Chapter 6
Recall that the term speech denotes both the process of speech and the result of speech activity, i.e. text - oral, written or even mental. These values need to be separated.
Speech is divided into external and internal. Speech accessible to others, and speech only for oneself.
External speech has four types, grouped in pairs:
speaking ______________ listening (oral speech);
writing _________________reading (written speech).
Speech is also differentiated by style: oral-colloquial and written-bookish styles are distinguished with a more detailed division of both groups.
Literary criticism has its own system of types: works of art are subdivided into genres and genres. Childbirth: epic, lyrics, drama. Epic genres: novel, story, short story, epic novel, essay, memoir, fairy tale, epic, etc. Poetic genres: poem, ballad, ode, lyrics - landscape, philosophical, civil, intimate, etc. Dramatic genres: comedy, tragedy , drama, vaudeville, screenplay.
Genres also stand out in journalism: interview, reportage, article, note, feuilleton; and in scientific literature: monograph, scientific article, abstract, scientific report, dissertation, textbook, student manual.
Oratory has its own genres: judicial speech - in accusation or defense, polemic, discussion, welcoming speech (epideic), academic lecture, church sermon. The epistolary genre, types of business papers, legal documents and much more are also noted.
Each genre, or type of literary text, is subject to its own rules, relatively stable, the so-called "genre laws". These rules apply to both content (for example, a wide flow of life in a novel) and form (for example, several storylines in a novel - a compositional device).
Let us now consider the main types of speech - speaking, listening, writing and reading - in more detail in the system of concepts of speech theory.
But in fact, oral speech relatively rarely precedes written speech in situations of adult life: written speech always Mental speech precedes, not oral speech. The writer mentally constructs the text to be written and rarely speaks it out loud.
Oral speech is supposed to have arisen naturally at the dawn of the human mind, satisfying the need for live, direct communication of our distant ancestors. Apparently, sound speech (in contrast to the transmission of information using odors, radio waves, etc., as in some insects and even mammals) began to predominate in human communication due to its advantages as a universal means of communication over a short distance. It has been suggested that this was facilitated by the structure of the larynx and other organs of pronunciation, which later, already in the process of oral communication, improved even more.
In any case, people believe that they did not lose, but won by choosing acoustic, sound, speech as the main way of contacts, information exchange and self-expression. At the same time, one cannot but admit that the system of pronunciation organs is much less perfect than the speech centers of the brain, the mechanisms of memory and coordination, the system of code transitions, etc.
Recall that oral speech has two sides: the sending of a speech signal and its reception; speaking and listening.
speaking- this is the voicing of a thought, a code transition from a mental code, from an internal speech code that precedes an oral statement, to a sound (acoustic) code, to a phonetic code.
Term speaking sounds somewhat artificial, it is used in specialized literature: it denotes the action of the sender of the oral-speech signal. In this action, one can always single out the situation of speech, its motives and goals, the content of the statement, its construction, verbal and grammatical expression, and, finally, the transition to an acoustic code - to a form that can be perceived by the interlocutor. N.I. Zhinkin, the author of the theory of code transitions in speech, considers the phoneme to be a unit of recoding (Zhinkin N.I. Speech as a conductor of information. - M., 1982).
It happens that a person has time to think about the forthcoming statement, to say it mentally several times. But even in the process of fast speech, speaking, pronunciation always lags behind mental construction. N.I. Zhinkin called this anticipation of thought the preemptive synthesis of speech. Its volume is the key to the speech development of a person: the greater the lead, the more freely and correctly the person speaks.
In addition to proactive synthesis, free oral speech requires the flexibility of pronunciation mechanisms, their unmistakable coordination, instant choice of words, and fluency in syntactic mechanisms.
This is the knowledge of the language, possession of it from the point of view of the theory of speech.
Listening - this is a code transition from an acoustic code, in which the listener with his ear, auricle, receives the thought expressed by another person, to the code of internal speech, to the mental code. This is the understanding of perceived speech, because the mental code of each person is individual in the sense that his memory stores a fund of images, schemes, ideas, concepts and phonemic standards of words associated with images, concepts, etc.
Modern oral speech has significant advantages compared to written speech:
1. It can be freely combined with the so-called non-verbal means of communication, fit into the situation, into the flow of life. It is directly connected with gestures, facial expressions, postures of the speaker, with indications of surrounding objects; oral speech, as a rule, implies the closeness of the interlocutors: they see each other, the whole situation participates in their communication; communication is realized not only by their voices, their faces, smiles, body movements, everything around participate.
Of course, in a conversation on an ordinary telephone, in radio broadcasts, in listening to tape recordings, all of the above disappears. But in television programs, in video recordings, it is preserved, this explains their high efficiency.
People, talking on the phone, smile, even gesticulate, but all this is in vain, the interlocutor does not see this, he only catches emotional intonations.
Particular attention should be paid to the role of intonation. Linguistics describes semantic intonations, raising and lowering the voice - this is the intonation of completeness, the intonation of enumeration, excretory, incompleteness, the intonation of the question, etc.
Emotional intonations are much more expressive, they have the finest shades, there are several dozen contrasting pairs: intonations of sadness and joy, major and minor, ironic and enthusiastic, contemptuous and respectful, arrogant and shy, intonations of kindness and irritation, affectionate and rude, arrogant and humiliated...
Written speech does not have adequate means of expression, only to a small extent compensates for this lack of font highlights, punctuation marks, as well as a description of the situation against which the action takes place, a description of the experiences of the characters.
2. The advantage of oral speech is the speed of its flow, the possibility of quick reactions, feedback.
Oral speech turned out to be not only suitable, but even convenient for creating a graphic code - economical, technologically advanced. And most recently it has turned out to be convenient for electronic equipment.
Now let's note the shortcomings of oral speech:
1) noise immunity: communication in the acoustic code can be hindered by the distance between speakers, any extraneous noise, defects in the individual pronunciation of the speaker, hearing defects of the perceiving speech;
2) instantaneous flow: oral speech disappears by itself, and even the speaker himself usually cannot repeat verbatim what he just said. Because of this shortcoming, oral speech poorly performs a historical function - the connection of generations: it depends on the not always accurate and reliable memory of people who transmit myths, legends, folklore works from generation to generation.
Written speech. This type of speech has many codes: ideographic writing, hieroglyphic, sound-letter (more precisely, phonemic: in Russian, as a rule, a letter denotes a phoneme without taking into account positional alternations) is known. The alphabetic script is used in all European languages, despite the fact that it is not the most economical. But it is easier than hieroglyphic in terms of mastering it: in European alphabets there are from 26 to 33 letters.
The rules for designating phonemes (or speech sounds) with letters and their combinations are determined by the section of linguistics - "Graphics"; cases where the rules of graphics allow spellings are regulated by "Spelling". Punctuation conveys some intonations (interrogative, exclamatory, incomplete intonation, etc.), pauses, and to some extent participates in expressing the meaning of sentences and text and the structure of the latter.
In a modern civilized society, written speech plays such an important role that it cannot exist without it: written speech is used in the means of communication, and in cognitive activity, and in government activities, and in art, and in personal life.
Oral speech is inferior to her. Yes, and oral speech itself is to a large extent influenced by written speech, therefore, it is increasingly being defined as voiced written speech: such are reports, lectures, discussions, radio programs, the speech of students and even schoolchildren at seminars, lessons, professional speech of doctors, lawyers, civil servants and etc.
Isn't that why in the 20th century. did major studies of colloquial speech appear (E.A. Zemskaya, O.B. Sirotinina)?
Recall that written speech has two sides: writing as a written expression of thought and reading.
Letter- this is a process, an action, recoding the content of a thought from a mental code through a sound stage (this stage can act either in the oral pronunciation of an utterance before recording it, or in the form of internal pronunciation, in a motor speech code) to a graphic, alphabetic, code. It is very important to emphasize that the phoneme as the psychological equivalent of a series of positionally alternating sounds serves as an intermediate link in recoding.
The term "letter" includes:
a) preparation and formation of an utterance at the internal level, anticipating its synthesis (as in oral speech);
b) code transitions;
c) writing technique - drawing the necessary graphic characters according to the rules of calligraphy, compliance with the requirements of graphic rules and orthographic norms.
From the point of view of the theory of speech, the first step is most important, the second is no less important, but in life the writer thinks less about them than about the third - writing technique. This happens, apparently, because the first two steps "work" on the basis of linguistic intuition, linguistic instinct. The third step does not reach the level of automatism for many.
We note the merits of written speech: this is a prepared, normalized speech, it usually goes through several stages of editing; Fiction, as well as scientific and journalistic texts, have the highest level of exemplary quality.
It is this kind of speech that serves as the basis of grammar, grammatical theory and culture of speech. All explanatory dictionaries, codes of language rules, most linguistic studies are based on the material of exemplary texts.
Written speech in the form of books and various documents has been preserved for hundreds and even thousands of years, serving the cause of preserving cultural values. Written texts ensure the stability of the language itself, the language contacts of peoples.
Possession of written language has long ago become in the civilized world the property of every person, a criterion of his cultural level.
Oral and written speech differ in styles: colloquial styles and writing and book styles; by situations of use: the sphere of everyday life, family, friends, the sphere of intellectual work. The speaker or writer constantly selects language means, guided by the conditions of communication. Relatively recently, a term has emerged that defines the purpose of this process - communicative expediency. But there are other motives for choosing: the individual style of the speaker or writer, his desire for originality, wit, tact, politeness, and other motives.
Note that the study of the system of code transitions "mental code - sounding code" casts doubt on the philosophical distinction between the ideal and the material: as if the usual operation of recoding the same content can transform the ideal into the material, or vice versa.
Reading- aloud and to yourself.
The process of reading is again a code transition from a graphic code - a printed or written text - to an acoustic one and, usually simultaneously, to a mental code, or immediately to a mental code through the speech motor code.
Steps of the reading process:
a) perception of graphic signs (reading technique);
b) code transitions;
c) understanding of what is read through the mental code, through its standard signs stored in memory.
There are cases when the text being read is voiced, but the reader is surprised to find that he did not understand and did not remember anything from what he read: the mental channel was busy with something else. This is a frequent hindrance in reading both aloud and silently.
The speed of reading aloud is usually focused on the pace of oral speech; for native Russian speakers, it averages 120 words per minute. It can speed up or slow down depending on the preparedness of the listeners, on the difficulty of the content being read, on external interference.
Quiet reading in experienced readers can reach high speed by increasing the "reading field" - from 4-6 words to several lines. An additional reading field also plays a significant role - the ability to see the end of a sentence or paragraph, the following paragraphs. In the XX century. a new direction in the technique of reading arose - the so-called "dynamic reading", or speed reading. He is taught in a special way. The purpose of dynamic reading is purely informational, therefore it is recommended to use it in situations of viewing and reviewing literature on a particular topic. Dynamic reading is of interest to students, graduate students, and researchers.
The emotional, aesthetic richness of literature, the expressiveness of the text is lost when speed reading.
Reading in its various forms has become a channel of knowledge and culture of people, a need and a hobby. A person as a reader is one of the characteristics of a linguistic personality.
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From the experience of preparing for the exam
E. M. MILYUTINA
Teacher of Russian language and literature of the highest category MOU secondary school No. 23
Lecturer of UKP in ITC
Expert of the subject commission for checking essays at the Unified State Examination
Vologda
An essay for the Unified State Examination and an examination paper in the Russian language in an evening school (a presentation with a creative task) are the most revealing works for identifying the level of language and communicative competence of students. In the creative task for the presentation, there is a similarity with the essay on the exam: "Give a reasoned answer to the question or comment on one of the problems of the text of the presentation, formulating and arguing your own position." This is a special genre of writing-reasoning, which must be taught. It must have a peculiar composition that meets the criteria for evaluating the content of the work at the Unified State Examination, and a volume of at least 150 words.
I suggest using a cliché in the course of learning to compose, which will make the text of the essay logical, coherent, coherent, concise and complete, and prevent speech errors (unmotivated repetitions and clichés). We will distinguish 3 stages in training.
Preliminary (of 4 steps): 1. Acquaintance with the criteria for evaluating an essay. 2. Drawing up a plan-scheme of the essay in accordance with the evaluation criteria. 3. Separation of concepts: topic = what the text is about; idea = the most important thing that the author of the text wants to say, his opinion; problem = something that the text makes you think about. We pay special attention to two ways of formulating the problem of the text:
In the form of a question
In the form of a phrase of the word "problem" with a noun in the form of the genitive case
Does science influence human life and habits?
The problem of the influence of science on human life.
How is education related to the spiritual development of a person?
The problem of the connection between education and the spiritual development of a person.
Why does a person who is true to his calling often find himself alone?
The problem of the loneliness of a person selflessly devoted to the cause.
What impact can a person have on the course of history? What kind of person should be able to influence the course of history?
The problem of the role of personality in history.
What helps a person to stay on the intended path?
The issue of loyalty.
What can be called true life values?
The problem of true and false values.
4. Acquaintance with the source texts and exemplary essays on them. Reading texts, their analysis (definition of the problem, the author's point of view on this issue). Writing samples of essays, their analysis in terms of composition, accuracy of word usage and variety of syntactic constructions.
Source Text No. 1. (1) I was sitting in a bath of hot water, and my brother was restlessly twirling around the small room, grabbing soap and a sheet in his hands, bringing them close to myopic eyes and putting them back again. (2) Then he stood facing the wall and continued fervently:
(3) Judge for yourself. (4) We were taught goodness, intelligence, logic, they gave consciousness. (5) Main consciousness. (6) One can become ruthless, but how is it possible, having known the truth, to reject it? (7) From childhood, I was taught not to torture animals, to be compassionate. (8) The books I have read have taught me the same, and I am painfully sorry for those who suffer in your accursed war. (9) But time passes, and I begin to get used to all the suffering, I feel that in everyday life I am less sensitive, less responsive and respond only to the strongest excitations. (10) But I cannot get used to the very fact of the war, my mind refuses to understand and explain what is basically insane. (11) Millions of people, having gathered in one place and trying to make their actions correct, kill each other, and everyone is equally hurt, and everyone is equally unhappy, what is it, is it crazy?
(12) The brother turned around and stared at me inquiringly with his short-sighted eyes.
(13) I will tell you the truth. (14) Brother trustingly put a cold hand on my shoulder. (15) I cannot understand what is happening. (16) I can't understand, and it's terrible. (17) If someone could explain to me, but no one can. (18) You were at war, you saw explain to me.
(19) What an eccentric you are, brother! (20) Let some more hot water.
(21) It was so good for me to sit in the bath, as before, and listen to a familiar voice, without thinking about the words, and see everything familiar, simple, ordinary: a copper, slightly green faucet, walls with a familiar pattern, photographic accessories, in order laid out on shelves. (22) I will again take photographs, shoot simple and quiet views and my son: "how he walks, how he laughs and plays pranks. (23) And again I will write about smart books, about new successes of human thought, about beauty and peace. (24) And what he said was the fate of all those who, in their madness, become close to the madness of war.(25) It was as if I forgot at that moment, splashing in hot water, everything that I saw there.
(26) I need to get out of the bath, I said lightly, and my brother smiled at me like a child, like a younger one, although I was three years older than him, and thought like an adult, like an old man who has big and heavy thoughts.
(27) My brother called a servant, and together they took me out and dressed me. (28) Then I drank fragrant tea from my glass and thought that it was possible to live without legs, and then they took me to the office to my desk, and I got ready to work. (29) My joy was so great, the pleasure was so deep that I did not dare to start reading and only sorted through the books, gently caressing them with my hand. (30) How much intelligence and a sense of beauty are in all this. (According to L. Andreev)
Composition based on the text of L. Andreev. What is war? Andreev Leonid Nikolayevich (1871-1919), prose writer, playwright, publicist, representative of the Silver Age of Russian literature, considers this question in his story.
He raises the problem of the moral assessment of war, which is important for all times and peoples. Its significance lies in the fact that there are still military and religious conflicts in which people kill each other, both participants in wars and civilians suffer. The emotional narration of L. Andreev makes us take a fresh look at the past and present wars.
The position of the author is expressed in the monologue of the protagonist's younger brother: “But I can't get used to the very fact of the war, my brain refuses to understand and explain what is basically insane. (10) Millions of people are killing each other, and everyone is equally hurt, and everyone is equally unhappy. (11) He considers war to be madness.
It is difficult to disagree with this point of view. I think that the consequences of the experience during the war affect for a long time.
Let us recall the lonely, insane old man from V. Bykov's story "The Steep Bank of the River." For twenty-five years he has been waiting for his sons from the war: he comes daily to the river bank and peers at the road on the other side until dusk. Then he makes a fire, remembering the order of the children: "When the Germans leave, make a fire." Time has stopped for this father. He lives in the hope of meeting his sons.
Let's remember Baba Dunya from B. Ekimov's story "The Night of Healing". For many years she screams and cries at night, again and again dreaming about how she lost food cards during the war and how she got to the hospital to her husband.
Thus, it can be argued: war is madness, and there are no completely uninjured in the war.
2nd version of your own opinion. I think that during the war, children are the most vulnerable. There are many examples of this in literature and in life.
Recall the story of V. I. Belov "Boys". It describes one day in the life of two boys who live in a village far from the front near the railway station. They are hungry and cold. Lenka Komlev takes care of Van Seregin, who was evacuated from besieged Leningrad. To warm a friend who has chills after being vaccinated, he risks his life by stealing coal from a military echelon. Children are trying to survive. Probably, the impressions of the writer's military childhood formed the basis of the story. After all, Belov was nine years old when the Great Patriotic War began, his father died at the front. Apparently, the memory of the war hard times did not let the writer go, that's why this story appeared.
Let us also recall the story of M. Sholokhov “The Fate of a Man”. The round orphan Vanyushka feeds near the teahouse with alms from compassionate drivers and spends the night wherever he can. What would have become of him if Andrei Sokolov had not adopted him?
Has not the psyche of these children, deprived of the joys of childhood, suffered? Now we understand why our great-grandfathers and great-grandmothers, children of the war, said: "If only there was no war."
Thus, it can be argued that war is madness, and during it children are most vulnerable.
3rd option own opinion. I think that not only L. Andreev condemned the war.
Let us recall the monument of Russian writing "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Its author is a great humanist. He writes about the countless troubles that war brings. In the Lay, nature cries out to the world, and Yaroslavna's poetic lamentation expresses the eternal desire of women for peace.
The idea of condemning wars developed in subsequent eras. In an epic novel
L. N. Tolstoy “War and Peace” the leading thought is the idea of the criminality of war in general and the value of human life, any. At the end of the description of the Battle of Borodino, the clouds covered the sky, it began to rain on the dead and wounded, on the frightened and exhausted people. It was like he was saying, "People, that's enough. Stop coming to your senses. What are you doing?"
Let us recall K. Vorobyov, B. Vasiliev, V. Bykov, V. Bogomolov, V. Astafiev. In their works, the condemnation of bloodshed sounds even more piercing. During the Great Patriotic War, these men were young, they wanted to love and be loved, but they had to become soldiers: to kill and survive under bullets, get maimed, lose friends and relatives. Personal experience, feelings and suffering underlie their stories and stories.
Thus, it can be argued that war is madness, a terrible evil, and Russian literature has always spoken about this.
Source text No. 2. (1) In the backyard of our village, a long room made of boards stood on piles. (2) For the first time in my life I heard music here - a violin. (3) Vasya the Pole played on it. (4) What did the music tell me about? (5) About something very big. (6) What did she complain about, with whom was she angry? (7) I am anxious and bitter. (8) I want to cry, because I feel sorry for myself, I feel sorry for those who sleep soundly in the cemetery!
(9) Vasya, without ceasing to play, said: “(10) This music was written by a person who was deprived of the most precious thing. (11) If a person has no mother, no father, but has a homeland, he is not yet an orphan. (12) Everything passes: love, regret for it, the bitterness of loss, even the pain from wounds, but the longing for the homeland never passes and does not go out. (13) This music was written by my countryman Oginsky. (14) I wrote on the border, saying goodbye to my homeland. (15) He sent her last greetings. (16) For a long time there has been no composer in the world, but his pain, his longing, love for his native land, which no one can take away, is still alive.
(17) “Thank you, uncle,” I whispered. (18) "But what, boy?" (19) "But the fact that I am not an orphan." (20) With enthusiastic tears I thanked Vasya, this world is nocturnal, the sleeping village, as well as the forest sleeping behind it. (21) At that moment there was no evil for me. (22) Mup was kind and lonely just like me. (23) Music about indestructible love for the motherland sounded in me! (24) The Yenisei, not sleeping even at night, the silent village behind me, the grasshopper, working with all its last strength in defiance of autumn in nettles shimmering with metal, this was my homeland.
(25) ... Many years have passed. (26) And then one day, at the end of the war, I stood near the cannons in a destroyed Polish city. (27) There was a smell of burning, dust all around. (28) And suddenly, in the house located across the street from me, the sounds of an organ were heard. (29) This music stirred up memories. (ZO) Once I wanted to die from incomprehensible sadness and delight after I listened to Oginsky's polonaise. (31) But now the same music that I listened to as a child has refracted in me and petrified, especially that part of it that I once cried from. (32) Music, just like on that distant night, grabbed the throat, but did not squeeze out tears, did not grow with pity. (33) She called somewhere, forced to do something so that these fires would go out, so that people would not huddle in burning ruins, so that the sky would not throw up explosions. (34) Music dominated the city, numb with grief, the very music that, like a sigh of his land, was kept in the heart of a person who had never seen his homeland and yearned for her all his life. (According to V. Astafiev)
Composition based on the text of V.P. Astafiev. What is music capable of? This issue is considered in his story by the writer V.P. Astafiev.
He raises the problem of the beneficial influence of classical music on human development, which is important for the younger generation. The significance of the problem lies in the fact that today's youth is fond of rock, without thinking about its destructive impact on the psyche. Many listen to rhythmic, non-thought-out electronic music and do not know that classical music, on the contrary, stimulates the brain, concentrates attention and strengthens memory. The emotional narration of V.P. Astafiev makes you take a fresh look at your musical hobbies, understand the position of the author and his feelings. He believes that Oginsky's polonaise is "music about indestructible love for the Motherland." With her, a person will never be left an orphan. It has a miraculous power: the music “was angry”, “complained”, “disturbed memories”, “refracted in me and turned to stone”, “dominated”. Helps to live: “She called somewhere, forced to do something so that the fires would go out, so that people would not huddle in the burning ruins” (33)
I agree with the position of the author and believe that in the sound of strings and keyboards, music is capable of evoking special emotions and even shocks. The strength of the influence of string music was reflected in the legends about Sadko and Orpheus, who knew how to extract divine sounds from the strings, which worked miracles that could arouse the mercy of the rulers of the underwater and underground kingdoms. It is well known that Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata relieves irritability, Strauss's waltzes calm the nerves, the music of Debussy and Ravel relieves insomnia. The sound of string and keyboard instruments in a special way affects the human brain, the growth of plants and even water, the structure of which acquires a beautiful radiant shape. It is no coincidence that Catholic worship is accompanied by an organ.
Let us recall how Vera Sheina perceived Beethoven's sonata from A. I. Kuprin's story "Garnet Bracelet" when she returned home after saying goodbye to the official Zheltkov, who had killed himself because of hopeless love for her. She cries soul-cleansing tears and hears in the music a prayer of farewell and forgiveness, ending with the words: “Let your name shine!”.
Therefore, it can be argued that music helps people who have an aesthetic sense to live.
The second stage of training is the main one. Essay writing practice. For the first time it is collective work in groups or pairs. Let's apply 2 types of work. The first type of work is the compilation of working materials using speech clichés:
1. Introduction. Formulation of the original text problem in the form of a question. Remember that the problem is the question considered by the author of the source text. He poses this question in his article (story, essay) (author's initials and surname).
2. Commentary on the formulated problem. He (a publicist, writer, well-known linguist, scientist) raises an important problem for all of us (for modern society, for science and society, for youth, for the world community) (the moral assessment of war, mercy and compassion, conscience and duty, the relationship between man and nature, the role of education in the spiritual development of a person, the need for thoughtful reading, understanding of intelligence).
Remember that in the 2nd paragraph the problem is formulated again, but as a combination of the word "problem" with a noun in the genitive case. The significance of the problem is that many misunderstand (look in the text for a phrase that explains the reason for the author's address to this problem). Emotional reasoning (narration) helps to take a fresh look at oneself and others (to be imbued with the problem of the text and understand the author's point of view on this issue).
3. Position of the author. For a journalistic source text: (Author's surname) is convinced (believes, believes): "in quotation marks, a quote expressing the author's main idea on the stated problem."
For a fictional narrative text: the position (the author's surname in the genitive case) is expressed in sympathy (see the key words of the text) for his hero (in condemnation of the act of his hero, in respect for the act of his hero), who (in one phrase convey the meaning of the act). You can not combine the personality of the author and the personality of the hero-narrator. Keep this in mind if the text is in the first person.
4. Own reasoned opinion on the problem formulated in the 1st paragraph. Remember: you must agree with the point of view of the author or refute it. I agree with this opinion and I think that I do not agree with this point of view and I think that the transitions to arguments can be as follows: 1. This is confirmed by examples from the literature. 2. This is what our literature is talking about.3. To prove my point of view, I will give the following examples. 4. Justify my point of view: 1st and 2nd arguments confirming my own opinion (1-3 sentences each). To argue opinions, we observe the reliability of facts (factual accuracy) and ethical standards.
5. Conclusion is the answer to the question posed in the introduction: Therefore, Thus, it can be argued that
The second type of work is the creation of one's own composition, its editing.
The third stage of training is reinforcing. These are training sessions. Self-analysis by points:
1. Accuracy of citation and correct formatting of citations.
2. Literacy check. Work with spelling and explanatory dictionaries, a dictionary of synonyms and a textbook.
3. Verification of factual accuracy and ethical standards in the background material of the argumentation of one's own opinion.
4. Remember: in the text of the essay - 7 paragraphs! Count the words in each of the 7 paragraphs - they cannot be less than 150 words in total.
Criteria and criteria
11111
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Maximum points
1
2
1
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
1
1
EvaluationEvaluation
2. Mutual verification. Have students act as experts and evaluate each other's work. The criteria for evaluating an essay should be in the hands of each student from the very beginning of work on the essay. After graduation, the student draws a table.
Only after peer review does the teacher take essays for evaluation. The analysis is necessary so that each student knows his shortcomings in the content and design of the work and can further improve their quality.
WORKS USING CLICCHES
(Application)
Composition number 1. What is it - to live according to conscience? This issue is considered by A. G. Aleksin, the author of the story "Signalers and Buglers".
He raises a very important issue of conscience for all of us. The significance of the problem lies in the fact that many people do not understand how important it is to listen to the voice of conscience, that is, to have a sense of responsibility for one's behavior before oneself and before people, before society. The emotional narration of A. Aleksin allows you to take a fresh look at your own actions.
The position of the author is put into the mouth of the heroine of the story, Nina Vasilievna, who believes that a doctor is not only a profession, but also a way of life, and helps everyone who needs it. She lives according to her conscience.
It is difficult to disagree with this point of view. I think that to live according to conscience is not to sin, to sympathize, to sympathize and to contribute.
Let us recall Dr. Pirogov from A. I. Kuprin's story "The Wonderful Doctor". He felt the despair of a man sitting alone in a deserted park on the eve of the Christmas holiday, helped his dying daughter, examined the girl and prescribed medicine, left money for treatment, firewood and food for the whole family. Dr. Pirogov actually saved the whole family, because after his help things got better: the father found a job, the girl got better, the boys were admitted to the gymnasium at public expense.
Consider Mary from the American musical The Sound of Music. As a governess, she is sent from the monastery for obedience to the widower's house. Maria, with her sincerity and kindness, won the favor of the children, who accepted and loved her as their own mother. Thanks to Maria, music began to sound again in the house and the sonorous laughter of children began to be heard. They felt the sensitive soul of a girl who acted at the behest of her heart.
Thus, it can be argued: to live according to conscience - to live with a sense of responsibility for one's actions, to help those in need of help.
Composition No. 2. What are the intellectual heroes in the stories of A.P. Chekhov? This question is considered by VV Nabokov.
He raises a very important problem for readers of the image of the Russian intelligentsia by A.P. Chekhov. The literary critic sets out his own understanding of his characters, gives them an assessment. The significance of the problem lies in the fact that the type of Russian intellectual, "a bizarre and touching creature" (1), is little known abroad. This reasoning helps to take a fresh look at Chekhov's heroes.
V. V. Nabokov believes: “A typical Chekhovian hero is an unsuccessful defender of universal human truth, who put on himself a burden that he could neither bear nor abandon.” (5) The critic hears from Chekhov: “Blessed is the country that managed to give birth to such a human type ".(eleven)
I agree with the author of the article and think that we see a similar image of the Russian intelligentsia in B. Pasternak and M. Bulgakov. Let us recall the protagonist of B. Pasternak's novel "Doctor Zhivago". This is an idealist, subtly feeling and deeply suffering person. He does not abandon his medical practice and literary work during the years of the revolution and the Civil War. He reproaches himself for lack of will, gets sick and dies early. The intellectual Yuri Zhivago did not adapt to the "new life".
Close to Chekhov's heroes is another doctor - the hero of M. Bulgakov's early stories "Notes of a Young Doctor". He sees the darkness of the peasants, their ignorance and suspicion of the educated, but at the same time he is aware of his duty to treat and enlighten them. A young doctor analyzes his thoughts and feelings as he keeps a diary. His supply of vital energy in an atmosphere of hard work without days off and holidays ends. This book reflects the personal experience of the young M. Bulgakov, who worked as a doctor for two years in a rural wilderness.
Therefore, it can be argued that A.P. Chekhov is not alone in showing the sensitivity and vulnerability of intellectual heroes.
Composition number 3. What are the components of human happiness? This is stated in an excerpt from M. Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita.
The writer considers an important philosophical problem. Its significance lies in the fact that for many happiness is love. But love, according to the figurative definition of M. Prishvin, can be huge, like an ocean - this is love for the whole world, for humanity. Maybe, like a stream, it is a quiet family love; or maybe, like stagnant water, it is selfish love for oneself, such love does not bring happiness.
M. Bulgakov believes that Margarita's love for the Master is sacrificial love, "real, faithful, eternal", which she needs for happiness.
One can agree with the author. I think there are other components of happiness.
Consider Alfred Nobel. He had an all-encompassing love for science and the world. He registered 355 patents and brought all his developments to life. He was a truly great man, but he preferred to keep a low profile. He had no desire to become famous, but had a great love for scientific research. He founded a foundation and left a will, in which he transferred all the proceeds from gunpowder factories to awards for scientific discoveries in the country and the world. This act shows his attitude to the sciences.
Another example of true love for one's work is the life-feat of Mother Teresa, Nobel Peace Prize laureate. After her death, about 600 hospitals in 128 countries of the world remained. She founded the Order, whose sisters adhere to two rules: to be poor and to serve the poor. Mother Teresa opened orphanages, hospitals, vaccination centers, leper colonies, and the world's first AIDS hospital. She dedicated her life to the disadvantaged people in need of help.
Therefore, we can conclude: happy is the one who serves his beloved cause, who makes others happy or relieves the suffering of the sick. The ability to love, sympathize, empathize and human happiness lies.
Composition number 4. What is love? This question is considered in his discussion
M. M. Prishvin.
He raises the issue of love, which is very important for all of us. The significance of the problem is that many people do not understand how love manifests itself, how it affects the world around us and people. M. Prishvin's reasoning helps to take a fresh look at one's actions.
The publicist claims: "Great love covers the whole world."
I agree with that. Loving people have kind, open hearts. They are ready to help with advice and deed.
For example, in A. Aleksin's story "Signals and Buglers" tells about Nina Vasilievna, a pediatrician. Caring for her sick husband, she mastered all medical professions. She was so compassionate that she helped all the neighbors without asking for any thanks. And she taught this to her son Petya, not without reason their apartment was called the “Bureau of Good Services”.
Let us also recall Dr. Jansen from B. Vasiliev's book “My Horses Are Flying”. This stooped, thin man tirelessly walked around the poor district of Smolensk without days off and holidays in any weather, because illnesses also do not know weekends and holidays. People considered him a saint even during his lifetime. He died in a sewer well saving children. Dr. Jansen possessed the rarest gift to live not for himself, to think not about himself, to take care of something other than himself.
Thus, it can be argued: great love gives a lot of good, it, according to M. Prishvin, is like the ocean.
Composition number 5. Is it necessary to help everyone? This question is considered by K. I. Chukovsky.
It raises an important moral issue of providing help and support. Using many examples from the life of A.P. Chekhov, the literary critic shows how the famous Russian writer treated this. The significance of the problem lies in the fact that many do not understand that by helping, a person receives joy. Chukovsky's emotional article helps to take a fresh look at his own actions and the actions of others.
In his opinion, “Chekhov was unshakably sure that not only those who are in solidarity with us or who are in our hearts, but imordomondia”, that is, people who are unpleasant in communication, have the right to our help.
I agree with this point of view, because Chukovsky convincingly proved it. I think that helping is a manifestation of morality. Only sensitive people can help at the call of the heart. This is reflected in the literature.
Let us recall the story of B. Ekimov "The Night of Healing". Baba Dunya has been screaming and crying at night for many years, again and again dreaming about how she lost food cards during the war and how she got to her husband in the hospital. The grandson helped her, suggesting to the sleeping woman that the cards had been found and that she was being let on the train. The sensitive young man understood: with a kind word, and not with a shout, it is necessary to treat the grandmother's psyche, which suffered from the war.
In addition, let us recall A. Kuprin's story "The Wonderful Doctor". Professor Pirogov is a sensitive person, because he helped the Mertsalov family: he examined the dying girl, wrote out a prescription, left money for firewood and food. The starving family took his help as a miracle, because after some time the father of the family found a job, the children were admitted to the gymnasium at public expense. And all this thanks to the timely help of the doctor, who showed kindness and responsiveness.
Thus, it can be argued that helping those in need is a balm for a sensitive soul.
Composition number 6. What is happiness? This question is considered in his discussion
S. Chekmarev.
He raises the issue of understanding happiness, which is important for all of us. The significance of the problem lies in the fact that today many associate a happy life with "partying, idleness full of philistine contentment." (5) S. Chekmarev's emotional reasoning allows you to take a fresh look at your own way of life.
The publicist is convinced: "For the personal happiness of a person, his ardent attachment to some business, to some idea is necessary." (14) He believes that "Pisarev was absolutely right when he said that the greatest happiness of a person is to fall in love with an idea to which one can devote oneself undividedly." (27)
I agree with this point of view. I think that everyone understands happiness in their own way. Nowadays, many people leave the big cities and go "to the outback" for happiness. Of course, they understand the beneficial influence of nature on the development of the individual. The ability to feel nature is a great happiness.
Let us recall K. G. Paustovsky, who admired those who drew strength from nature and found topics for creativity in it. In the story "Squeaky Floorboards" he wrote about the composer P. I. Tchaikovsky, who perceived his beloved forest land as a source of inspiration.
In journalism, Paustovsky admired M. Prishvin, who understood the secret life of nature and sang its beauty. In the fairy tale “The Pantry of the Sun”, an ordinary forest turns into a fabulous, enchanted one. Trees, animals and birds talk, empathize with the characters. According to Prishvin, nature is a huge pantry, and a person should use it wisely, without greed.
Imagine this picture: “Everything is in a melting haze: hills, copses... Here the colors are not bright and the sounds are not sharp. Here the rivers are slow, the lakes are foggy, and everything escapes a cursory glance. It was written by the poet N. Rylenkov. He advises: “It is not enough to see here, here one must look closely so that the heart is filled with clear love.” A person who understands this is a happy person.
Thus, it can be argued that happiness is the way to achieve the goal in unity with nature, which gives longevity and themes for creativity.
Dictation texts
After each dictation, I recommend creating a text with your own argumentation for the thesis put forward by the teacher or writing an essay on this issue, expressing your opinion and proving it with examples from the literature.
1. The problem of compassion. I think that compassion is the most important feature of spirituality. This is reflected in Russian literature.
It is enough to turn to the work of F. M. Dostoevsky. For example, his book "Notes from the Dead House" is permeated with compassion for the "unfortunate" - this is how convicted criminals have long been called in Russia. The details of the horrific life of convicts described in the book were tested by the author in hard labor. The author shares his pain and sympathy for the sufferers with the reader.
In addition, remember the novel "Crime and Punishment". In the name of compassionate love for small children and half-crazy Katerina Ivanovna with her consumption, and then for the transgressor of the law, Rodion Raskolnikov, Sonya Marmeladova goes to self-sacrifice. The moral law by which Sonya lives, according to the writer, is the only correct one. Raskolnikov is "infected" by Sonya's religiosity and confesses to the crime. In their confrontation, Sonya's spiritual beauty, her sacrificial love, compassion and faith win.
Thus, it can be argued that the manifestation of compassion is a sign of a living soul.
2. The problem of conscience. I believe that conscience is synonymous with shame, but if shame, conscientiousness manifests itself in the form of embarrassment, then conscience is a moral self-assessment of a person’s actions. This is reflected in the literature.
Let us recall the novel by F. M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". In fact, this is a story about the saving pangs of Raskolnikov's conscience that precede his repentance.
In addition, let us recall the novel Resurrection by L. N. Tolstoy. The voice of conscience leads Nekhlyudov, who has gone astray, to spiritual and spiritual enlightenment, to the realization of his guilt not only before Katyusha Maslova, but also before the whole world. Repentance radically changes his way of life.
Let us also recall the novel by I. S. Turgenev "The Nest of Nobles". The character of Lisa Kalitina is determined by love, humility and conscience. It is as if she takes upon herself the burden of the historical guilt of her kind and goes to the monastery to atone for the sins of other people.
Thus, it can be argued that the ability to hear the voice of conscience is a sign of a living soul.
3. The problem of pity. I believe that pity is the highest manifestation of a person's moral attitude towards all living things. This is reflected in the literature.
For example, when reading the description of frostbitten, dirty and hungry Frenchmen who were taken prisoner in Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace", you feel pity for them. Kutuzov, addressing the soldiers of the Preobrazhensky Regiment in a place with the symbolic name Good, says that "while the French were strong, we beat them, and now you can regret it, because they are also people." And in the soul of every soldier it resonates.
In addition, let us recall M. Gorky's play "At the Bottom", where pity is at the epicenter of the discussion about a person. If Luke calls: "Pity people need to!" - and shows pity, then Satin condemns her. Apparently, they have forgotten the original meaning of the word: to regret is to love. The special significance of pity is that it is absolutely disinterested.
Vasily Shukshin in the story "Borya" "answered" M. Gorky: "In vain did they exclaim:" You must not feel sorry for a person! And respect!” Shukshin believed that respect is a business that comes with culture, and pity is higher than us, wiser than libraries.
Thus, it can be argued that the ability to regret is a sign of a living soul.
4. The problem of mercy. I think that mercy has always been revered as a human virtue, since it includes forgiveness. This is reflected in the literature.
Let us recall the most important merit of A. S. Pushkin to the Fatherland: "And he called for mercy on the fallen." Usually this phrase is associated with the poet's attempts to alleviate the fate of the convicted Decembrists. But it can also be attributed to the position of the author, his mercy to the deeply suffering heroes in The Stationmaster, in The Bronze Horseman. In The Captain's Daughter, by the grace of Pugachev, Pyotr Grinev and Masha Mironova survived, and by the grace of the Empress, Grinev's good name was returned.
In addition, let us recall Sonya Marmeladova from F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment". This is a meek, quiet and weak-looking girl, but strong when it comes to faith. A deeply religious person, she is merciful to her alcoholic father, to Katerina Ivanovna and her children. She actually saves Raskolnikov from madness, helps to understand the immorality of his theory and the horror of the crime he committed. She is the first to forgive him and leads to spiritual rebirth.
Thus, it can be argued that the ability to forgive is a manifestation of mercy.
5. The problem of kindness. I believe that kindness (good deed, deed) is an important feature of spirituality. This is reflected in the literature.
Let us recall the story of V.P. Astafiev “The Horse with a Pink Mane”. The action takes place in the pre-war years in a Siberian village. An orphan boy dreams of a treat - a gingerbread in the form of a horse with a pink mane. One day, the grandmother decided to sell strawberries in the city in order to buy such a gingerbread, and sent her grandson to pick berries. He deceived his grandmother, following the lead of the neighboring children, he filled the basket with grass, only sprinkled with strawberries on top. The deception was revealed in the city, but the grandmother nevertheless bought a gingerbread for her grandson, realizing that the boy would suffer from his dishonest act. The grandmother's gift became a lesson in kindness for her grandson.
In addition, let us recall the story of V. Rasputin "French Lessons". A young French teacher not only does additional work with a starving capable boy, but also tries to help by playing with him for money, discreetly making sure that he wins enough to have enough for a glass of milk. For playing for money with a child, she is fired from her job. The kindness of the teacher was forever remembered by the boy. Her attention, sensitivity, desire to help became life guidelines for the hero of the story.
Thus, it can be argued that the manifestation of kindness is a sign of a sensitive soul.
6. The problem of honor and self-esteem. I think that honor and self-respect are important features of spirituality. This is reflected in the literature.
Recall the story of A. S. Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter". The proverb “Take care of honor from a young age” is an epigraph to it, as it expresses the main idea. Pyotr Grinev never betrayed the honor of an officer in the most difficult life trials. In a duel with Shvabrin, he defended the honor of Masha Mironova. After the capture of the Belogorsk fortress, he proved himself to be a valiant officer and refused to swear allegiance to Pugachev. In conversations with him, he did not lose his self-esteem. During the investigation, he did not name his fiancee so that it would not sound during the trial, and after all, the daughter of the valiant captain Mironov would help him justify that he was not a traitor.
In addition, let us recall the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov”. The protagonist stands up for the honor of his wife and family. He boldly goes to a fist fight against the beloved tsar's guardsman Kiribeevich, who is pursuing his wife Alena Dmitrievna, and kills. Tsar Ivan the Terrible orders the execution of Kalashnikov. At the cost of his life, the hero defended the honor and good name of his family.
Thus, it can be argued that the ability to stand up for honor and dignity testifies to the strength of the human spirit.
I hope the application will help novice teachers to navigate in practical work. The presented experience has been tested by time and gives good results both in the daytime and in the evening school, especially in working with students who have found themselves in a difficult life situation and experienced the strongest fateful upheavals.
Recall that the term speech denotes both the process of speech and the result of speech activity, i.e. text - oral, written or even mental. These values need to be separated.
Speech is divided into external and internal. Speech accessible to others, and speech only for oneself.
External speech has four types, grouped in pairs:
- speaking listening (oral speech);
- writing reading (written speech).
Typology internal speech will be considered in a separate chapter on the steps of its depth. A separate chapter is also devoted to monologue and dialogue - types of speech identified back in the era of Hellenic culture.
Speech differentiated by style: oral-colloquial and written-book styles are distinguished with a more detailed division of both groups (they will also be considered in a separate chapter).
Literary criticism has its own system of types: works of art are subdivided into genres and genres.
- childbirth: epic, lyric, drama. Epic genres: novel, story, short story, epic novel, essay, memoirs, fairy tale, epic, etc.
- Poetic genres: poem, ballad, ode, lyrics - landscape, philosophical, civil, intimate, etc.
- Dramatic genres: comedy, tragedy, drama, vaudeville, screenplay.
Genres also stand out in journalism: interview, reportage, article, note, feuilleton; and in scientific literature: monograph, scientific article, abstract, scientific report, dissertation, textbook, student manual.
Oratory has its own genres: judicial speech - in accusation or defense, polemic, discussion, welcoming speech (epideic), academic lecture, church sermon.
The epistolary genre, types of business papers, legal documents and much more are also noted.
Each genre, or type of literary text, is subject to its own rules, relatively stable, the so-called "genre laws". These rules apply both to content (for example, a wide flow of life in a novel) and form (for example, several storylines in a novel - a compositional device). A separate chapter on literary types and genres is not provided for in this book: this topic is immense, has a long history and only intersects with the main core of this book.
Let us now consider the main types of speech - speaking, listening, writing and reading - in more detail, in the system of concepts of speech theory.
Oral speech
But in fact, oral speech relatively rarely precedes written speech in situations in the life of an adult: written speech is always preceded by mental speech, and not by oral speech. The writer mentally constructs the text to be written and rarely speaks it out loud.
Oral speech is supposed to have arisen naturally at the dawn of the human mind, satisfying the need for live, direct communication of our distant ancestors. Apparently, sound speech (in contrast to the transmission of information using odors, radio waves, etc., as in some insects and even mammals) began to predominate in human communication due to its advantages as a universal means of communication over a short distance. It has been suggested that this was facilitated by the structure of the larynx and other organs of pronunciation, which later, already in the process of oral communication, improved even more.
In any case, people believe that they did not lose, but won by choosing acoustic, sound, speech as the main way of contacts, information exchange and self-expression.
At the same time, one cannot but admit that the system of pronunciation organs is much less perfect than the speech centers of the brain, the mechanisms of memory and coordination, the system of code transitions, etc.
Recall that oral speech has two sides: the sending of a speech signal and its reception; speaking and listening.
speaking- this is the voicing of a thought, a code transition from a mental code, from an internal speech code that precedes an oral statement, to a sound (acoustic) code, to a phonetic code.
The term speaking sounds somewhat artificial, it is used in specialized literature: it denotes the action of the sender of an oral-speech signal. In this action, one can always single out the situation of speech, its motives and goals, the content of the statement, its construction, verbal and grammatical expression, and, finally, the transition to an acoustic code - to a form that can be perceived by the interlocutor. N.I. Zhinkin, the author of the theory of code transitions in speech, considers the phoneme to be the unit of recoding.
It happens that a person has time to think about the forthcoming statement, to say it mentally several times. But even in the process of fast speech, speaking, pronunciation always lags behind mental construction. This is an advance in the thought of N.I. Zhinkin called proactive speech synthesis. Its volume is the key to the speech development of a person: the greater the lead, the more freely and correctly the person speaks.
In addition to proactive synthesis, free oral speech requires the flexibility of pronunciation mechanisms, their unmistakable coordination, instant choice of words, and fluency in syntactic mechanisms.
This is the knowledge of the language, possession of it from the point of view of the theory of speech.
listening- this is a code transition from the acoustic code, in which the listener with his ear, with the auricle, receives the thought expressed by another person, to the code of internal speech, to the mental code. This is the understanding of perceived speech, because the mental code of each person is individual in the sense that his memory stores a fund of images, schemes, ideas, concepts and phonemic standards of words associated with images, concepts, etc.
Modern oral speech has significant virtues compared to written language:
1. It can be freely combined with the so-called non-verbal means of communication, fit into the situation, into the flow of life. It is directly connected with gestures, facial expressions, postures of the speaker, with indications of surrounding objects; oral speech, as a rule, implies the closeness of the interlocutors: they see each other, the whole situation participates in their communication; communication is realized not only by their voices, their faces, smiles, body movements, everything around participate.
Of course, in a conversation on an ordinary telephone, in radio broadcasts, in listening to tape recordings, all of the above disappears. But in television programs, in video recordings, it is preserved, this explains their high efficiency.
People, talking on the phone, smile, even gesticulate, but all this is in vain, the interlocutor does not see this, he only catches emotional intonations.
Particular emphasis should be placed on the role intonations. Linguistics describes semantic intonations, raising and lowering the voice - this is the intonation of completeness, intonation enumerative, excretory, incompleteness, intonation of the question, etc.
Emotional intonations are much more expressive, they have the finest shades, there are several dozen contrasting pairs: intonations of sadness and joy, major and minor, ironic and enthusiastic, contemptuous and respectful, arrogant and shy, intonations of kindness and irritation, affectionate and rude, arrogant and humiliated...
Written speech does not have adequate means of expression, only to a small extent compensates for this lack of font highlights, punctuation marks, as well as a description of the situation against which the action takes place, a description of the experiences of the characters.
2. The advantage of oral speech is the speed of its flow, the possibility of quick reactions, feedback.
Oral speech turned out to be not only suitable, but even convenient for creating a graphic code - economical, technologically advanced. And most recently it has turned out to be convenient for electronic equipment.
Now let's note limitations oral speech:
- noise immunity: communication in the acoustic code can be hindered by the distance between the speakers, any extraneous noise, defects in the individual pronunciation of the speaker, hearing defects of the perceiving speech;
- instantaneous flow: oral speech itself disappears, and even the speaker himself usually cannot repeat verbatim what he just said. Because of this shortcoming, oral speech poorly performs a historical function - the connection of generations: it depends on the not always accurate and reliable memory of people who transmit myths, legends, folklore works from generation to generation.
Written speech
This type of speech has many codes: ideographic writing, hieroglyphic, sound-letter (more precisely, phonemic: in Russian, as a rule, a letter denotes a phoneme without taking into account positional alternations) is known. The alphabetic script is used in all European languages, despite the fact that it is not the most economical. But it is easier than hieroglyphic in terms of mastering it: in European alphabets there are from 26 to 33 letters.
The rules for designating phonemes (or speech sounds) with letters and their combinations are determined by the section of linguistics - "Graphics"; cases where the rules of graphics allow spellings are regulated by "Spelling". Punctuation conveys some intonations (interrogative, exclamatory, incomplete intonation, etc.), pauses, and to some extent participates in expressing the meaning of sentences and text and the structure of the latter.
In a modern civilized society, written speech plays such an important role that it cannot exist without it: written speech is used in the means of communication, and in cognitive activity, and in government activities, and in art, and in personal life.
Oral speech is inferior to her. Yes, and oral speech itself is to a large extent influenced by written speech, therefore, it is increasingly being defined as voiced written speech: such are reports, lectures, discussions, radio programs, the speech of students and even schoolchildren at seminars, lessons, professional speech of doctors, lawyers, civil servants and etc.
Isn't that why in the 20th century. appeared major studies of colloquial speech (E.A. Zemskaya, O.B. Sirotinina)?
Recall that written speech has two sides: writing as a written expression of thought and reading.
Writing is a process, an action, recoding the content of a thought from a mental code through a sound stage (this stage can act either in the oral pronunciation of a statement before recording it, or in the form of internal pronunciation, in a motor speech code) to a graphic, alphabetic code. It is very important to emphasize that the phoneme as the psychological equivalent of a series of positionally alternating sounds serves as an intermediate link in recoding.
In the concept " letter» includes:
- preparation and formation of an utterance at the internal level with anticipation of its synthesis (as in oral speech);
- code transitions;
- writing technique - drawing the necessary graphic characters according to the rules of calligraphy, compliance with the requirements of graphic rules and spelling norms.
From the point of view of the theory of speech, the first step is most important, the second is no less important, but in life the writer thinks less about them than about the third - writing technique. This happens, apparently, because the first two steps "work" on the basis of linguistic intuition, linguistic instinct. The third step does not reach the level of automatism for many.
Note dignity written speech: this is a prepared, normalized speech, it usually goes through several stages of editing; Fiction, as well as scientific and journalistic texts, have the highest level of exemplary quality.
It is this kind of speech that serves as the basis of grammar, grammatical theory and culture of speech. All explanatory dictionaries, codes of language rules, most linguistic studies are based on the material of exemplary texts.
Written speech in the form of books and various documents has been preserved for hundreds and even thousands of years, serving the cause of preserving cultural values. Written texts ensure the stability of the language itself, the language contacts of peoples.
Possession of written language has long ago become in the civilized world the property of every person, a criterion of his cultural level.
Spoken and written speech differ in style: colloquial styles and styles of writing and book; by situations of use: the sphere of everyday life, family, friends, the sphere of intellectual work. The speaker or writer constantly selects language means, guided by the conditions of communication. Relatively recently, a term has emerged that defines the purpose of this process - communicative expediency. But there are other motives for choosing: the individual style of the speaker or writer, his desire for originality, wit, tact, politeness, and other motives.
Note that the study of the system of code transitions "mental code - sounding code" casts doubt on the philosophical distinction between the ideal and the material: as if the usual operation of recoding the same content can transform the ideal into the material, or vice versa.
Reading- out loud and to yourself.
Reading process- this is again a code transition from a graphic code - a printed or written text - to an acoustic one and, usually simultaneously, to a mental code or immediately to a mental code through a motor speech code.
Steps of the reading process:
- perception of graphic signs (reading technique);
- code transitions;
- understanding of what is read through the mental code, through its standard signs stored in memory.
There are cases when the text being read is voiced, but the reader is surprised to find that he did not understand and did not remember anything from what he read: the mental channel was busy with something else. This is a frequent hindrance in reading both aloud and silently.
The speed of reading aloud is usually focused on the pace of oral speech; for native Russian speakers, it averages 120 words per minute. It can speed up or slow down depending on the preparedness of the listeners, on the difficulty of the content being read, on external interference.
Quiet reading in experienced readers can reach high speed by increasing the "reading field" - from 4-6 words to several lines. An additional reading field also plays an important role - the ability to see the end of a sentence or paragraph, the following paragraphs. In the XX century. a new direction in the technique of reading arose - the so-called "dynamic reading", or speed reading. He is taught in a special way. The purpose of dynamic reading is purely informational, therefore it is recommended to use it in situations of viewing and reviewing literature on a particular topic. Dynamic reading is of interest to students, graduate students, and researchers.
The emotional, aesthetic richness of literature, the expressiveness of the text is lost when speed reading.
Reading in its various forms has become a channel of knowledge and culture of people, a need and a hobby. A person as a reader is one of the characteristics of a linguistic personality.
Connected semantically and grammatically. Text is the result of the speech activity of the speaker or writer. It contains the potential speech activity of both the listener and the reader.
The texts include proverbs and sayings, consisting of one sentence: Do you like to ride - love to carry sleds; To live life is not a field to cross.text also called any finished work (essay, feuilleton, poem, story, novel, etc.) or its fragment (chapter, part, etc.). The text can exist in two forms - oral and written.
The main features of the text are connectedness and wholeness. The sentences included in the text are interconnected in meaning and structure. To compose a text, it is necessary to arrange the sentences in a certain sequence, which reflects the logic of the development of the addresser's thought; at the same time, the author must take into account the possibilities of perception of the one to whom his speech is addressed - the addressee.
In the construction of the text, composition is of great importance - the structure of the presentation (its beginning, development and end).
The theme of the text can be laid down in its title (i.e., in the title of the work): “Fathers and Sons”, “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Hero of Our Time”, etc.
The subject of a text can often be in the first sentence:
Take care of the Earth!
take care
Skylark at the blue zenith
Butterfly on dodder leaves,
Sunshine on the path...
Take care of the Earth!
(M. Dudin)
In form, the topic of the text can be expressed by the appeal:
My first friend, my priceless friend!
And I blessed fate
When my yard is secluded
covered in sad snow,
Your bell has rung.
(A. Pushkin)
The text may begin with an interrogative sentence or with a rhetorical question.
Of great importance in the construction of the text is the word order in the sentence, which helps to highlight key words. Keywords- these are words that create unity, integrity of the text.
The definition of the topic helps the addressee to understand the range of interests of the author in this text, which is important for revealing the main thought or idea (from the Greek idea "concept, representation") - the main thing that the author wants to say, for which the work is created.
The text can be a simple or complex sentence (sometimes - period).
Part of the general theme of the text is called a micro-theme, which is usually revealed in several sentences.
Means of communication of parts of the text also have their own rules. Sentences in the text, as a rule, are united by a theme and certain language means: pronouns, adverbs, related words, conjunctions, repetition of words, synonyms, antonyms.
Each next sentence of the text contains new information, i.e. thought develops. Offers can be connected in series and in parallel.
The semantic and grammatical integrity of the text can be created with the help of synonyms.
Several interconnected sentences, united by a micro-theme and a certain structure, are called complex syntactic integer(SCC) (or superphase unity). The STS has its own compositional organization: it consists of three parts - the beginning, the middle part and the ending. In the beginning, as a rule, the first sentence, a micro-theme is defined, the middle part develops it, and the ending offers the author's conclusion, in which either an assessment or an important judgment for the author about this micro-theme sounds.
It is necessary to distinguish a paragraph from the SCS, which may coincide with the first one in terms of its boundaries. Paragraph is a compositional and stylistic unit, which is an important style-forming tool. The paragraph serves to transition from one micro-theme to another. Each paragraph gives some new information, the development of the action, the characterization of the characters, clarifies this or that thought in the argument, proof.
Most often, a paragraph includes two or more syntactic integers, sometimes an FCS consists of several paragraphs.
Each text contains information that is relevant, interesting for a certain circle of people (for the addressee).