According to the participation of the lips, all vowel sounds are divided into two groups: vowels rounded, or labialized (from Latin labium - lip), - [o], [y] and vowels uncorrupted, or non-labialized, - [and], [e], [ s], [a].

When the sounds [o], [y] are formed, the lips are rounded and extended forward. In the formation of sounds [a], [e], [and], [s] lips do not take an active part. The sound [o] differs from [y] in a lesser degree of stretching and rounding of the lips. This can be easily noticed by muscular sensations, pronouncing in a row, for example, the sounds [a] - [o] - [y].

According to the degree of rise of the back of the tongue, the vowels of the upper, middle and lower rise are distinguished. When the vowels of the upper rise, which include the sounds [and], [s], [y], are formed, the tongue is raised to the greatest extent.

The formation of a lower ascent vowel, which is the sound [a] in Russian, is characterized by a minimal ascent of the language.

Vowels of average rise, which include the sounds [e], [o], in terms of the degree of rise of the tongue, occupy an intermediate position between the vowels of the upper and lower rise.

It is not difficult to replace different degrees of lifting of the tongue by pronouncing in a row, for example, the sounds [y] - [o] - [a].

At the place of the rise of the back of the tongue, vowels of the front, middle and back rows are distinguished.

When the vowels of the front row, which include the sounds [and], [e], are formed, the front part of the back of the tongue moves to the hard palate.

The formation of back vowels - these are the sounds [y], [o] - occurs when the back of the back of the tongue moves to the soft palate.

The vowels of the middle row [s], [a] at the place of the rise of the tongue occupy an intermediate position between the vowels of the front and back rows.

To make sure that the tongue articulates when the front, middle and back vowels are formed in different parts, you can pronounce in a row, for example, the sounds [and] - [s] - [y].

So, depending on the articulation in Russian, six different sounds are clearly perceived by ear: [i], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a].

Vowel table

	Front row	Middle row	Back row
Upper rise	[and]	[s]	[y]
Average rise	[uh]		[about]
Lower rise		[and]
	Unlabialized		Labialized

Table of vowel sounds including reduced ones

	Front row	Middle row	Back row
Upper lift	[and]	[s]	[y]
Upper-middle rise	[and e], [b]	[s uh]
Average rise	[uh]	[b]	[about]
Bottom lift		[a], [Λ]
	Unlabialized		Labialized

Classification of consonants

Sounds of speech, consisting only of noise, or of voice and noise, which are formed in the oral cavity, where the air stream exhaled from the lungs meets various obstacles, are called consonants. The consonants of the Russian language include 37 sound units, each of which, in a certain position, is capable of performing a meaningful function:

1) [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d"], [h], [h "], [n] , [n "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s "];

2) [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [p], [p"];

3) [x], [x "], [x], [w], [q];

4) [h "], [j];

5) [w ̅ "], [f ̅"].

The classification of consonants is based on the opposition of some signs to others. In modern Russian, consonants are divided according to several classification criteria (acoustic and articulatory):

2) at the place of education;

3) by the method of education;

4) by the presence or absence of palatalization ("softening", from the Latin palatum - the sky).

Acoustically, consonants differ in the degree of voice and noise participation. All consonants of the Russian language are divided into sonorous (from the Latin sonorus - sonorous) and noisy.

Sonorous ones are characterized by the fact that in the composition of these sounds the voice prevails over the noise. In modern Russian, these include: [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [p], [p"], [j].

Noisy consonants are characterized by the fact that their acoustic basis is noise, but there are noisy consonants, which are formed not only with the help of noise, but with some participation of the voice. Among the noisy ones, there are noisy deaf and noisy voiced ones.

Noisy bells are generated by noise accompanied by voice. In modern Russian, these include: [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d"], [z], [z "], [f], [f̅ " ].

Noisy deafs are formed with the help of noise, without the participation of the voice. When pronounced, their vocal cords are not tense or swayed. In modern Russian, these include: [k], [k "], [n], [n"], [s], [s "], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x], [q], [h"], [w], [w̅ " ].

Most of the noisy consonants of the Russian language are opposed by voicelessness - voicedness: [b] - [n], [b "] - [n"], [c] - [f], [c "] - [f"], [d] - [t], [q "] - [t"], [z] - [s], [z "] - [s"], [g] - [w], [z] - [k], [ r "] - [k"]; voiceless consonants do not have paired voiced consonants [w̅ "], [q], [x], [x"], [h "].

According to articulatory characteristics, the source is the method of education and the place of education.

1. According to the place of noise formation, according to which speech organs take part in pronunciation, sounds are divided into labial and lingual.

a) Labial consonants, in which the obstruction is formed by the lips or lower lip and upper teeth. In Russian, labial are divided into labial ([b], [p], [m], [b "], [p"], [m "]) and labiodental ([c], [c"] , [f], [f "]).

When lip sounds are formed, the active organ is the lower lip, and the passive organ is either the upper lip (labial sounds) or the upper teeth (labiodental sounds).

b) Depending on what part of the language creates a barrier, lingual consonants are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual.

In Russian, front-lingual ones include [d], [t], [n], [z], [s], [l] and the corresponding soft sounds [d "], [t"], [n "], [ s "], [s"], [l "], as well as [c], [h"], [w], [w̅ "], [f ̅"].

As part of the anterior linguals, there are:

1) dental: [t], [t "], [d], [d"], [s], [s "], [s], [s"], [c], [n], [n "], [l], [l"];

2) palatine-dental: [w], [w̅ "], [w], [w ̅"], [p], [p "], [h"].

The division of the anterior lingual sounds into dental and palatine-dental sounds is made taking into account the passive organ. In this case, either the upper teeth or the base of the upper teeth serve as such a passive organ.

Lingual sounds make up the majority of all consonant sounds: front-lingual sounds are formed with the participation of the front of the back of the tongue; middle tongue - with the participation of the middle part of the back of the tongue; posterior lingual - with the participation of the back of the back of the tongue.

Only [j] applies to the middle language sound.

Back-lingual sounds are [g], [k], [x], [g "], [k"], [x "].

2. According to the method of generating noise, consonants are divided into:

A) Explosive (occlusive), (Why explosive? Explain) when pronounced, there is a complete closure of the speech organs, with the force overcome by the air stream. These are [b], [n], [d], [t], [d], [k] and the corresponding soft variants [b "], [n"], [d "], [t"], [ r "], [k"].

B) Slit (fricative), when pronounced, the speech organs do not close completely, as a result of which a gap is formed through which air passes. Slotted consonants are otherwise called spirants (from the Latin spiro - I breathe). In Russian it is - [in], [in "], [f], [f"], [z], [z "], [s], [s"], [f], [f̅ "], [w], [w ̅"], [x].

C) When pronouncing these consonants, the affricates close the speech organs, forming a barrier, which is then torn apart by air, resulting in a gap. In this case, the closure and rupture are instantaneous. These are the sounds [ch "] and [c]. When pronouncing the sounds [ch"] and [c], it is necessary to strictly preserve two moments of articulation: bows and slits. First, the tip of the tongue closes with the teeth (with the sound [c]) or with the front of the palate (with the sound [h "]), then the air with light explosions opens the speech organs, which forms a gap through which the air goes out with noise, therefore the sound [c] consists, as it were, of the sounds [t] and [s] merged together, and the sound [h "] - of the soft sounds [t"] and [w̅ " ].

D) Trembling consonants, or vibrating, (Why did these consonants get this name? Explain) during the formation of which the active organs of speech vibrate. In Russian, these are the sounds [р] and [р "].

E) Articulated-passable consonants, (Explain why the occlusive-passable consonants received such a name), when pronounced, the organs of speech completely close, but are not interrupted by air, since air passes through the nose or mouth. These are the sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "]. So, when the sounds [l] and [l"] are formed, the front part of the tongue closes with the upper teeth, but between the lateral edges of the tongue and the lateral teeth, gaps are formed through which air exits. Therefore, the sounds [l] and [l "] are called lateral. When the sounds [m] and [m"] are formed, the lips close tightly, and when the sounds [n] and [n "] are formed, the tongue tightly adjoins the upper teeth; but the explosion does not is formed because the air, without breaking the closed organs of speech, comes out through the nose. Therefore, the sounds [m], [m "], [n], [n"] are called nasal.

3. Most of the consonant sounds of the Russian language are opposed to each other on the basis of hardness-softness:

When soft consonants are formed, the accompanying additional movement of the speech organs is added to the main sound-generating movement: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises up to the hard palate, as with the sound [j], as a result of which the consonant acquires a special sound, which we conventionally call soft. They have no pairs and are only hard: [w], [w], [q], only soft: [w̅ "], [w ̅"], [h "], [j].

A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlated in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness.

The correlation of paired sounds is that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound. Wed: rose - dew and roses - grew [grew - grew]. This is how paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [z] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] appear in these positions - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants for voicelessness.

The relative row of voiceless and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants differ in the presence of a voice (voiced) or in its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [p], [p"] [j] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c] , [h "] - unpaired deaf.

Literature:

1. Skripnik Ya.N., Smolenskaya T.M. Phonetics of the modern Russian language. - M., 2010.

4. Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P.A.Lekanta. - M., 2009.

5. Solovyova N.N. Complete reference in Russian: Spelling. Punctuation. Orthoepy. Vocabulary. Grammar. Stylistics. - M .: Peace and Education, 2011.

Internet resources:

1.Textology. Phonetics. http://www.textologia.ru/russkiy/ fonetikafonologia / fonetika /? q \u003d 459

3.Phonetics. http://padeji.ru/fonetika

4. Phonetics, graphics and spelling of the Russian language. Spelling rules, phonetic analysis of the word. http://licey.net/russian/phonetics/part1

5.Phonetics of the Russian language. http://excellence.kz/fonetika-russkogo-yazyka.html

Abstract in Russian

"Phonetic system of the Russian language"

Phonetics - the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).

Without the pronunciation and perception by ear of sounds that make up the sound shell of words, speech communication is impossible. On the other hand, for speech communication, it is extremely important to distinguish the spoken word among others that are similar in sound.

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

1.Phonetic means of the Russian language

The phonetic means of the Russian language include:

Stress (verbal and phrasal)

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [arm], [arm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "and e arb], [bi e arb] (no heat, no ball).

The combination zzh inside the root, as well as the combination zzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [f "]: [by" b] (later), (I drive); [in "and], [draw" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [w] can be pronounced.

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long ["],: [Λ" from] (report), (fkra ъ] (in short) ...

6. Simplifying consonant combinations... The consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. This simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in the combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vst, rdc, lnts: [sleepy], [pozn], [w "and e sl" willow], [g "igansk" and] , [h "ustv], [with" erdz], [sonc] (oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun).

7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants... When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the following word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra or "it"] (raz + quarrel), [ylk] (with a link), [cllo s ] (column + n + th); [Λд "e ki] (Odessa + sk + uy).

v Vowel sounds differ from consonants by the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.

The existing vowel classification takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels:

1) the degree of elevation of the tongue

2) the place of raising the tongue

3) participation or non-participation of the lips.

The most important of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, the state of which determines the quality of the vowel.

According to the degree of vertical ascent of the language, vowels of three degrees of ascent are distinguished: vowels of the upper ascent [i], [s], [y]; vowels of average rise e [e], [o]; lower ascent vowel [a].

The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front row vowels [and], e [e]; middle vowels [s], [a] and back vowels [y], [o].

Participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized (unbroken) [a], e [e], [and], [s].

Modern Russian vowel table literary language

Sound law in the field of vowel sounds.

Vowel reduction... The change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in the remaining unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in the weak position of the second degree are subject to more reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.

Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [b "and f yes] (trouble), etc.

Vowels in the weak position of the second degree: [parlvos] (steam locomotive); [къръглнда] (Karaganda); [k'lkΛla] (bells); [n "l" and e na] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [voice] (exclamation), etc.

Phrazov stress is the emphasis in pronunciation of the most important semantic word within an utterance (phrase); such stress is one of the bars. In the example above, the phrasal stress falls on the word dream. Phrasal stress distinguishes sentences by meaning with the same composition and word order (cf .: Snow is falling and Snow is falling).

Bar and phrasal stress is also called logical.

1.3 Intonation distinguishes between sentences with the same composition of words (with the same place of phrasal stress) (cf .: Is the snow melting and the snow melting?). The intonation of the message, question, urge, etc. is different.

Intonation has an objective linguistic meaning: regardless of the functional loading, intonation always combines words into phrases, and without intonation, phrases do not exist. Subjective differences in the intonation of a phrase have no linguistic significance.

Intonation is closely related to other levels of the language, and, above all, to phonology and syntax.

Intonation is related to phonology by the fact that it belongs to the sound side of the language and that it is functional, but what distinguishes it from phonology is that intonation units have semantic significance in and of themselves: for example, ascending intonation is mainly correlated with interrogativeness or incompleteness of the utterance. The relationship between intonation and sentence syntax is not always straightforward. In some cases, the grammatical patterns on which the utterance is built may have a typical intonation design. So, sentences with a particle

[and e]
[l "and e juice]

[s uh]
[shy e stock]

[and]
[so]

[s]
[dust l "it]

[u]
[n "ul" it "]

[s]
[zhyrok]

[y]
[lesson]

[y]
[there]

[y]
[with "oud]

[y]
[noise "et"]

Phoneme variants<а>, <о>, <е> of the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants coincide with the variants of these phonemes at the absolute beginning of the word. These are the sounds [Λ], [s e].

The exception is the phoneme<и>, which at the absolute beginning of the word is realized by the sound [and]: [Ivan], and in the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants - by the sound [s]: [s-yvanm].

Variants of vowel phonemes of the second pre-stressed syllable... In all pre-stressed syllables, except for the first, weak vowel phonemes are in a weak position of the second degree. This position has two varieties: I - after a paired hard consonant and II - after a soft consonant. After a solid consonant, the vowel phonemes are realized by the sounds [b], [s], [y]; after soft - sounds [b], [and], [y]. For example: [b] - [b'rΛban], [k'l'kΛla], [s] - [help out "], [y] - [murlev" ê], [b] - [ptΛchok], [and] - [k "isllt] , [y] - [l "are good].

Vowel phoneme variants for stressed syllables... Weak vowel phonemes of post-stressed syllables differ in the degree of reduction: the weakest reduction is observed in the final open syllable. There are two positions of weak phonemes in post-stressed syllables: after hard consonants and after soft consonants.

The system of variants of vowel phonemes of post-stressed syllables is presented in the table.

After hard consonants		After soft consonants
In a non-finite syllable	In the final syllable	In a non-finite syllable	In the final syllable
[s] - [and] [squeeze out] - (survived) [squeeze] - (squeezed out)	[s] - [b] [naked] - (naked) [goal] - (naked)	[and] - [b] [bud "ût" b] - (wake up) [will "be" b] - (will)	[and] - [b] [with "ûн" them] - (in blue) [with "ûн" ьm] - (blue)
		[b] - [b] [kl "äch" um "and] - (nags) [cl "äch" ъm "and] - (nags)	[b] - [b] [kl "äh" lm] - (to the nags) [kl "äch" ym] - (to the nags)
[y] [to the body] - (body)	[y] [body] - (body)	[y] [floor "ear] - (across the pole)	[y] [popal "y] - (on the field)

As the table shows, after solid consonants there are different vowels [s], [b], [y]; and the sounds [s] and [b] are weakly opposed. After soft consonants, the vowels [and], [b], [b], [y] are distinguished; and the sounds [u] - [b], [b] - [b] differ by weak differentiation.

Mena of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms phonemic row... So, vowel phonemes, identical in place in the morpheme kos-, form a phonemic row<о> - <Λ> - <ъ>: [braids] - [кΛса] - [късΛр "and], and the consonant phoneme<в> morphemes becoming- starts a phonemic row<в> - <в"> - <ф> - <ф">: [statutes] - [statutes "it"] - [ustaf] - [ustaf "].

The phonemic row is an essential element of the structure of the language, since the identity of the morpheme is based on it. The composition of phonemes of one and the same morpheme always corresponds to a certain phoneme series. The instrumental inflections in the words window and sad [Λkn] - [sadm], water and mod-oh [vΛdo] - [mod] are pronounced differently. However, these inflections ([-om] - [-ъм], [-o] - [b]) are one and the same morpheme, since phonemes change in their composition<о> and<ъ>included in one phonemic row.

Output

Thus, the phonetic system of the Russian language consists of significant units of speech:

§ word forms

§ phrases and sentences

to convey and distinguish, which are the phonetic means of the language:

Ø stress

Ø intonation.

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Practical lesson number 10

Phonetics. Graphics. System of sounds of the Russian language

1. Phonetics. Graphics. Spelling.

2. Basic units and concepts of the phonetic system of the Russian language.

3. Classification of vowel sounds.

4. Classification of consonants.

Methodical materials

Language exists in two material forms - oral and written. Oral existence linguistic meanings transmitted by sound units (sounds), and in writing - using graphic units (letters).

The smallest unit of speech flow is sound ... Sounds make up certain combinations with each other, form sound speech, with the help of which we transmit information to each other.

Speech sounds do not exist in isolation. They form certain connections with each other and form a system. In addition to sounds, this system includes other elements, but the basic unit of a sound system is sound.

Under the term phonetics (phone - sound, voice, tone) the sound system of the language is understood, i.e. first of all, its sounds, but not only them, but their phonetic alternations, various types of stress and other issues related to the sound design of speech.

Phoneticsalso - the science of the sound side of language, which studies the methods of formation of speech sounds, their changes in the speech stream, their role and the functioning of language as a means of communication between people.

Knowledge of sound laws is necessary when studying the written form of the language, which is described graphics and spelling.

For Russian spelling, the main thing is the phonemic principle of writing, not phonetic, i.e. spelling rules sometimes operate contrary to pronunciation, taking into account the phonemic, traditional and differentiating principle. This makes the relationship between phonetics and spelling very complex.

Basic units and concepts of the phonetic system of the Russian language

The minimum phonetic unit, not further divisible by sensory perception, is sound... P sound is a set of physiological and acoustic signs, which are divided into differential and nondifferential, constant and non-constant.

Sound as the shortest material unit corresponds to an abstract linguistic concept phonemes, which is the central concept of phonology.

Phonology operates with the concepts of phoneme position (strong and weak), phonetic law and phonetic process (accommodation, assimilation, stunning at the end of a word, reduction).

As a result of the action of phonetic processes, an external transformation of the same phoneme occurs. That's what it is phonetic changes or phonetic exchange of sounds. When phonetic changes occur phonetic alternations, which should be distinguished from historical alternations.

Phonetic alternations of the same phoneme create a special phonological unit - phonemic row.

Sounds in the process of speech are not used in isolation, but in close connection with other sounds, forming together with them sound complexes of different volume, characteristics and purpose, or segments.

The next level after the sound of such a complex is syllable- a special sound unit formed either by one sound, or by a combination of several sounds. The syllable is the minimum pronunciation unit. Even at the slowest rate of speech, we can only speak in syllables and not in sounds. Learning to read is based on this.

Syllables are constituent elements of a more complex phonetic unit - phonetic word... A phonetic word is several syllables united by one word stress.

Phonetic words, when combined, form speech beats, of which the largest sound elements are composed - phonetic phrases... A phrase is a complete statement. It is a syntactic unit and is equal to a simple sentence. A speech beat is a part of a phrase that is pronounced with one breath. This is an intonationally complete unit. It is separated from the next bar by a pause. Consists, as a rule, of 3 words or less. A speech tact is a certain "grouping" of members of a sentence.

For example: He didn't understand / why Zhenya was laughing //.

All sound elements - sounds, syllables, phonetic words, speech bars, phonetic phrases - are the subject of the study of phonetics, which studies their structure, formation, signs, purpose and function in the speech stream.

The subject of phonetics is also verbal, phrasal, bar, logical stress and intonation as special properties sound speech, understood as a kind of sound elements.

All phonetic elements are usually divided into: 1) linear or segmental language units; 2) non-linear or super-segmented language units.

TO linearmaterial sound units include: sounds, syllables, phonetic words, speech bars, phonetic phrases. Their essence lies in their materiality, and in the fact that in the speech stream they are sequentially located one after another. Two segments cannot be pronounced at the same time.

Non-linear (super-segmented) phonetic elements are all types of stress and intonation. Their signs are: - immateriality; -independence. As a property of linear elements, super-segmented elements are superimposed on linear segments and exist with them.

Abstract in Russian

"Phonetic system of the Russian language"

Phonetics is the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).

Without the pronunciation and perception by ear of sounds that make up the sound shell of words, speech communication is impossible. On the other hand, for speech communication, it is extremely important to distinguish the spoken word among others that are similar in sound.

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

1.Phonetic means of the Russian language

The phonetic means of the Russian language include:

Stress (verbal and phrasal)

Intonation.

1.1 The shortest, minimum, indivisible sound unit, which stands out during the sequential sound division of a word, is called sound of speech.

The sounds of speech have a different quality and therefore serve as a means for distinguishing words in the language. Often, words differ in just one sound, the presence of an extra sound in comparison with another word, the order of the sounds.

For example: jackdaw - pebble,

fight - howl,

mouth is a mole,

nose - sleep.

The traditional classification of speech sounds is to divide them into consonants and vowels.

- Consonant sounds differ from vowels by the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity when pronouncing.

The consonants differ:

2) at the place of noise generation,

3) by the method of generating noise,

4) by the absence or presence of softness.

Participation of noise and voice... According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorous consonants are called consonants formed with a voice and slight noise: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d"], [g], [

"], [h], [h"],,, formed by noise involving voice. Noisy voiceless consonants include: [n], [n "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s "] , [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], formed with only one noise, without the participation of a voice.

Place of noise generation... Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, the consonants can be labial [b], [n] [m] and labiodental [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Front-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [z], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-dental [h], [w], [g], [p] ; middle-lingual - middle palatine; posterior lingual - posterior palatine [g], [k], [x].

Noise generation methods... Depending on the difference in the methods of generating noise, the consonants are divided into stopping [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], slotted [c], [f], [c], [z ], [w], [w], [x], affricates [c], [h], occlusive-anadromous: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrant) [ R].

Hardness and softness of consonants... The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (lat. Palatum - hard palate) is the result of the middle palatal articulation of the language, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds produced with this additional articulation are called soft, and those without it are called hard.

A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlated in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds is that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound.

For example: rose - dew and roses - grew [grew - grew].

This is how paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [z] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] appear in these positions - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants for voicelessness.

The correlative series of voiceless and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants differ in the presence of a voice (voiced) or in its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [p], [p"] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c], [h "] - unpaired deaf.

The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:

The composition of consonants, taking into account the deafness-voiced correlation, is shown in the following table

Paired	Unpaired
Voiced	b b "c" d d "e e" g h z "	l l "m m" n n "r p"
Deaf	p p "f f" k k "t t" sh s s "	x c h

"], ["] - long hissing, paired with deafness-voicedness; Wed [draw "and], [" and]).

The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, and do not differ in others, which leads to the presence of a relative series of hard and soft sounds in the consonant system. So, before the vowel [o], [l] - [l "] differ (compare: lot - ice [lot - l" from], and before the sound [e], not only [l] - [l "], but also other paired hard-soft sounds (compare: [l "es], [c" es], [b "es], etc.).

Long and double consonants. In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonant sounds - soft hissing [

"] and ["] (yeast, cabbage soup). These long hissing sounds are not opposed to the sounds [w], [w], which are unpaired solid. As a rule, long consonants in Russian are formed only at the junctions of morphemes and are a combination of sounds. For example, in the word rationality [рΛ udk] a long sound arose at the junction of the prefix times- and the root sud-, cf .: [пΛ "elk"], [yl], [l "ö" ik] (fake, sewn, pilot). The sounds that arise in these cases cannot be defined as long, since they are devoid of a distinctive function, are not opposed to short sounds.In essence, such "long" sounds are not long, but double.

Cases of long consonants (quarrel, yeast, etc.) in the roots of Russian words are rare. Words with double consonants in the roots are usually foreign languages \u200b\u200b(telegram, gamma, antenna, etc.). Such words in a live pronunciation lose their vowel length, which is often reflected in modern spelling (literature, attack, corridor, etc.).

Sound laws in the field of consonants:

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word... A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as its corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goats - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are deafened: the load is sadness, the entrance is the entrance [пΛдjст], etc.

The stunning of the final ringing occurs under the following conditions:

1) before a pause: [pr "ishol pojst] (a train came); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with an initial not only voiceless, but also a vowel, sonorous, as well as [j] and [v]: [prf he ], [our sat], [slap jа], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your race.) Sonorous consonants are not stunned: litter, they say, lump, he.

2. Assimilation of consonants by voicing and voicelessness... Combinations of consonants, of which one is voiceless and the other voiced, are not typical of the Russian language. Therefore, if in a word there are two consonants different in voicedness, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.

By virtue of this law, voiced consonants in front of deaf ones turn into paired deafs, and deaf ones in the same position - into voiced ones. Sounding of voiceless consonants is less common than stunning voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (bow - dushka), [v "and e with" t "and - in" and e with "t" and] (carry - lead), [fp "ьr" and em "eshku - fp" lr "and em" eshku] (alternately - mixed).

Before the sonorous ones, as well as before [j] and [in], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λтjest] (departure), yours, yours.