Morphology is the science of the behavior of a word, manifested in two aspects: in the aspect of interaction with other words and in the aspect of the expressed meaning.
The concept of a grammatical method (already a morphological method), or morphological technique, is associated with the opposition of grammar and vocabulary.
Both vocabulary and grammatical units are signed, that is, they combine form (expression) and content (meaning, meaning, semantics).
In grammar, however, the selection of a unit turns out to be a very nontrivial procedure. Moreover, the grammatical units themselves, due to regularity and obligation grammatical meanings, not self-sufficient, they are a manifestation of grammatical methods, techniques, types of expression.
The grammatical method is associated with linguistic typology, with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe grammatical structure of the language. The method is associated with the tool. A method is a certain mechanism, and a means is a material, more precisely, a sign unit.
Can be distinguished 5 main morphological ways used in modern Russian literary language. What makes them basic is that they have a segmental expression, that is, with the exception of "isolation" as immutability, a material carrier of grammatical meaning or its position can be presented. Moreover, these methods are used very regularly.
1. The inflectional method (inflectional). The means used in this method is flexion. Flexion - systemic morpheme. This means that if there is a position for inflection in a word, then it must be filled in. In this case, different filling in the general case expresses different meanings, opposed to each other as particulars, together forming a common, single meaning. The particular values \u200b\u200bin the aggregate exhaustively exhaust this general meaning. Thus, inflection is actual, in a statement, it acts and there is one, but potentially, in a paradigm, a word or a system of forms has at least two inflections.
The second feature of inflection is its ability to express several particular meanings at once. Thus, the inflection of a noun expresses at the same time the particular meaning of number and case. The inflectional inflection paradigm is, as a rule, a two-dimensional matrix, in which all word forms are opposed to each other.
Since inflection expresses several meanings at once, it cannot be said that potentially, in the language system, a particular grammatical meaning is expressed by only one inflection or one word form. Therefore, for inflectional languages, a special term is required denoting a part of a paradigm that collectively expresses a particular grammatical meaning within the categorical meaning. Such a term exists: it is a grammeme, a series of forms united by a particular grammatical meaning and opposed to other series of forms expressing other particular meanings within the categorical meaning. For example, the grammeme of the genitive noun spring consists of word forms spring and springsopposed to other case grammes. Therefore, it is theoretically incorrect to say that the preposition in fit with form the accusative case of a noun, there are two such forms, it is correct to say that it is combined with the gramme of the accusative case of the noun.
Inflection, thus, expresses all the grammatical meanings necessary for the full functioning of the word, being, as it were, a closing morpheme, complementing the agrammatical or not fully grammatical basis to a full-fledged word form. This leads to what E. Sapir called fusion: fusion, merging of stem and inflection into a single word form, perceived as an integral unit. Therefore, in the school practice of declension, it is not a base with a matrix that includes the entire set of inflections, but a matrix that includes word forms of a word.
In addition, a feature of the inflectional method is that it expresses the categories of dependence, that is, the subordination of a word to other words in the syntagma, forming syntactic links.
2. Agglutination - joining to the root, stem or inflection of an affix that has one grammatical meaning: suffix, prefix (prefix), postfix. The attached affix expresses this meaning, the absence of the affix indicates that this meaning is not present or the meaning attributed to the word "default" is taken.
The means of agglutination are grammatical suffixes, postfixes and, to a lesser extent and with less obviousness, prefixes.
In agglutinative languages, inflection is the addition to the root (or stem) of a series of agglutinative affixes, each of which carries the same meaning. There are two problems with this:
1) the problem of the integrity of the word, the presence of an explicit border between the root, which can be used independently, and the sequence of affixes. In the Altai languages, this problem is solved by the so-called vowel harmony: the vowels of all affixes take the same row (or lift) as the vowels of the root are characterized;
2) the problem of the order of the affixes one after another, in connection with which the grammar of agglutinative languages \u200b\u200bis called the grammar of orders.
In inflectional Russian, agglutination is rare and extremely irregular. It is consistently used only in the verbal word and adjective. The categories formed by it have a controversial morphological status: type, voice, degree of comparison. The only exception is, perhaps, only the expression of the number in the imperative of the verb using the postfix -those: go - go those , let's go - let's go those .
Agglutinative affixes mark, as a rule, systems of forms that are completely opposed to each other, for example, participles opposed to other systems of verb forms, or a grammeme of the past tense of the indicative mood, opposed to grammemes of other tenses, or isolated word forms that are not capable of inflectional change, for example, infinitive or verb participle, analytical (unchangeable) comparative of an adjective.
3. Analyticism. A. Schleicher divided languages \u200b\u200binto three morphological types (systems): isolating, agglutinating and inflectional. A more formal quantitative classification used the concepts of analyticism, synthetism, and polysyntheticism, given the existence of incorporating languages.
There are two non-mutually exclusive types of analyticism:
- "Isolation", immutability, widely represented, for example, in Chinese.
- The use of official words, which is typical, for example, for modern English.
In modern Russian, both possibilities are used: a) the composition of unchangeable words is constantly being replenished, including adverbs, nouns and, less often, analytical adjectives, the question of the existence of which was raised but not resolved by M.V. Panov, b) four large classes of service words are used and are also replenished: prepositions, conjunctions, particles and bundles.
4. Suppletivism. The means of this curious, from the point of view of the organization of the language, and asystemic method is the root, the change of which, often in combination with affixes, contrasts part of the word forms with another part of the word forms within the grammatical category. Since for a native speaker the root is the material basis of the word, the guarantor of its unity and integrity, Suppletivism is found in the most archaic and most frequent part of the vocabulary, which is acquired during the inconscious period of life. However, there are also supplementary formations that are quite late in terms of the existence of the language, for example, the pronoun of the 3rd person: he / Æ – th... Etymologically, the nominative gramme has the base of the demonstrative pronoun on, and grammes of indirect cases go back to the demonstrative pronoun and... Nevertheless, this relatively new phenomenon in our language corresponds to the general tendency towards suppletivism in the system of personal pronouns.
One case of suppletivism - in a species pair put over the course of several generations, it has caused a whole war between “elite” and “democratic” native speakers: the democratically-minded part of the Russian language community demands the elimination of suppletivism and does not pay attention to the norm.
5. Syntagmatic method. This method is associated with language redundancy. The expression of some categories in the language is duplicated. This is primarily due to agreement, that is, assimilation of the dependent word to the main one in the syntagma. The categories of dependence / assimilation / agreement are gender, number and case. For example, in the statement I pulled up in a beige taxi meaning of number, gender and case of an unchangeable noun taxi are expressed in an adjective consistent with it.
However, in addition to grammatical agreement, often of a formal nature, there is the so-called semantic, or semantic, agreement, in which the semantic components coincide in the words that make up the syntagma. For example, in the statement We were in the city where the writer spent his childhood immutable pronoun where with spatial meaning agrees with the noun citysemantically.
Thus, in addition to the affix expression within a word, grammatical meanings are often expressed in adjacent significant words, by their affixes (with formal agreement) or by the lexemes themselves with identical semantic components. The first case presents an obvious syntagmatic expression, while the second case is less obvious.
Auxiliary methods, the action of which is not associated with segmental, material means and / or irregular, include
- word order: Mother (Them.) loves daughter (Vin.);
- accentuation, verbal and phrasal, So, verbs run throughand run, having a different form, differ in terms of expression in most forms only by stress.
- repetition (reduplication), which in Russian is a word-formation method, for example, red-red means 'very red'.
Petrukhin. E. V.
Russian morphology is usually described in the system of parts of speech, but there is also a description of the “categorical” morphology of the Russian language. For example, in the Prague "Russian Grammar" (1979) morphological categories are described not by parts of speech, but by the "bundles" in which they appear in different parts of speech. For example, the gender category is considered in one section as a category of nouns (“inconsistent non-pronouns”), pronouns and “concordant words” (adjectives, participles, past tense and subjunctive) [i].
The grammatical (morphological) category is formed by homogeneous (i.e., united by a general category meaning) opposed (both in form and in meaning) series of morphological forms. The categorical meaning of one of the opposed series of morphological forms is the grammeme. So, the forms of the number of nouns with the help of endings express grammemes of the singular or plural, which are the implementation of the general category meaning of the number. In a number of works, the grammatical category is considered only from the point of view of content - as a semantic category of the grammatical type, representing a set of homogeneous grammes.
In Russian (as in other inflectional synthetic languages), meanings opposed within the framework of one category cannot be expressed in one word form, that is, grammemes are mutually exclusive. For example, a noun can contain either singular or plural inflection, and a verb can express either the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person. In other words, "the grammatical meaning of a word form can contain no more than one grammeme of the same grammatical category" [v].
However, the principle of mutual exclusion for grammatical meanings is not universal for all languages. According to experts in the languages \u200b\u200bof Southeast Asia, the mutual exclusion of grammes is generally uncharacteristic for the grammatical categories of isolating languages \u200b\u200b- Chinese, Thai, Khmer. Forms of one category in isolating languages \u200b\u200b"are contrasted not because they convey mutually exclusive meanings, but because they carry different meanings." Also in English, formal indicators of opposed tenses of the past and the future are compatible, cf. "Future in the past" (would work). The indicators of Perfect and Continuous (have been working) forms are also compatible, which in some works are considered forms of time, in others - forms of the species. If we consider the mutual exclusion of grammars to be a universal mandatory feature of the grammatical category, then it must be admitted that the English forms Past and Future (as well as Perfect and Continuous) are included in different grammatical categories. VA Plungyan comes to this conclusion, considering the future time outside the category of time. An analysis of the semantics and use of forms of the present and future tense in the Russian language shows that the interpretation of the future outside the grammatical category of time is unacceptable for the Russian language.
Morphological categories can be polynomial structures (compare, for example, the category of case in Russian) or binomial, binary, organized according to the principle of opposition (compare verb form). Among the morphological categories, categories with a nominative component of meaning are distinguished and categories without such a component are non-dominant. The first include categories that represent and interpret objects of the extra-linguistic world or relations between them: quantitative relations of objects, the degree of manifestation of a feature, reality or unreality of an action, its relation to the moment of speech, the speaker and other participants in the act of speech, etc .; such are, for example, the categories of the number of nouns, the degree of comparison of adjectives, the verb categories of mood, tense, person, type. Non-nominal categories are realized syntagmatically - in syntactic compatibility, that is, through the forms of matched words (for example, the category of the gender of nouns) or depending on the grammatical features of the words with which these forms agree (categories of gender, number and case of adjectives)
As part of the morphological categories of the Russian language there are inflectional categories, the members of which are forms of the same word (for example, the verbal categories of mood, tense, person), and non-word (or classifying) categories, whose members are forms of different words (for example, category of the kind of verb). Formation as the formation of grammatical forms of a word is represented by 1) inflection, or the formation of inflectional-synthetic forms (for example, personal forms of the verb); 2) the formation of analytical grammatical forms such as I will work, I would work; 3) correlative forms of different words (for example, the forms of the verbs SV and NSV).
Within the parts of speech, lexico-grammatical categories are also distinguished, reflecting the interaction of vocabulary and grammar. These are subclasses of words of a particular part of speech, which are characterized by a common element of lexical meaning, which determines their grammatical properties. For example, the following verbal lexico-grammatical categories are distinguished: transitive and intransitive verbs (determining the possibility or impossibility of the formation of passive forms); personal / impersonal verbs (having a different set of forms of the category of a person); limit / non-limit (or, in other terminology, terminative / non-terminative) verbs that affect the formation of species pairs. Lexico-grammatical categories differ from grammatical categories in the absence of a general categorical meaning, which has specific realizations in individual categories, and in the absence of a system of morphological forms for expressing these realizations.
Semantic types of morphological oppositions
Morphological oppositions that form grammemes of binomial (binary) morphological categories, by analogy with phonological oppositions, are divided into privative, equipolent and gradual. These concepts, transferred to the field of morphology from phonology, differ from the corresponding phonological concepts. Morphological oppositions as two-dimensional formations with a plan of expression and content have a more complex structure than one-dimensional phonological correlations.
Members of the privative opposition differ in the presence / absence of one semantic feature, which is called correlative. A marked member of the privative opposition always expresses this sign. An unmarked member of the opposition does not express it and therefore has a semantic duality: it can deny a correlative feature, expressing the opposite meaning, or remain neutral to a correlative feature - not express or deny it. Accordingly, an unmarked member of the privative opposition can replace the marked one, acting as its synonym in the position of neutralization. According to the principle of privative opposition in the Russian language, a categorical opposition is organized between SV and NSV. Members of the equipolent opposition are logically equal - both members are labeled in relation to the correlative feature, expressing or denying it, therefore the opposition cannot be neutralized (in Russian, according to the principle of equipolent opposition, for example, the opposition of animate and inanimate nouns is organized). Gradual oppositions, as the opposition of members of a series, characterized by different degrees (gradations) of the same feature, in Russian morphology are represented in the system of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives and adverbs.
VA Plungyan expresses the opinion that grammatical meanings form only equipolent oppositions, and only derivational meanings can enter into privative oppositions [x]. A different understanding of the privative opposition is due to the fact that in the position of neutralization its members are not complete synonyms, since, without differing in relation to the correlative feature, they are filled with different interpretational or pragmatic content. For example, the opposition in the number of nouns is neutralized when, with unreferential use, the singular form appears with a generalized generic meaning (such as Whale - a mammal) or a generalized collective meaning (Moscow spectator is demanding), and the plural form with a generalized plural meaning (Whales - mammals; Moscow spectators are demanding). At the same time, different forms of number differ in the interpretation of the same meaning: the singular form represents a genus of animals or a set of persons through their generalized representative, and the plural form as a segmented, but limited set. If such interpretative meanings are taken into account, then complete neutralization really never occurs. However, the type of opposition is determined in relation to categorical semantics, which in this case presupposes the opposition of singularity / plurality, which is not realized in the position of neutralization.
Specificity of grammatical meaning
Differences between grammatical meaning and lexical and word-formation meanings. Grammatical meanings (grammemes) in Russian are characterized by a number of features that distinguish them from lexical and derivational meanings: standard morphemic means of expression (inflection for inflectional categories); obligatory expression; predictability for a given class of tokens; regular opposition to other grammes of this category; "Lack of independence" (grammatical meaning accompanies lexical meaning); decreased communicative awareness (intentionality); influence on the grammatical forms of the surrounding words in the utterance and participation in the rules for constructing syntactic structures. For grammes of inflectional categories, independence or weak dependence on the lexical meaning of a word is also characteristic, as, for example, for the case of nouns or the tense of a verb.
In all typologies of a person, two main tendencies can be traced: 1) The type of person is ultimately determined by the peculiarity of the functioning of his endocrine glands. Hence, high and low, muscular and with abundant fat deposition, plastic and dysplastic "types". 2) The type of person is not due to the peculiarity of the functioning of the endocrine glands. Its formation is influenced by many factors, in addition to hormones: genetic predetermination, social factors, nutrition, mineral salts, even a geographical factor (for example, the abundance of vegetation, the sun).
According to these trends, in morphogenesis (endocrine and polymorphic), researchers also explain various human deformities. Above we mentioned cretinism and dwarfs. Both stationary pathology can be the result of improper functioning of the endocrine glands. So, dwarf morphology is included in the group of "systematized" dysmorphias, among which the most famous is achondroplasia, caused by early ossification of cartilaginous growth zones of long bones, followed by shortening of the limbs and dwarf body height with relatively good development of the trunk, skull, arms and legs. At the same time, the intellect can be unaffected and even high, and the personality is preserved. Only the character of the dwarf undergoes deformation, which can be explained by purely social reasons. Nowadays, due to the development of genetic engineering, the appearance of dwarfs can be prevented in the embryo.
Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Durer, not knowing anything about hormones and genetics, nevertheless carefully studied disharmonious faces and physiques. The dwarfs attracted the attention of many artists. For example, Velazquez painted magnificent portraits of the court dwarf and jester. This was done along with the search for mathematical formulas for the ideal proportions of the human body. The Renaissance had "standards" for the ideal average type of person. Here they are:
Height - various sizes;
Chest circumference \u003d 1/2 height;
Height of the sternum \u003d 1/5 of the circumference of the chest;
Abdominal height \u003d 2/5 chest circumference;
Distance xiphoid process - umbilicus \u003d distance umbilicus - pubic articulation \u003d 1/5 of the circumference of the chest;
Distance between the ilia \u003d 4/5 of the abdominal height.
Various combinations of these proportions are possible, therefore, different body structures.
It has always been much more difficult with character morphology. Hippocrates left a description of only one character - hysterical, with its detailed morphology. At present, characterology and its morphogenesis have been significantly enriched. True, in contrast to the structure of the body, one can hardly speak of an "ideal character." With regard to psychosomatic characterology, there is not even a concept of norm ("normal" character). It is no coincidence that all types of characters have the same names as psychopathies ("normal" characters and pathological characters are called the same). Transitional types - accentuated characters - also have the same names as "normal" characters. In addition, there are also the so-called premorbid and postmorbid types of characters. Premorbid is a character that is found at the beginning or in the course of any disease. Postmorbid is a person's character that remains after an illness. Both postmorbid and premorbid are also called "normal" characters and differ from them only in their structure.
The coincidence of body structure with characterological properties is clearly observed in the so-called dysplastic individuals, in whom, for various reasons, all body proportions are disturbed from birth (for example, an excessively large head, short arms, long legs and a short torso). In such people, the character (like all psychosomatics) is disproportionate: the development of some character traits prevails over others, or character traits that normally exclude each other, in a dysplastic case coexist. The same goes for the intellectual-emotional structure. Intelligence can be high due to one extremely developed trait. For example, through abstract thinking. Moreover, in ordinary life, such a person can give the impression of an infantile or oligophrenic.
Moving on to considering the psychosomatic characterology proper, we note that we adhere to the "working" classification used by modern psychiatrists, medical psychologists and psychosomatics of various schools and in different countries. Psychosomatic constitutions are divided into the following morphological types: 1. Asthenic. 2. Psychasthenic. 3. Hysterical. 4. Cyclothymic. 5. Epileptoid. 6. Rigid or paranoid. 7. Affectively unstable. 8. Schizoid. 9. Anxious and suspicious. 10. Dysplastic.
So, 1. Asthenic type. This is a genetically weak biotype. Weakness of this type also concerns his body, and his character, and his mental characteristics, up to the "energy" of intelligence (low intelligence or dementia have a different origin and a different structure, not associated with the causes of asthenia; although the asthenic type can, of course, be weak-minded and with insufficiently developed intelligence, like any other types), weak will and weak personality. It is not possible to associate the asthenic type with any of the above body types (like all subsequent morphological types). An asthenic can be a tall person or a short one; with pronounced musculature (although incapable of sustained effort) and with undeveloped musculature. Asthenic can be both digestive and cerebral (this applies to all biotypes). Asthenics are complex natures (from birth they have to fight with reality for survival and protect themselves from its super-strong influences). No matter how the asthenic adapts to social conditions, he has periods of compensation and decompensation ("relaxation"). Therefore, the asthenic personality with its periods of "good" and "bad" state resembles another biotype - cyclothymics. In general, the formed asthenic type (by about 20 years old and up to 40-50 years old) functions not from the side of its weak complexes, but from the side of psychological defense (asthenic traits can be far hidden by the personality). If the psychological defense is well developed and represents a complex mechanism of self-regulation, then the asthenic personality can redistribute his “weakness” in various mental spheres: sensory, emotional, affective, intellectual, volitional, behavioral, from a psychoanalytic point of view, then displacing “asthenia” into the unconscious , then filling it with some part of consciousness and self-consciousness, "I" and "super-I". This is how the psychological defense of the asthenic type "works" when it is compensated. In a state of decompensation, the transverts of asthenia (that is, its redistribution and transfer within the mental structure) are violated; an asthenic "stumbles" on something and gets stuck. This looks, for example, as emotional incontinence ("stuck" on emotional weakness), excessive suggestibility and obedience to other people (volitional weakness), up to pseudo-disintegration, when a personality or self-consciousness is seized by asthenia (real disintegration is characteristic only of one biotype - schizotimal, or schizoid).
An asthenic personality constantly, in any life situations, even in everyday and repetitive ones, has to "not lose self-control" and "keep his will in his fist", and himself - "under control." Therefore, life for this type is almost always stress. When age-related decompensation sets in (in "hot spots of the biography"), the asthenic may break down and resort to extreme forms of behavior. For example, to escapism (escape from reality): a change of place of residence, work, family, "withdrawal" into an illness, rather an imaginary one, or into an asthenic neurosis. Among asthenic individuals, suicide is extremely rare, although thoughts about suicide are visited by them, perhaps more often than others. In desperation, an asthenic can commit murder and is very susceptible to induced crimes. (Modern so-called serial murders and rapes are committed, according to forensic psychiatric examinations, by asthenic personalities; ridiculous executions of their colleagues in the army are also committed by asthenic personalities). Decompensation makes asthenic personalities alcoholics, drug addicts (they often become drug addicts, resorting to medications or any other drugs as stimulants), drug addicts and erotomaniacs. Pedophiles are also most often asthenics.
In general, the behavior of the asthenic biotype is such that it is constantly always and everywhere (even alone with himself!) Has to prove that he is a “strong personality”. Asthenic individuals are often involved in the most dangerous sports (mountaineering, motorcycle racing, mountain slalom, boxing, etc.). Asthenic has to constantly regulate his life energy and his strength. From childhood he learns that he easily gets tired of both physical and mental work. The more he gives strength, for example, to physical activity, the less he will be able to spend energy on mental activities. In schools, asthenics, as a rule, are exempted from physical education. They study mainly on "3" points. So they can go through life with "C grade" students, study in higher educational institutions, acquire a profession. They are not bad family men, they are attached to the family, on whose members they shift their personal responsibilities. Asthenic women rarely give birth to more than one child. Raising a child often pulls them out of public life, because it requires them to give them full strength. With high intelligence and good psychological protection, a well-developed mechanism for regulating efforts, an asthenic can live life, as they say now, very qualitatively. But any serious illness, physical or mental trauma can easily break the asthenic personality, turning a person into a disabled person (chronicling the state of decompensation).
2. Psychasthenic type. During the time of the hippie movement in the USA, psychological (according to the MMPI method) and psychiatric studies, which were carried out among selected groups of representatives of hippies, showed that about 53% of them were psychasthenic personalities. According to one of the leaders of the hippie, "he went to the hippie, because life for him has always been a continuous strain." Constant internal tension is the core experience of the psychasthenic.
Representatives of the psychasthenic type can have any bodily constitution. Tall and muscular people are often found among them. They can have remarkable muscle strength. They prefer physical labor to any mental and emotional-volitional pursuits. They are "bum" who are easy to manage. Depending on the level of intelligence and personality, they manage (or fail) to adapt to themselves. Therefore, the lifestyle and activity of psychasthenics can be very different. Some barely manage to finish high school and get a simple profession that does not require mental effort. Others at times achieve a high position in society, skillfully distributing their mental strength and, in the words of one psychosthenic, "using for their own purposes people who think they are using you." The psychasthenic with his seeming helplessness in everyday situations, vulnerability and defenselessness can easily mislead others. If the psychasthenic knows that he is by nature mentally weak, he can easily make this disadvantage of his own. A psychasthenic often causes bewilderment to others who cannot understand whether he is weak or not weak? He can do things that are characteristic of strong personalities. Another thing is at what price it is given to the psychasthenic! A prominent representative of the psychasthenic type was A.P. Chekhov, who “squeezed a slave out of himself all his life” (“slave” means weakness). Another genius psychasthenic was Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. The psychasthenic is capable of suicide (contrary to the popular belief that suicide requires a strong will). Among mentally healthy suicides, a large percentage are psychasthenic individuals. A psychasthenic personality, living in constant emotional fluctuations and doubts about himself and those around him, is often capable of an unmotivated act and extraordinary judgments. Ideal social spheres for their life are archives, geological exploration, philology. In our time of social cataclysms, psychasthenic personalities can occupy very polar positions in society - from professional killers to homeless people. The moral consciousness of a psychasthenic is completely subordinated to his mental status: in a compensated state he is a conscientious person, in a decompensated state he is a cold-blooded killer. Fraudsters are rare among representatives of this type.
3. Hysterical type.
These are the faces of the artistic warehouse. Theatricality as a way of life is their distinguishing feature. There are many infantile personalities among them, for whom “play” is a global way of compensating for congenital age-related inferiority (at whatever age they might be). The hero of The Glass Bead Game by Hermann Hesse is a typical representative of a hysterical with a high intellect (by the way, in this novel there are entirely hysterical personalities). The hysterical personality, as we have already written, has attracted the attention of doctors since ancient times, including Hippocrates. The Great Simulator is a Hippocratic definition of a hysterical personality. "Alter ego" - the main mechanism of the hysterical mental constitution, the ability to extract your double and play scenes with him. It was through the experience of working with hysterical personalities that Freud identified all the mechanisms of the unconscious and its relationship with the "I" and "super-I". The mechanisms described by Freud are inherent in every psychic structure, but if in another morphological type these mechanisms are manifested in certain extreme situations, then in a hysteric they work in everyday life.
Hysterical personalities have attracted many prominent scientists and writers. Domestic psychiatrists described in detail the hysterical type of S.S. Korsakov, V.M. Chizh, P.B. Gannushkin, I.B. Talent and others. Our contemporary, German psychiatrist K. Leonhard called them “demonstrative personalities”. The named authors can find such characteristics of the hysterics as "artist", "congenital pretender", "congenital swindler", "salon chatterbox", "adventurous nature", "swindler in mind" and, finally, "imaginary patient". According to the latest scientific concepts associated with the theory of functional asymmetry, the hysterical personality is a mental structure with unstable bisexual symmetry. In a hysterical man, the female sex principle dominates, in a hysterical woman, the male sex principle dominates. This state of affairs, by the way, is typical for puberty (that's where the hysterical type of infantilism comes from). Sexual problems do occupy an important place in the life of the hysterical type.
Hysterical types. They easily endure loneliness, including public loneliness, as well as age. This is due to the "alter ego". It is completely wrong that the hysterical person is a self-centered person. Just the opposite. The hysteric can never have himself in the center of his attention, because his “double” is always there. "Portrait of Dorian Gray" by O. Wilde, "William Wilson" by Edgar Poe, "Double" by F.M.Dostoevsky - the best images of the hysterical type (though brought to the brink of pathology).
4. Cyclothymic type. It is divided, as it were, into two subtypes - hypothetical and hyperthymic. But these subtypes can be represented not only separately, but also as phases, (cycles) of the same type.
Hypothetical personalities are people living in a low tone. Natures, often giving the impression of gloomy, dissatisfied (with themselves, others, life in general). Pessimists. Losers. They are reluctant to make contact and make new acquaintances. Everything for them is painted in gray tones. This is from the outside. From the inner, mental side, hypothetical personality with a lowered mood background, slow-witted. They are slow in movements, monotonous in postures and facial expressions. They are often straightforward in their judgments. They are hypochondriac, concerned about their health and, most importantly, their well-being. The productivity of thinking in a hypothetical state is reduced. Libido is constantly reduced (women are usually frigid). There are no clear boundaries between age periods (“hot spots of biography” are experienced without shocks). The monotony and monotony of life are the best conditions for them. Any change is perceived with anxiety and tension. They are not capable of efforts of will. They solve life tasks with difficulty, naturally, they avoid problems and everyday worries, trying to blame those on the shoulders of their neighbor. Personalities are dull, faces are expressionless. Misanthropes. Akaki Akakievich from Gogol's Overcoat spent most of his life in a hypothetical state.
Hypertensive personalities - "sunny natures", people living on the "plus". They give the impression of being frivolous, carefree, minions of fate. Agile and energetic, not burdening themselves with unnecessary problems. Accelerated processes of thinking correspond to an accelerated metabolism in the body. Adventurers who pay no attention to obstacles or "traps of fate." Every hyperthymic subject contains at least a little Khlestakovism. Sexually, they are often hypersexual and promiscuous in relationships. In hyperthymia, a change in sexual orientation is possible (at the time of hyperthymia). Inventors and travelers. Philanthropists. In work collectives - ringleaders and energy accumulators.
Hypotimia and hyperthymia can be phases that replace each other cyclically. Such natures are as complex as their lives. "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" is primarily a phase of hypothymia and hyperthymia, and only then a split personality. Cyclotime personalities, as a rule, are fatalists, because they know that, whether they want it or not, and no matter how life goes on, a black or bright streak will certainly come. This is a fatality of a special kind. Cyclothymic people will not play Russian roulette, but they can easily commit suicide, tired of changing moods for no reason. Suicides are committed, of course, in a hypothetical state. Hypotimia is a habitual sub-depressive state that encompasses a person's attitude and worldview. Although life for the hypothymic is "poisoned joy", many great poets, at different times, were hypothymic. Suffice it to mention Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Beaumarchais, Beranger, Heine, Kleist, Lermontov, Byron, Marina Tsvetaeva and Sergei Yesenin.
Hyperthymia is more than just a good mood, but still not a psychopathological phenomenon - hypomania (the beginning or stage of a manic state). Neither in a hypothymic state, nor in a hyperthymic state, the cyclothymic does not commit acts that are not characteristic of his personality or the social conditions in which he lives and acts (among criminals there are less than 1% of hypothetical personalities). There is no surprise in the behavior of a cyclothymic, these are usually well-predictable people. According to research conducted in 1997-98. Danish scientists, in Western Europe hypothetical and hyperthymic personalities among the population are only 10 \\%.
5. Epileptoid (epithymic) type. Soviet psychiatrist P.B. Gannushkin in 1924 published a monograph on epileptoid personalities. According to Gannushkin, the Marquis de Sade is a typical representative of epileptoids, which are primarily distinguished by hypersexuality, manifested in voluptuousness and cruelty. Sexual satisfaction of the epileptoid must be accompanied by pain, which he deliberately or unconsciously inflicts on the partner (sadism). The epileptoid type is characterized by ambivalence (duality). Moreover, sadism often coexists with masochism. (The latter term means the need for a masochist to experience pain caused by a sexual partner. The term is coined from the name of the Austrian writer L. Sacher-Masoch (1836-1895), who described these conditions).
The hysterical type and the epileptoid type have many external similarities in behavior, manner of behaving and presenting to others, in expressiveness, motivation of actions, if they are dictated by character, etc. Many domestic and foreign psychiatrists (K. Jaspers, E. Bleuler, I.B. Galant, P.B. Gannushkin, etc.) even tried to combine hysterics and epileptoids into the hysterical-epileptoid type. Clinicians have a serious argument for this - the presence of a hysterical type and an epileptoid in a state of decompensation or as a protective (defensive) reaction of a seizure.
Convulsive syndrome is a reaction of the brain to various traumatic factors: physical trauma, intoxication, infection, blood loss, high fever, super-strong auditory and visual stimuli, especially of a variable nature - flickering, flickering, etc. For example, in 1998 in Japan, while watching an animated film on TV, where there was a "picture" with a bright, multi-colored, rapidly flickering irritant, 300 healthy children had a developed convulsive seizure.
One of the differential diagnostic moments that distinguish a hysterical convulsive seizure from an epileptic one is the spontaneity of a hysterical seizure. Epileptic occurs involuntarily and does not depend on the will of the person. It's about hysterics: "will lay down a straw where it falls." The epileptic falls where he stands, and therefore often dies during a seizure from mechanical injuries. And yet, every epileptic can (along with spontaneous seizures) also cause a hysterical seizure in himself. No other personality type is able to induce a seizure.
For a social physician, the presence of a convulsive seizure in a person is especially important, since a number of social problems are associated with this fact (restrictions in the profession, training, military service, childbirth, etc.). Definition of the biotype is also of course important. Morphologically, the epileptoid type and the hysterical type are different.
The great generals - Suvorov and Napoleon - had convulsive seizures. But the first was the hysterical type, and the second was the epileptoid type. Completely different natures and ways of achieving the desired results. It is extremely interesting to consider the plans for future battles drawn up by Suvorov (for example, the capture of Izmail) and Napoleon (the Battle of Borodino). Already by these plans it is possible to judge what different types of personality they made up. Demonstratively impulsive Suvorov planned the battle for Izmail as a large theatrical performance in which he was the main character. Taking Ishmael, Suvorov, as you know, exclaimed: “Thank God! Glory to Us! The fortress is taken, and I am there! " The great actor brilliantly played his role and ended it (as befits the main actor) with a verse-ending. And Napoleon at the end of the Borodino battle meticulously calculated the losses on both sides in order to decide who lost the most: he or Kutuzov. As for M.I. Kutuzov, this is a typical cyclothymic. And, if it were not for his hypothetical state before the Battle of Borodino and during it, but for his hyperthymic state, then the victory could have been even more obvious and quick. IN AND. Chapaev was also a cyclothymic, which is perfectly shown in the film "Chapaev" and played by B.A. Butchkin. This film can serve as a visual illustration of the life and deeds of the cyclothymic personality. Literally every scene of the film shows Chapaev in hypothymia or hyperthymia. He dies in a hypothetical state.
In psychiatry, there is the concept of "viscosity". It can refer to all components of the mental structure: thinking ("slow thinking", thoroughness), emotions (rancor), will (not the ability to make a decision, make a choice). "Viscosity" is a distinctive feature of an epileptoid personality, manifested in movements, facial expressions, gestures, manner of speaking, and in general in a way of life. Pedantry, exaggerated attachment to order, scrupulousness in business, adherence to the principle "everything must be in its place and in the proper order" and other similar features are due to the phenomenon of "viscosity".
Porfiry Petrovich from Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment is a typical epileptoid personality. BUT. Gritsenko vividly and with psychological precision revealed the image of an epileptoid in the role of Karenin (the film "Anna Karenina"), in all his guises - husband, father, statesman. Epileptoid types are legalists. However, they can often become criminals, due to their intolerant nature of human weaknesses. The slightly lopsided picture hanging on the wall can infuriate them. One epileptoid killed a man with a stone, whose jacket was not properly buttoned. But again, we repeat that human behavior is not determined only by the biotype (otherwise, people would not be guided by reason and free will, but acted in accordance with the instincts transformed into character).
6. Rigid or paranoid type. Stalin and Hitler are the most common examples of paranoia. Unfortunately, when describing paranoid types (whether they are real historical figures or literary heroes), scientists cannot avoid value judgments. We must not forget that the typology of the personality (as well as its bodily structure) for the medical professional should be outside moral or any other value judgments. Whatever the character, it is "not bad" and "not good." This is typologically real. Only the actions of people are “bad” or “good”, “moral” or “immoral”. And from this point of view, there is not a single human character (type) that does not have its villains and heroes. And no one personality type has advantages over other types in this respect.
If the main feature of the epileptoid type is "viscosity", which determines all its mental qualities, then the main feature of the paranoid type is rigidity (straightforwardness, severity). Rigidity creates such varieties of the paranoid type as fighters for justice (in everyday life they often turn into litigants and querulants); religious fanatics, fighters for the idea ("great revolutionaries"), pioneering scientists, authoritarian rulers (such as Caesar, Charles 1, Elizabeth, Ivan the Terrible, Stalin), great reformers. They also include great jealous people (like Othello), incorruptible judges, great misers (like Gobsek), Don Juan, great mystifiers. (like Cagliostro), etc.
Rigidity, which determines the type of paranoid personality, also characterizes the way of thinking of representatives of this type. They reach everything with their minds, in everything they look for common sense, "idea" or "concept", accept only logical judgments. Thinking in paranoid individuals is most often logically strict and consistent, even if it is pointless, as, for example, among resonators. With this mindset, they tend to have little understanding of other people. Therefore, they are extremely intolerant of dissidents, uncorrected, suspicious, distrustful. However, on the part of feelings and emotions, they can be unprotected and easily controlled by people who are able to cope with their paranoid thinking. From the same side, some of them are accessible to suggestion, are easily "brainwashed", therefore they often commit acts for which, without hesitation, they would sentence other people to death. Over the years, rigidity makes representatives of this type more and more intolerant, which dooms them to loneliness. The circle of interests usually narrows with age, and, in the end, thinking stops at one idea, which acquires the qualities of an overvalued idea. And this can be the beginning of psychopathology - delirium. By the way, for individuals of this type it is not important whether the ideas that occupy their minds are realized in life. It is important that they consider them the main ones to the last. The purpose and meaning of life, like life itself, for paranoid individuals are derivatives of their logical constructions.
7. Affectively unstable type. These are people of Shakespearean passions: Hamlets, Macbets, the kings of Lyra, Romeo and Juliet. Passion (affect) determines the type and character, and actions, and the whole life of these people. Balzac's heroes and Dostoevsky's brothers Karamazov are also approaching affectively unstable personalities. And they are all very different: both in worldview, and in attitude, and in moral consciousness, and in many other human parameters. One thing unites them - they are slaves of passion. What is this passion, what is its "object" and to whom or what it is directed - the personality of this type depends on it.
In Lermontov's “Duma” we read: “We both hate and we love by chance. Sacrificing nothing for malice or love, And a secret cold reigns in the soul. When the fire boils in blood. " This is an accurate characteristic of the affectively unstable type. Unlike paranoid individuals, they, firstly, stubbornly pursue the goal of their passion as long as the passion itself exists. But passion can go out at any moment, and its “object” immediately loses all attractiveness for an affectively unstable personality. Secondly, if for a person of a paranoid type it does not matter whether his ideas are realized or not (it is not even very important for them to "infect" other people with their truth, it is important that initially they are not dissidents), then for affectively unstable types it is extremely important that passion was satisfied (for without the "object" passion cannot exist). If Othello were jealous by passion, then he would not develop his jealousy into the system (this process can go subconsciously), but would immediately strangle Desdemona. Only death could unite Romeo and Juliet forever. Their love, which took the form of passion on both sides, could not last. She could overcome all obstacles except one - time, because passion cannot last forever. Affectively unstable individuals often commit crimes in a state of passion, including suicide. Affect in this type is a spontaneous phenomenon and may not be at all consistent with the conscious (moral) attitudes of the personality.
Stepan Razin appears as an affectively unstable person, a person “torn by passions” (V. Shukshin. “I came to give you freedom”). Here he, in passion, cuts the warrior loyal to him in half, here he in passion shoots at icons (while being a deeply religious person). In an affective state, he burns, avenging the death of his friend Styr, the city of Kamyshin, along with old people, women, small children. Not listening to the arguments of reason, in an affective state he goes to Moscow and dies. Among the heroes of Shukshin, in general, there are many affectively unstable personalities.
"Fiery Revolutionaries" - there was such a series of books about the outstanding leaders of Russian revolutions. From the point of view of social medicine, this is a very unfortunate name! A fiery revolutionary (affectively unstable personality) is an accidental person, for he serves the revolution at the call of his fickle heart. Like daddy Makhno, who fought first for the “Reds”, then for the “Whites,” depending on what his heart was now in. Makhno was an extraordinary personality, and went down in history as an unsympathetic figure, precisely because of his affective instability. History knows many such personalities, but they mostly remained in it as "tyrants", "traitors", "renegades". And they were just affectively unstable types! "I want - execution, I want - have mercy!" - this is also the rule of affectively unstable personalities. Paranoid individuals were either executed, even if everything said that the person was innocent (regardless of any arguments and facts), or - “pardoned” (just as with nothing and no one). "It's one step from love to hatred!" - this is about affectively unstable individuals. Paranoid individuals love to death, even when they are jealous. Yuri Vizbor in one of his songs says: "I love you before the turn, and then - how will it turn out!" This is about love of affectively unstable types.
8. Schizoid type. Most controversial personalities. The percentage of schizoids among gifted and genius people is extremely high, which allowed Lombroso to create a theory of the relationship between genius and madness. Just like in epileptoid and paranoid types, the specificity of schizoids is determined by the peculiarities of their thinking. In this case, there is a phenomenon that psychiatrists call "schism", or splitting. If in patients with schizophrenia schizis (by the way, it would be correct: schizophrenia) covers all psychosomatic spheres, then in schizoid individuals schizis acts only as a feature of thinking. Domestic psychologist A.R. Luria (1902-1977), in A Little Book of Great Memory, described how schismatic thinking works. Self-withdrawal and self-withdrawal (from "strange") are the two main mechanisms of schizoid thinking. Thinking normally (for all of the above types) “sees” the object one-sidedly at the moment of focusing on it, that is, it does not see the object at the same time both from the front and from the back. Schizoid thinking is able to "see" an object simultaneously "in front" and "behind", and in general from all sides at once. Hence the extraordinary properties of schismatic thinking - the eccentricity of judgments about the seemingly obvious. The ability for creative "leaps" of thought, which does not reckon with logic (especially from the formal one; from the point of view of schizoid thinking, in the law of exclusion of the "third", it is the "third" that turns out to be the desired quantity or both "A" and "B", and not " A "or" B "). For a schizoid, two mutually exclusive judgments can be simultaneously true. The ability to "see at once" the two sides of the moon, which distinguishes the schizoid personality from all others, is the phenomenon of bidominatism. Being both Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a bimodal phenomenon. To choose both "A" and "B" at the same time is a phenomenon of ambivalence. Having two mutually exclusive tendencies at the same time is the phenomenon of ambitiousness. Thus, the split of thinking of the schizoid type gives it the listed properties of character and personality: 1. bidominat, 2. bimodality, 3. ambivalence and 4. ambitiousness. These properties, in part, make him similar to the personality of the hysterical and paranoid types. The sexuality of schizoid types is extremely non-standard: homosexuality, pedophilia, gerontophilia, bestiality and other deviations reach pathology.
Many gifted personalities (artists, sculptors, poets, composers, musicians) belong to the schizoid type: Strinberg, Van Gogh, P. Verlaine, V.M. Garshin, M.K. Čiurlionis, F. Sologub, N.V. Gogol, I.F. Stravinsky and many others. If schizoid types are scientists, then they are always ahead of their time. Clairvoyance, foresight, forebodings are common phenomena of the experiences of a schizoid personality. Their dream and reality often change places, so they often give the impression of strange, self-absorbed, alienated and uncommunicative people. In fact, they live in the world of their imagination. They are all dissidents. Schizoid personalities are superstitious, often attach particular importance to prophetic dreams, fatal numbers.
9. Anxious and suspicious type.
Learning to understand an anxious and suspicious person means learning to understand the "innermost" of a person of any morphological type. “Pain” (both physical and mental), depression, fear, anxiety, whatever the reasons they may be caused, or were unreasonable, one way or another capture the “core” of the personality. These can be experiences related to the social status of a person, with family matters (for example, anxiety about relatives, stress due to the loss of loved ones), with health, finally, with age and the approach of death.
And yet, in an anxious-suspicious personality, experiences of an anxious series are of a somewhat different nature than in other types. First of all, because if in all other types they are transient, then in anxious-suspicious individuals these experiences are constant throughout their life. They are deep, cover the entire psychosomatic structure of a person, determine his worldview and attitude, his “stay in the world” (a term of existentialists who attach great importance to the phenomenon of anxiety). “Oh, my prophetic soul! Oh heart full of anxiety! Oh, how you struggle on the threshold of a kind of double existence, "wrote F. Tyutchev, the most" disturbing "of our poets.
In psychopathology, a certain alarming series stands out, represented by phenomena that replace each other as the subjective state becomes heavier and a corresponding change in human behavior - from the usual (characteristic) to neurotic or even psychotic. This order as a whole reflects both the degree of anxiety of the subject and the forms of his activity. So, in psychotic, extreme states, a person loses his activity (spontaneity) and finds himself in a state of “mastering an alien force” (“Kandinsky syndrome.” V.Kh. Kandinsky (1849-1889), a Russian psychiatrist, described the psychotic state by observing himself by yourself).
Anxiety series - states or experiences of a person in which anxiety is a pivotal and constant phenomenon. It implicitly contains all the other phenomena of this series. Through anxiety, pain also enters the consciousness of a person. Until now, there is no generally accepted definition of anxiety among specialists (psychopathologists, psychologists). According to Kraepelin, anxiety is not reflected by any feeling, and, at the same time, it does not reflect either the spiritual or physical states of a person. It is connected with the very psychosomatic essence of the personality, its vital foundations. Clinicians, according to Kraepelin, deal only with the mental or physical consequences of experiencing anxiety. T. Bertse, who attributed anxiety to the basic mood, defined it as an indescribable terrible change in the relationship "I - the world", close to derealization (loss of a sense of reality). Anxiety was qualified by this psychiatrist as a fearful tension, the expectation of an impending danger coming from the depths of being or "I", accompanied by a feeling of universal cold and emptiness of being.
E. Bleuler belongs to the concept of "free floating alarm". He points to "the spilled, filling all the voids of being, transcendental for the" I "and fundamentally unknowable character of anxiety." Jaspers also pointed out the absence of a clear and precise feeling that would respond to the phenomenon of anxiety. Domestic psychiatrist O.V. Kerbikov defined anxiety as a kind of self-awareness of a diffuse nature, which is the basis of a person's mood.
Pain is associated with anxiety and is partly part of the alarming series. It is no coincidence that Epicurus and Seneca, and after them Spinoza, viewed pain as a sadness that swept a particular part of the body. In the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (1789), pain is defined as "the feeling of grief in some part of the animal body, which occurs from excessive tension of sensory veins."
In anxious and suspicious individuals, anxiety is always pointless. But thanks to psychological protection, such individuals are in a constant state of objectification of their experiences. According to the subtle remark of the writer M. Frisch: “It seems that one cannot live for a long time, having experienced anxiety, if the experienced remains without any history” (“I will call myself Gantenbein”). But, if the object of alarm is not detected, the next phenomenon of the alarming series arises - fear. Anxiety and fear are phenomenologically (and psychologically) markedly different from each other, although they have common psychosomatic "roots". No matter how painful anxiety would be (Kierkegaard called anxiety “the most unhappy consciousness”), no matter how devastating it might be, the latter strives not for the opposite mental state of anxiety - peace, but to objectify anxiety, in fact, to its psychological justification. It is this tendency in anxious and suspicious individuals that elevates anxiety to the status of a personality-constituting phenomenon, to a source of morphogenesis of this type. The irresistible attraction to fear, which makes a person anancast (fearful), is the same logic as the logic of causeless anxiety.
Tension is another alarming phenomenon, sometimes “first”, sometimes “last”. Anxious and suspicious individuals, with the originality of their experiences and aspirations, as if doubling the world, resemble the schizoid type. But this only seems to be, because neither the thinking of an anxious person, nor his self-consciousness have anything to do with schizoid psychology. The most characteristic difference between the anxious-suspicious type and the schizoid is the phenomenon of tension: an anxious person is almost constantly (all his life) in anxious tension. The schizoid hardly knows this state. An anxiously suspicious person may resemble a paranoid person with suspicion and straightforwardness of judgment, but this happens to her only in a state of looking for an object of alarm. "Foreboding", "hostile alertness", "focus on one's somatic sphere" (the latter periodically makes anxious subjects hypochondriacs, which again, apparently, brings them closer to hysterics) are the main phenomena of tension. Any suggestions or internal impulses can increase the state of tension to the degree of real "interference" with thinking. So, psychologically it is understandable that any unpleasant, even the most elementary sensation (for example, itching) disrupts the train of thought. A toothache can make even a strong-willed person think only of a bad tooth.
The phenomenon of anxiety (as well as the phenomena of its number) has the following main forms:
1. "Anxiety as a general mood" ("free floating alarm"). 2. "Hypochondriacal mood" - somatized anxiety (from a feeling of bodily discomfort to a suspicion of the presence of a latent disease). 3. "Anxious agitation" (often in the form of a psychotic state) - speech and motor restlessness (a person needs to speak out) or motor restlessness (a person cannot sit still). 4. "Panic attack" - an unreasonable anxiety, very similar to fear; most often, in this state, a person is tense, fearful and immobile. 5. "Raptus" - a psychopathological phenomenon; in this state, a person is not responsible for his actions (actions of destruction, self-harm, suicide and murder are possible; in raptus, the patient needs supervision and hospital treatment).
The state of fear only in that case should be considered pathological when fear arises in connection with situations and objects that usually do not cause it. For example, fear at the sight of a red apple, at the pronunciation of the word "integral", at the blow of a warm breeze in the face, etc. Unmotivated fears, that is, when fear precedes its subject (for example, to be left alone in an apartment or at the sight of a funeral procession), is still anancast anxiety (a fearful, suspicious personality, a kind of anxious and suspicious type). At the heart of the unmotivated fears of an anxious and suspicious personality (and suspiciousness is a direct result of the unmotivatedness of unpleasant experiences), deep psychoanalysis reveals an intrapersonal (interpersonal) conflict (a fundamental discord with oneself, like Goethe's Faust: “Two souls in me, and both are at odds with each other. ”Or discord with the“ world ”(like Tyutchev’s), in which order has disappeared: being becomes“ double ”). But unlike the schizoid personality, this duality or duplication of personality and the world in an anxiously suspicious person never ends. Schism knows neither fear, nor anxiety, nor pain. The anxious and suspicious personality has only a strong threat of dichotomy, which is never realized. Oddly enough, but fear, pain, tension and anxiety keep the right and left halves of personality and being in a functional unity. Always, under any circumstances and forms. An anxious and suspicious personality never turns into a schizoid subject (as well as into any other).
The anxious-suspicious type often has habitual fears (phobias). Phobias are psychologically incomprehensible fears to which a person, if he has them since birth, gradually gets used to. Fears, for example, of a confined space, an open area, sharp objects, some unpleasant sounds, etc.
The main forms of fear, which in anxious and suspicious individuals can act as characterological traits or stereotypes of behavior: 1. Courage - despair. 2. Obsessions. 3. Hypochondria. 4. Depersonalization (psychologically difficult to understand state when the feeling of one's own self - "I" - causes unmotivated fear, the consequence of which is self-alienation).
Next to fear, an alarming phenomenon is depression. Depression is not a “bad mood”. Depression is a psychosis that causes a psychosomatic collapse, that is, a violation of the entire psychosomatic "structure" of a person. Depression is always a disease that any person can get sick, no matter what morphological type he belongs to. As a mental illness, depression is within the purview of psychiatrists. The division into "neurotic" and endogenous depression is rather arbitrary, as is the recognition of an independent clinical unit of reactive depression with the classic depressive triad: 1. motor retardation; 2. ideamotor retardation; 3. depression of affect.
In order to better understand anxious existence, we will illustrate some of its moments, illuminating from the inside "a heart full of anxiety."
Strongly expressed anxiety carries in itself not only the "universal cold" (in the words of Vyacheslav Ivanov), but also the feeling of the universal "nothing". VM Chizh believed that the experience of "nothing" is an extreme degree of mental pain. And pain arises only as a response to stimuli that can actually kill a person (toothache, for example, can reflexively cause spasm of the coronary vessels of the heart and, consequently, death). Even a disgusting taste or smell, according to Chizh, can cause mental (heart) pain and death. So a person of an anxious and suspicious type always has something to fear.
He defends himself against any threat by deploying an alarming series that carries all the functions of psychological defense. For example, fear of death precedes pain. And often death itself. (“Death is the moment of truth of pain,” according to Chyzh).
10. Dysplastic type.
This is the only morphological type of a person who has a clear connection between body structure and psychosomatic structure. A disharmonious body (for example, a long torso, a small head, large lower limbs and small upper limbs) corresponds to the same disharmonious character. We will not describe all the options of a dysplastic nature - there are many of them, we will only emphasize the main thing that you need to know in connection with this morphological type.
1. The dysplastic type should not be confused with the polymorphic "type" of personality, the psychosomatic structure, which arises as a result of a person suffering from any serious mental illness. First of all, we are talking about schizophrenia. Then, in fact, we find not a personality type, but a post-morbid psychosomatic state (morbidis - Latin disease).
2. The dysplastic type should not be confused with the so-called accentuated types, pathological types in which one trait dominates in the character. For example, in hysterical personalities - demonstrativeness or a tendency to imaginary diseases, in anxious and suspicious individuals - fearfulness or a tendency to obsessiveness, in paranoid individuals - suspicion or jealousy.
3. The dysplastic type always represents one of the types described above: from hysterical to anxious and suspicious. All the difference is only in the disproportionate morphology. For such a person (if his intellect, will, emotions and personality are also affected) psychosomatics completely controls both behavior, state, and the sphere of motivation. So, a dysplastic mother can completely ignore a serious illness of a child or, conversely, subject him to unnecessary medical overprotection. One of the spouses can be cruelly jealous of the other, go and complain about his "betrayal" at work to his spouse, arrange scenes of jealousy, but not give him a divorce. In short, a dysplastic person always lives a "dysplastic" life and differs from a true psychopath only in that he can still choose a subject like himself and create family harmony with him, as well as find a suitable job and be completely happy , successful and livable in a team. During the reforms and restructuring of social stereotypes, dysplastic individuals come to the fore and play socially significant roles. However, for social psychologists, this is a sure sign that instead of the destroyed former social structures, “dysplastic” social conglomerates are emerging (no matter what sphere of social life this may concern). Dysplastic types of history most often played the role of "gray cardinals", "shadow governments", "secret advisers of the ruling person", etc. Dysplastic individuals often head criminal structures (among Russian thieves in law, dysplastic individuals are 75%). There are many dysplastic personalities among political adventurers, political reasoners who are launching a violent political activity, not only without having constructive ideas, but often not even knowing what, in fact, they themselves need. The dysplastic personality is attracted by "secret societies", they like to perform "special, hidden from the uninitiated, missions." Often they turn out to be "double", "triple" agents of the special services.
These are the main morphological types of a person, which are the biotypology of normal sexual differentiation. Naturally, when the latter is violated, the morphology of types disintegrates, forming multiple variants of characterological pathology, the main feature of which will be a perversion of the sexual instinct (with preserved external sexual characteristics or with hermaphroditism). But this is the area of \u200b\u200bthe clinic: psychiatry and sexopathology.
Morphological typology of languages - the most developed area of \u200b\u200btypological research. Typological linguistics began to develop precisely with the morphological classification of languages, that is, among other areas of typological research, morphological typology is chronologically the first.
In the languages \u200b\u200bof the world, there are two main groups of ways to express grammatical meanings - synthetic and analytical.
For synthetic methods the expression of grammatical meanings is characterized by the connection of the grammatical indicator with the word itself. Such an indicator, introducing the grammatical meaning "inside the word", can be prefix, suffix, ending, internal inflection(alternation of sounds at the root: lie - lie down - bed), stress change ( ss? pour - pour), suppletivism (child - children, take - take) (see A.A. Reformatsky, 1997, pp. 263–313). The term "synthetic" is motivated, from the Greek. synthesis - “combination, composition, unification”.
For analytical ways characteristic expression of grammatical meaning outside words, apart from it: with the help of prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliary verbs, and other official words; using word order; through general intonation statements. Recall that analytical - from the Greek. analysis - "separation, decomposition, dismemberment" - this is separating, decomposing into its component parts; analysis related.
Scientists identify the following ways of expressing grammatical meanings:
affixation (attachment to the root of grammatical morphemes - affixes);
inner flexion (meaningful alternation of phonemes at the root of the word, such as English. sing - sоng or Russian. lie down - lie down);
stress;
intonation;
reduplication (repetition of a root morpheme or a whole word);
service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs, etc.);
word order.
Sometimes they add to this list compounding (although this grammatical method serves not for inflection, but for the formation of new words) and suppletivism - using a different root to convey grammatical meaning, like Russian. people - people, put - putor English. good - better).
In principle, each language uses different grammatical methods from among the named ones, but in practice they are grouped in a certain way, combined with each other. Namely: in some languages, grammatical meaning is expressed mainly within the (significant) word itself: with the help of affixation, internal inflection, stress. The lexical and grammatical meanings appear here in a complex, jointly forming the semantics of the word. Such languages \u200b\u200bare called synthetic languages... Examples include ancient Latin, and modern languages \u200b\u200b- Finnish, Estonian, Lithuanian, Polish. In other languages, grammatical meaning is expressed outside the significant word: with the help of official words, word order, intonation. In such languages, grammatical and lexical meanings are presented separately, they are embodied in different material means. it analytical languages; these include modern English, French, Danish, Bulgarian, etc.
Many languages \u200b\u200bcombine features of analyticism and synthetism in their grammatical structure. In particular, modern Russian belongs to languages mixed system(with some preponderance towards synthetism, although the share of analytical tools in it is steadily increasing); they also include the German language (although elements of analyticism prevail in it), see about this: (B.Yu. Norman, 2004, p. 205).
There are languages \u200b\u200bin which synthetic methods are almost absent. These are Chinese, Vietnamese, Lao, Thai, Khmer. At the beginning of the XIX century. some linguists named them amorphous (formless), that is, without form. W. von Humboldt clarified that these languages \u200b\u200bare not formless, he called them isolating. It was found that these languages \u200b\u200bare not devoid of grammatical form, but grammatical meanings are expressed in them separately, in isolation from the lexical meaning of the word. "Morphemes" of such languages \u200b\u200bare extremely isolated from each other, independent, that is, a morpheme is both a root and a separate word. How are words formed in such languages? Do they have only words like writebut no rewritenor letter? New words in isolating languages \u200b\u200bare formed according to a different principle. To form new words, in such languages \u200b\u200byou just need to put the roots (words) side by side and you get something in between a complex word and two words. For example, something like this is how words are formed in Chinese from the word write:
rewrite \u003d write + rewrite, letter \u003d write + subject etc. (about isolating languages \u200b\u200bsee: N.V. Solntsev, 1985).
On the other hand, there are languages \u200b\u200bin which the root of a word turns out to be so strongly overloaded with various service and dependent root morphemes that such a word, growing, turns into a sentence in meaning, as it were, but at the same time remains formalized as a word. Some words in such languages \u200b\u200bseem to be embedded in others. Moreover, complex alternations often occur at the junctions of morphemes. Such a "word-sentence" device is called incorporation(lat ... incorporatio - inclusion in its composition, from lat. in -in; corpus - body, a single whole), and the corresponding languages incorporating, or polysynthetic. Eskimo-Aleutian, Chukchi, Koryak, and most of the Indian languages \u200b\u200bof North and Central America are polysynthetic languages.
J. Greenberg even identified language synthetic index.
According to the definition given above, morphology as a branch of the science of the Russian language studies grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes.
Parts of speech are distinguished on the basis of semantic, morphological and syntactic commonality: a common feature of the lexical meanings of words combined into a given class (for example, a subject for nouns; a procedural feature for verbs); general morphological categories and forms of inflection; identical functions in the sentence and the text [Vinogradov 1972: 38; RG-80: 455-456].
Russian morphology is usually described in the system of parts of speech, but there is also a description of the “categorical” morphology of the Russian language. For example, in the Prague "Russian Grammar" (1979) morphological categories are described not by parts of speech, but by the "bundles" in which they appear in different parts of speech. For example, the gender category is considered in one section as a category of nouns (“inconsistent non-pronoun words”), pronouns and “concordable words” (adjectives, participles, past tense verb forms and subjunctive mood) [RG 1979: 316-323].
The grammatical (morphological) category is formed by homogeneous (i.e., united by a general category meaning) opposed (both in form and in meaning) series of morphological forms. The categorical meaning of one of the opposed series of morphological forms is the grammeme [Zaliznyak 1967/2002: 26-27; Melchuk 1998: 250-261]. So, the forms of the number of nouns with the help of endings express grammemes of the singular or plural, which are the implementation of the general category meaning of the number.
In Russian (as well as in other inflectional-synthetic languages), meanings opposed within one category cannot be expressed in one word form, that is, grammemes are mutually exclusive [Plungyan 2000: 107, 115]. For example, a noun can contain either singular or plural inflection, and a verb can express either the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person. In other words, “the grammatical meaning of a word form can contain no more than one grammeme of the same grammatical category” [Zaliznyak 2002: 27].
However, the principle of mutual exclusion for grammatical meanings is not universal for all languages. According to experts in the languages \u200b\u200bof Southeast Asia, the mutual exclusion of grammes is generally uncharacteristic for the grammatical categories of isolating languages \u200b\u200b- Chinese, Thai, Khmer. Forms of one category in isolating languages \u200b\u200b“are opposed not because they convey mutually exclusive meanings, but because they carry different meanings” [Solntseva 1985: 203]. Also in English, the formal indicators of opposed tenses of the past and the future are compatible, cf. "Future in the past" (would work). The indicators of the forms Perfekt and Continious (have been working) are also compatible, which in some works are considered forms of time, in others - forms of the species. If we consider the mutual exclusion of grammar as a universal obligatory feature of the grammatical category, then it must be admitted that the English forms Past and Future (as well as Perfekt and Continious are included in different grammatical categories. To this conclusion V.
A. Plungyan, considering the future time outside the category of time [Plungyan 2000: 269]. An analysis of the semantics and use of forms of the present and future tense in the Russian language (see Chapter 3) shows that the interpretation of the future outside the grammatical category of time is unacceptable for the Russian language.
Morphological categories can be polynomial structures (compare, for example, the category of case in Russian) or binomial, binary, organized according to the principle of opposition (compare verb form). Among the morphological categories, categories with a nominative component of meaning are distinguished and categories without such a component are non-dominant. The first include categories that represent and interpret objects of the extra-linguistic world or relations between them: quantitative relations of objects, the degree of manifestation of a feature, the reality or unreality of an action, its relation to the moment of speech, the speaker and other participants in the act of speech, etc .; such are, for example, the categories of the number of nouns, the degree of comparison of adjectives, the verb categories of mood, tense, person, type. Non-nominal categories are implemented syntagmatically - in syntactic compatibility, that is, through the forms of matched words (for example, the category of the gender of nouns) or depending on the grammatical features of the words with which these forms agree (categories of gender, number and case of adjectives) [Zaliznyak 2002: 22-27; RG-80: 457].
As part of the morphological categories of the Russian language there are inflectional categories, whose members are forms of the same word (for example, the verbal categories of mood, tense, person), and non-verbal (or classifying) categories, whose members are forms of different words (for example, category of the kind of verb). Formation as “the formation of grammatical forms of a word” [LES 1990: 558] is represented by 1) inflection, or the formation of inflectional-synthetic forms (for example, personal forms of the verb); 2) the formation of analytical grammatical forms such as I will work, I would work; 3) correlative forms of different words (for example, the forms of the verbs SV and NSV) [RYa 1979: 379].
Within the parts of speech, lexico-grammatical categories are also distinguished, reflecting the interaction of vocabulary and grammar. These are subclasses of words of a particular part of speech, which are characterized by a common element of lexical meaning, which determines their fammatic properties. For example, the following verb lexico-grammatical categories are distinguished: transitive and intransitive verbs (determining the possibility or impossibility of forming passive forms); personal / impersonal verbs (having a different set of forms of the category of a person); limiting / non-limiting (or, in another terminology, terminative / non-terminative) verbs that influence the formation of species pairs (see §11). Lexico-grammatical categories differ from grammatical categories in the absence of a general categorical meaning, which has specific realizations in individual categories, and in the absence of a system of morphological forms for expressing these realizations.