Natural areas of Eurasia in Ukrainian. Natural areas of Eurasia

GEOGRAPHY
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Topic 10.EURASIA

Natural areas

All natural zones of the globe are represented in Eurasia, but only the zones of arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra and coniferous forests form continuous stripes that stretch from west to east across all continent, gradually replacing each other.

The violation of latitudinal zonality in the distribution of natural zones is most clearly visible in the west and east of Eurasia.

Eurasia is characterized by various manifestations and a significant distribution of altitudinal zones. The sequence of altitudinal zones depends on the natural zone at the foot of the mountains, their height and distance from the oceans. In Europe, altitudinal zonation is most clearly manifested in the Alps, where five altitudinal zones naturally replace each other. The largest number of altitudinal zones is observed on the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

In the far north of Eurasia there is a zone of arctic deserts. In the west, this zone covers individual islands in the Arctic Ocean, in the east, in addition to the islands, it also includes part of the coast. Most of its surface is covered with snow and ice almost throughout the year. Only in some places in the summer does the snow melt, and then on thin soil cover growing poor vegetation of lichens and mosses, sometimes polar poppy and saxifrage are found. Arctic foxes and lemmings are found here; the largest inhabitant of the Arctic deserts is the polar bear. Polar birds nest on inaccessible cliffs of numerous islands and coasts, forming “bird colonies”.

To the south, along the coast of Eurasia and on the adjacent islands, it extends in a narrow stripthe tundra zone, which, as it moves east, expands with increasing climate severity. As in the North American tundra, lichens, mosses, marsh grasses, and berry plants - cloudberries, blueberries, and lingonberries - grow here on peat-bog soils. In the south of the zone, dwarf trees appear - birches and willows, which spread along the ground.

In the south, the tundra is adjacent to the forest-tundra zone. On the Scandinavian and Kola Peninsulas and the island of Iceland, it is characterized by thickets of twisted birches and alders; among the tundra vegetation to the east, coniferous trees appear - Siberian spruce and various types of larch.

The fauna of the tundra and forest-tundra is not rich, but unique. Here you can find reindeer, arctic foxes, wolves, lemmings, snowshoe hares, birds - polar owls, ptarmigan and tundra partridges, swans, eiders, white-fronted geese, ducks, and seagulls arrive in the summer.

The zone of coniferous forests, or taiga, covers large areas from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. European and Asian taiga are slightly different. In the west, pine and spruce predominate, Ural - fir, Siberian cedar, in Eastern Siberia - larch. Deciduous trees are mixed with coniferous trees: birch, aspen, alder. Coniferous forests grow on podzolic soils with low humus content. The taiga has a rich and varied fauna, many fur-bearing animals: sable, beaver, ermine, as well as foxes, squirrels, martens, hares, chipmunks, lynxes. From large animals - moose, bears. There are many different birds: wood grouse, hazel grouse, cones, nutcrackers, woodpeckers. Some of the birds are hunted: hazel grouse, partridge, black grouse. The main wealth of taiga forests is valuable wood. Nowadays, forests have been greatly altered by humans and require immediate measures for their restoration and rational use.

Mixed forests are not located in Eurasia as a continuous strip, but only in Europe and East Asia. In the west, mixed forests begin in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula and stretch to the foothills of the Southern Urals. In these forests, in addition to coniferous trees, oak, linden, ash, elm, and hornbeam grow. Soils in mostly soddy-podzolic. The eastern part of the mixed forest zone is located in the basin of the middle Amur and along the Japanese and Yellow Seas - in the monsoon area. The vegetation here is dense and varied. Along with Siberian coniferous trees, Mongolian oak, Amur linden, Manchurian walnut, and maple are common here. The soils are brown and forest. In addition to animals typical of the taiga, there are Ussuri tigers, Amur cats, raccoon dogs, black Ussuri bears, wild boars, and spotted elen.

The broad-leaved forests of Eurasia also do not form a continuous strip. In western Europe they stretch from the southern shores of the Baltic and North Seas, gradually extending onto the East European Plain. Here, on brown forest soils, oak and beech forests grow with an admixture of hornbeam, and in the Atlantic region - noble chestnut. The deciduous forests are home to red deer, roe deer, wild boars, and wildcats. Large areas of forests in Europe have been cleared and replaced with cultivated vegetation. In the east of the continent, broad-leaved forests are preserved only in mountainous areas.

The forest-steppe stretches in a narrow strip from the Middle Danube Lowland to the Yenisei River. Individual areas of forest-steppe are found among forests and mountains in eastern Asia. In this zone, on gray forest and chernozem soils, areas of steppes with individual groves and copses alternate. In the European forest-steppe, oak predominates among the tree species, and in the Western Siberian forest - birch. The fauna is represented by forest and steppe species: martens, roe deer, foxes, badgers, jerboas, and birds - eagles, golden eagles.

Steppes are treeless spaces where cereal vegetation reigns. The steppe zone extends in a strip from the lower Danube and the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, bending around the Ural Mountains from the south, to Altai, continuing on the elevated plains of eastern Asia. Fertile chernozem soils are formed under the grassy cover of the steppes.

In our time, the steppe and forest-steppe are the most plowed and man-altered natural zones. Of the animal world, rodents have been preserved in the steppes - field mice, marmots, gophers; among the birds there are steppe eagles, and here and there bustards. Predators in the steppe include foxes and steppe ferrets.

Semi-deserts and deserts of Eurasia occupy large areas - about 1/4 of the continent's area. They formed in the arid regions of central, southwestern, and partly in southern Asia, in three climate zones: temperate, subtropical and tropical.

Temperate deserts occupy a significant part of Central Asia. These are the Karakum, Kyzylkum, Gobi, and Taklamakan deserts. In semi-deserts, light chestnut and brown soils predominate, in deserts - gray-brown soils with a very small amount of humus, and many saline soils. The vegetation is very poor, in some places it is completely absent. The grass cover of wormwood occurs in single bushes, solyanka, hard prickly grasses. The typical plant of these deserts is the tree-like shrub saxaul. Temperate deserts are characterized by sharp contrasts in climatic conditions: sweltering heat in summer and severe frosts and winds in winter. The fauna is well adapted to temperature changes and constant water shortages. There are many rodents - gophers, jerboas, pikas; Large herbivores include antelopes, kulans, and Bactrian camels. There are especially many reptiles - lizards, snakes, turtles and arachnids - scorpions and tarantulas.

In the subtropical zone, the zone of semi-deserts and deserts is located on plateaus and highlands “fenced” by mountains - Asia Minor, Iranian, etc. Here, on infertile gray soils and gray-brown soils, ephemeral vegetation grows, which rapidly develops in the spring.

The Arabian Peninsula, the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea and the lower reaches of the Indus River are occupied by tropical deserts. Vegetation is extremely sparse, and on the loose sand it is completely absent. Date palms grow in oases. Tropical deserts are home to various rodents, wild donkeys, fennec foxes, and striped hyenas. In general, the natural conditions of the tropical deserts of Eurasia are in many ways similar to those of Africa.

The southwest and southeast of Eurasia, within the subtropical zone, are occupied by zones with evergreen vegetation.

The zone of evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs is located on the Mediterranean coast, protected by mountains from the cold northern winds. In a subtropical climate with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, plants grow that have adapted to prolonged summer drought: holm and cork oaks, strawberry trees, laurels, oleanders, olive trees, cypresses. They have thick bark, shiny waxy leaves, and a powerful root system. In our time, there are few evergreen forests near the Mediterranean, but thickets of evergreen shrubs - maquis - are common. There are also few wild animals left. There are fallow deer, jackals, wild rabbits, and in the west - the white-tailed macaque monkey. Lots of lizards, snakes and turtles.

In southeast Asia there is a zone of subtropical monsoon forests. It occupies the southern part of the Great Chinese Plain, the south of the Korean Peninsula and the southern half of the Japanese Islands. The climatic conditions here are different than near the Mediterranean: precipitation falls mainly in the summer, when it is very hot. They are brought in by the summer monsoon from the ocean. Winters are cool and relatively dry. In the forests on yellow soils and red soils, evergreen trees grow: magnolias, camphor laurels, camellias, tung trees, low-growing palms, bamboo. Deciduous trees are mixed in with them: oaks, beeches, hornbeams and southern conifers (special types of pine, cypress). Wild animals are preserved mainly in the mountains. There are black Himalayan bears, bamboo bears - pandas, leopards, monkeys - macaques and gibbons. There are many birds with bright plumage - pheasants, parrots, ducks.

The plains of the peninsulas of Hindustan, Indochina and the islands of Sri Lanka, where the dry period is well defined, are occupied by savannas and woodlands in the subequatorial belt. They are characterized by the predominance of grass cover, where red-brown and red soils have formed.

The sea coasts and mountain slopes of the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas are occupied by subequatorial variable-humid forests. Palm trees, ferns, bamboo, and many tall grasses grow here on red-yellow soils. The fauna of savannas and subequatorial forests is rich and diverse. Common predators include tigers, black panthers, cheetahs, and striped hyenas. Deer and buffalo live in the forests, antelopes live in the savannas, and wild boars live in the thickets of river valleys. There are monkeys everywhere. In some places there are still wild elephants. There are many poisonous snakes, and crocodiles live in the rivers.

The Eurasian equatorial rainforest zone covers the south of the Indochina Peninsula, almost the entire Greater Sunda Islands and the southwest of Sri Lanka. Like equatorial forests on other continents, they are characterized by evergreen lush multi-layered vegetation and a rich fauna. The zone of Eurasian equatorial forests is characterized by rhinoceroses, wild bulls, tigers, Malayan bears, and tapirs. Apes - orangutans and gibbons - are common on the Greater Sunda Islands. There are huge lizards - monitor lizards and pythons, many birds and butterflies.

Eurasia is located in all climatic zones of the Northern Hemisphere, and therefore within its borders there are all types of natural zones of the Earth. Basically, the zones extend from west to east. But the complex structure of the continent’s surface and atmospheric circulation determine the uneven moisture content of its different parts.

Therefore, the zonal structure is greatly complicated; many zones do not have a continuous distribution or significantly deviate from the latitudinal direction.

Arctic deserts, tundra and forest-tundra located further north than in North America. In the west of the continent they lie far beyond the Arctic Circle, which is due to the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current. Tundra and forest-tundra occupy a narrow strip in Northern Europe, expanding to the east with increasing climate severity. In winter, in continental areas there are very low (-15 ° ... -45 ° C) air temperatures. Strong winds and snowstorms are common. Summer is short, cool, with average monthly temperatures no higher than +10 ° C. Precipitation occurs frequently, but its total amount is small - 200 - 300 mm per year. The amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, so the tundra and forest-tundra are characterized by excessive moisture.

A characteristic feature of the earth's surface within the tundra is the predominance of permafrost. Under short summer conditions, tundra-gley soils were formed, and in lowland areas - peat-bog soils. The main vegetation of the tundra is mosses, lichens, and dwarf trees. The species composition of forest-tundra open forests includes birch, spruce, and larch. The fauna is represented by lemmings, polar hares, reindeer, ptarmigan, and polar owls. Hunting for animals and birds and breeding deer are of economic importance.

To the south, within the temperate zone, coniferous forests (taiga) stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. There is enough heat and moisture here for trees to grow. Where there are conditions for moisture retention, swamps form. From west to east within the taiga zone, natural conditions gradually change.

In the Asian part, permafrost is widespread, which to a certain extent causes a change in the species composition of the taiga. Thus, in the west of the mainland, pine and spruce predominate, beyond the Urals fir and Siberian cedar (cedar pine) reign, and in Eastern Siberia - larch. Coniferous species are often mixed with small-leaved trees - birch, aspen, alder. The taiga has a rich and varied fauna, with many fur-bearing animals. Sables, beavers, and ermines have valuable fur. In the taiga there are foxes, squirrels, and martens. There are ordinary hares,

chipmunks, lynxes, and large animals - moose, brown bears. A large number of birds that feed on seeds, buds, young shoots of plants (grouse grouse, hazel grouse, crossbills, nutcrackers, etc.), are insectivores (finches, woodpeckers), and carnivores. Some of the birds are hunted: hazel grouse, partridge, black grouse.

Taiga forests are rich in timber. Trees are being cut down over large areas and measures are being taken to restore them.

To the south, the taiga zone gives way to a mixed forest zone. Fallen leaves and grass cover of these forests contribute to the accumulation of a certain amount of organic matter in the surface layer. Mixed forests are not distributed in a continuous strip, but only in Europe and East Asia.

The deciduous forest zone extends further south. It also does not form a continuous strip; it sticks out near the Volga. In Europe, in conditions of sufficient heat and precipitation, beech forests predominate; in the east they are replaced by oak forests, since oak tolerates summer heat and dryness better. The main tree species in this zone include hornbeam, elm, elm in the west, linden, maple in the east.

In broad-leaved forests, especially oak forests, the usual grass cover is made up of plants with broad leaves: honeymoon, capitula, ferns, lilies of the valley, lungworts, etc.

In the east of the continent, broad-leaved forests are preserved only in mountainous areas. In the warm and very humid summer of the monsoon climate, these forests are very diverse in species composition. Southern elements such as bamboo are found in the temperate zone. There are vines. Under the forest canopy there is a dense layer of shrubs and grass cover. Many relict forms.

There are few indigenous forest types left.

In mixed and deciduous forests live many animals that are characteristic of the taiga (hares, foxes, squirrels, etc.). Previously, there were a lot of roe deer, wild boars, and red deer. They still live in the remaining forest areas. In the east, the animal world in the forests remains more diverse, therefore enriched with species from the southern latitudes. So, in Japan, monkeys (Japanese macaque) are found in this zone, and tigers are found in the Amur basin.

In the central parts of the continent, forests change to the south into forest-steppes and steppes due to a decrease in precipitation and an increase in evaporation. The forest-steppe is dominated by herbaceous vegetation on chernozem soils, but there are areas of broad-leaved or small-leaved forests, under which gray forest soils are formed.

Steppes are treeless spaces dominated by grasses with a dense and dense root system. Fertile chernozem soils formed under them. Therefore, steppes and forest-steppes are almost completely plowed, and throughout the world there are only a few protected areas of steppe vegetation. The fauna of Stetsiv has hardly been preserved. Only rodents - gophers, marmots, field mice - have adapted to life on agricultural land. Numerous herds of ungulates disappeared with the plowing of the steppe, their remains are under protection. In the eastern part of the continent, as you move away from the ocean, the continental climate increases. Therefore, in the Eastern Gobi, dry steppes with sparse vegetation and chestnut soils containing less humus than chernozems appear.

In the central regions of Eurasia, semi-deserts and deserts are located in the internal basins. They were formed because there is very little rainfall here. Summers are dry and hot, and winters are dry and cold. There is not enough moisture for plants to live. Wormwood, saltwort, and saxaul grow in the deserts of the temperate and subtropical zones of Eurasia. In Central and Central Asia, in the semi-desert and desert zones, there are numerous rodents, mainly hibernating in winter. Once upon a time, wild donkeys, wild horses, and camels lived here. Now
They have hardly survived, but as a result of active measures to protect and restore the numbers, the populations of these animals have been saved from extinction.

The tropical deserts of Arabia, Mesopotamia and the Indus basin are similar in their natural conditions to African ones, since there are wide connections between these territories and there are no obstacles to exchange.

In the south of the oceanic sectors of the continent there are zones of subtropical forests, and in the east there are tropical forests. The zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs of the Mediterranean is particularly unique. Summers here are dry and hot, winters are wet and warm. Plants are adapted to tolerate heat and drought.

Conditions for the growth of woody vegetation are unfavorable, so cut down forests are not restored; their place is taken by shrub formations. Coastal forests are dominated by evergreen oaks, wild olive, noble laurel, southern pine - pines, cypresses. The undergrowth includes low-growing and shrubby forms of oaks, myrtle, strawberry tree, rosemary, etc. They are the main vegetation of bush thickets. Large areas are occupied cultivated plants. Olives, citrus fruits, grapes, essential oil crops, such as lavender, are grown. In the past, cattle breeding was developed here. As a result of overgrazing, some areas were completely devoid of soil and vegetation cover or overgrown with thorny bushes. There are few wild animals, rodents have survived (for example, a wild rabbit ), a small number of wild goats and mountain sheep (in the mountains, mainly on the islands), genet huts. There are many reptiles: snakes, lizards, chameleons. A peculiar world of birds, many of which are not found in other places (blue magpie, Spanish sparrow and etc.) Large birds of prey live - vultures, eagles.

The subtropical zone in the east of the continent is dominated by variable-humid (monsoon) forests. Precipitation here falls mainly during hot summers, and winters are cool and relatively dry. The forests are very rich in species. Evergreen trees grow: magnolias, camphor laurel, camellias, tung tree, bamboo. Deciduous trees are mixed in with them: oak, beech, hornbeam, etc. "Southern conifers: special types of pine, cypress, etc. There are many vines. On the densely populated plains of China there is almost no natural vegetation. Subtropical crops are grown here. Wild animals are preserved mainly in the mountains. The composition of the fauna is peculiar: there are the Himalayan black bear, bamboo bear - panda, leopards, monkeys - macaques and gibbons. Birds usually have bright feathers: pheasants, parrots, etc.

Where the dry period is well defined, savannas and woodlands are typical in the subequatorial zone.

In South and Southeast Asia, relatively large areas are occupied by moist equatorial forests. Forests are distinguished by a wide variety of plants and animals, among which there are many unique groups. There are a particularly large number of palm species (up to 300 species) and bamboo.

In Eurasia, large areas are occupied by high mountain systems and highlands, in which altitudinal zonation is well defined. Its structure is extremely diverse and depends on the geographical location of the mountains, slope exposure, and height. The Tibetan Plateau is especially unique, raised to a very high altitude - 4-6 km. It is located in the 30-40 latitudes, however, it has an extremely unusual climate. During the daytime, the surface of the earth becomes very hot, and at night the soil and air cool down very much. The difference in heating sometimes reaches tens of degrees. This causes a pressure difference and contributes to the formation of strong winds. Winter and summer temperatures are also very different. The climate of the Tibetan Plateau is very unfavorable for plant and animal life. In the center and west of the highlands, where these conditions are especially pronounced, high-mountain deserts with low-growing perennial plants are formed. Some hardy meadow grasses (bentgrass, oatmeal, sedge) and sea buckthorn bushes grow along the water streams. Animals in this region have adapted to unfavorable conditions. During frosts and storms, many of them, including birds, hide in holes. There are common rodents: pikas, marmots, mice, hares. Predators include special species of foxes, martens, and bears. The main animal of Tibet is an unpretentious bull with thick long hair. Of the other ungulates, there are many antelopes, such as wild donkeys, Kiang, and mountain sheep.

Within the other highlands of Eurasia, climatic conditions have some similarities to Tibet, but nowhere else are there such large expanses of high-mountain deserts.

geographical eurasia natural area

Geographic zoning is a pattern of differentiation of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change in geographic zones and zones, due, first of all, to changes in the amount of radiant energy from the Sun falling on the surface of the Earth, depending on geographic latitude. Such zoning is inherent in most components and processes of natural territorial complexes - climatic, hydrological, geochemical and geomorphological processes, soil and plant cover and fauna, and partly the formation of sedimentary rocks. A decrease in the angle of incidence of solar rays from the equator to the poles causes the formation of latitudinal radiation belts - hot, two moderate and two cold. The formation of similar thermal and, even more so, climatic and geographical zones is associated with the properties and circulation of the atmosphere, which are greatly influenced by the distribution of land and oceans (the reasons for the latter are azonal). The differentiation of natural zones on land itself depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, which varies not only by latitude, but also from the coasts inland (sector pattern), therefore we can talk about horizontal zoning, a particular manifestation of which is latitudinal zoning, well expressed on the territory of the Eurasian continent .

Each geographical zone and sector has its own set (spectrum) of zones and their sequence. The distribution of natural zones is also manifested in the natural change of altitudinal zones, or belts, in the mountains, which is also initially determined by the azonal factor - relief, however, certain spectra of altitudinal zones are characteristic of certain belts and sectors. Zoning in Eurasia is characterized for the most part as horizontal, with the following zones identified (their name comes from the predominant type of vegetation cover):

Arctic desert zone;

Tundra and forest-tundra zone;

Taiga zone;

Zone of mixed and deciduous forests;

Zone of forest-steppes and steppes;

Semi-desert and desert zone;

Zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (the so-called

"Mediterranean" zone);

Zone of variable-humid (including monsoon) forests;

Zone of humid equatorial forests.

Now all the presented zones will be examined in detail, their main characteristics, be it climatic conditions, vegetation, fauna.

The Arctic desert (“Arktos” translated from Greek means bear) is a natural area part of the Arctic geographical belt, the basin of the Arctic Ocean. This is the northernmost of the natural zones and is characterized by an arctic climate. The spaces are covered with glaciers, rubble and fragments of stones.

The climate of the Arctic deserts is not very diverse. The weather conditions are extremely harsh, with strong winds, little rainfall, very low temperatures: in winter (down to? 60 °C), on average - 30? C in February, the average temperature of even the warmest month is close to 0 ° C. Snow cover on land lasts almost all year round, disappearing only for a month and a half. Long polar days and nights, lasting five months, and short off-seasons give a special flavor to these harsh places. Only Atlantic currents bring additional heat and moisture to some areas, such as the western shores of Spitsbergen. This state is formed not only due to the low temperatures of high latitudes, but also due to the high ability of snow and ice to reflect heat - albedo. The annual amount of precipitation is up to 400 mm.

Where everything is covered in ice, life seems impossible. But this is not true at all. In places where nunataks emerge from under the ice to the surface, there is a plant world of its own. Mosses, lichens, some types of algae and even cereals and flowering plants live in cracks in rocks where small amounts of soil accumulate, in thawed areas of glacial deposits - moraines, near snowfields. Among them are bluegrass, cotton grass, polar poppy, dryad partridge grass, sedge, dwarf willows, birches, and various types of saxifrage. But the recovery of vegetation is extremely slow. Although during the cold polar summer it manages to bloom and even bear fruit. On the coastal cliffs, numerous birds find shelter and nest in the summer, setting up “bird markets” on the rocks - geese, gulls, eiders, terns, and waders.

Numerous pinnipeds also live in the Arctic - seals, seals, walruses, elephant seals. Seals feed on fish, swimming to the ice of the Arctic Ocean in search of fish. Their elongated, streamlined body shape helps them move through the water at tremendous speed. The seals themselves are yellowish-gray, with dark spots, and their cubs have beautiful snow-white fur, which they retain until adulthood. Because of her, they received the name squirrels.

The terrestrial fauna is poor: arctic fox, polar bear, lemming. The most famous inhabitant of the Arctic is the polar bear. This is the largest predator on Earth. The length of its body can reach 3 m, and the weight of an adult bear is about 600 kg and even more! The Arctic is the kingdom of the polar bear, where he feels in his element. The absence of land does not bother the bear; its main habitat is the ice floes of the Arctic Ocean. Bears are excellent swimmers and often swim far into the open sea in search of food. The polar bear eats fish and hunts seals, seals, and walrus cubs. Despite its power, the polar bear needs protection; it is listed in both the International and Russian Red Books.

In the high northern latitudes (these are territories and waters lying north of the 65th parallel) there is a natural zone of arctic deserts, a zone of eternal frost. The boundaries of this zone, like the boundaries of the Arctic as a whole, are quite arbitrary. Although the area around the North Pole does not have land, its role here is played by solid and floating ice. In high latitudes there are islands and archipelagos washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, and within their boundaries lie the coastal zones of the Eurasian continent. These pieces of land are almost entirely or mostly covered by “eternal ice,” or rather, the remnants of huge glaciers that covered this part of the planet during the last ice age. Arctic glaciers in archipelagos sometimes extend beyond the land and into the sea, such as some glaciers in Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land.

In the Northern Hemisphere, along the outskirts of the Eurasian continent south of the polar deserts, as well as on the island of Iceland, there is a natural tundra zone. Tundra is a type of natural zone that lies beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, a space with permafrost soil that is not flooded by sea or river waters. The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. The nature of the surface of the tundra is swampy, peaty, rocky. The southern border of the tundra is taken to be the beginning of the Arctic. The name comes from the Sami language and means “dead land”.

These latitudes can be called subpolar; winters here are harsh and long, and summers are cool and short, with frosts. The temperature of the warmest month - July does not exceed +10... + 12 °C; it can snow already in the second half of August, and the established snow cover does not melt for 7-9 months. Up to 300 mm of precipitation falls in the tundra per year, and in areas of Eastern Siberia, where the continental climate increases, their amount does not exceed 100 mm per year. Although there is no more precipitation in this natural zone than in the desert, it falls mainly in the summer and, at such low summer temperatures, evaporates very poorly, so excess moisture is created in the tundra. The ground, frozen during the harsh winter, thaws only a few tens of centimeters in the summer, which does not allow moisture to penetrate deeper; it stagnates, and waterlogging occurs. Even in minor depressions in the relief, numerous swamps and lakes are formed.

Cold summers, strong winds, excess moisture and permafrost determine the nature of vegetation in the tundra. +10… +12°C are the maximum temperatures at which trees can grow. In the tundra zone they acquire special, dwarf forms. On humus-poor infertile tundra-gley soils, dwarf willows and birches with curved trunks and branches, low-growing shrubs and shrubs grow. They press themselves to the ground, densely intertwined with each other. The endless flat plains of the tundra are covered with a thick carpet of mosses and lichens, hiding small trunks of trees, shrubs and grass roots.

As soon as the snow melts, the harsh landscape comes to life, all the plants seem to be in a hurry to use the short, warm summer for their growing season. In July, the tundra is covered with a carpet of flowering plants - polar poppies, dandelions, forget-me-nots, myrtle, etc. The tundra is rich in berry bushes - lingonberries, cranberries, cloudberries, blueberries.

Based on the nature of the vegetation, three zones are distinguished in the tundra. The northern Arctic tundra has a harsh climate and very sparse vegetation. The moss-lichen tundra located to the south is softer and richer in plant species, and in the very south of the tundra zone, in the shrub tundra, you can find trees and shrubs reaching a height of 1.5 m. To the south, the shrub tundra is gradually replaced by forest-tundra - a transition zone between tundra and taiga. This is one of the most swampy natural areas, because more precipitation falls here (300-400 mm per year) than can evaporate. Low-growing trees such as birch, spruce, and larch appear in the forest-tundra, but they grow mainly along river valleys. The open spaces are still occupied by vegetation characteristic of the tundra zone. To the south, the area of ​​forests increases, but even there the forest-tundra consists of an alternation of open forests and treeless spaces, overgrown with mosses, lichens, shrubs and shrubs.

Mountain tundras form a high-altitude zone in the mountains of the subarctic and temperate zones. On rocky and gravelly soils from high-altitude open forests they begin as a shrub belt, as in the lowland tundra. Above are moss-lichens with cushion-shaped subshrubs and some herbs. The upper belt of mountain tundras is represented by crustose lichens, sparse squat cushion-shaped shrubs and mosses among stone placers.

The harsh climate of the tundra and the lack of good food force the animals living in these regions to adapt to difficult living conditions. The largest mammals of the tundra and forest-tundra are reindeer. They are easily recognized by the huge horns that not only males, but also females have. The horns first move back, and then bend up and forward, their large processes hang over the muzzle, and the deer can rake snow with them, getting food. Deer see poorly, but have sensitive hearing and a keen sense of smell. Their dense winter fur consists of long, hollow, cylindrical hairs. They grow perpendicular to the body, creating a dense thermal insulation layer around the animal. In the summer, deer grow softer, shorter fur.

Large diverging hooves allow the deer to walk on loose snow and soft ground without falling through. In winter, deer feed mainly on lichens, digging them out from under the snow, the depth of which sometimes reaches 80 cm. They do not refuse lemmings, voles, they can destroy bird nests, and in hungry years they even gnaw each other’s antlers.

Deer lead a nomadic lifestyle. In the summer they feed in the northern tundra, where there are fewer midges and gadflies, and in the fall they return to the forest-tundra, where there is more food and warmer winters. During seasonal transitions, animals cover distances of 1000 km. Reindeer run fast and swim well, which allows them to escape from their main enemies - wolves.

Reindeer of Eurasia are distributed from the Scandinavian Peninsula to Kamchatka. They live in Greenland, on the Arctic islands and on the northern coast of North America.

For a long time, the peoples of the North domesticated reindeer, receiving from them milk, meat, cheese, clothing, shoes, material for tents, vessels for food - almost everything necessary for life. The fat content of the milk of these animals is four times higher than that of cows. Reindeer are very hardy; one reindeer can carry a load weighing 200 kg, walking up to 70 km per day.

Along with reindeer, polar wolves, arctic foxes, arctic hares, white partridges, and polar owls live in the tundra. In summer, many migratory birds arrive; geese, ducks, swans, and waders nest along the banks of rivers and lakes.

Of the rodents, lemmings are especially interesting - touching furry animals the size of a palm. There are three known species of lemmings, which are common in Norway, Greenland and Russia. All lemmings are brown in color, and only the hoofed lemming changes its skin to white in winter. These rodents spend the cold period of the year underground; they dig long underground tunnels and actively reproduce. One female can give birth to up to 36 cubs per year.

In the spring, lemmings come to the surface in search of food. Under favorable conditions, their population can increase so much that there is not enough food for everyone in the tundra. Trying to find food, lemmings make mass migrations - a huge wave of rodents rushes across the endless tundra, and when a river or sea is encountered on the way, the hungry animals, under the pressure of those running after them, fall into the water and die in the thousands. The life cycles of many polar animals depend on the number of lemmings. If there are few of them, the polar owl, for example, does not lay eggs, and arctic foxes - polar foxes - migrate south, to the forest-tundra, in search of other food.

The white, or polar, owl is undoubtedly the queen of the tundra. Its wingspan reaches 1.5 m. Old birds are dazzlingly white, while young ones are variegated in color, both have yellow eyes and a black beak. This magnificent bird flies almost silently, hunting voles, lemmings, and muskrats at any time of the day. She attacks partridges, hares and even catches fish. In summer, the snowy owl lays 6-8 eggs, making a nest in a small depression on the ground.

But due to human activity (and primarily due to oil production, construction and operation of oil pipelines), the danger of environmental disaster looms over many parts of the Russian tundra. Due to fuel leaks from oil pipelines, the surrounding area is polluted; burning oil lakes and completely burnt areas that were once covered with vegetation are often encountered.

Despite the fact that during the construction of new oil pipelines, special passages are made so that deer can move freely, the animals are not always able to find and use them.

Road trains move across the tundra, leaving behind garbage and destroying vegetation. The tundra soil layer damaged by tracked vehicles takes decades to recover.

All this leads to increased pollution of soil, water and vegetation, and a decrease in the number of deer and other inhabitants of the tundra.

Forest-tumndra is a subarctic type of landscape in which, in the interfluves, oppressed woodlands alternate with shrubby or typical tundra. Various researchers consider forest-tundra to be a subzone of either tundra, taiga, and, more recently, tundra forests. Forest-tundra landscapes stretch in a strip from 30 to 300 km wide from the Kola Peninsula to the Indigirka basin, and to the east they are distributed fragmentarily. Despite the low amount of precipitation (200-350 mm), the forest-tundra is characterized by a sharp excess of moisture over evaporation, which determines the widespread occurrence of lakes from 10 to 60% of the subzone area.

Average air temperatures in July are 10-12°C, and in January, depending on the increase in continental climate, from -10° to -40°C. With the exception of rare taliks, the soils are everywhere permafrost. The soils are peaty-gley, peat-swamp, and under open forests - gley-podzolic (podbur).

The flora has the following character: shrub tundras and open forests change due to longitudinal zonation. On the Kola Peninsula - warty birch; east to the Urals - spruce; in Western Siberia - spruce with Siberian larch; east of Putorana - Daurian larch with lean birch; to the east of the Lena there is Kayander larch with skinny birch and alder, and to the east of Kolyma dwarf cedar is mixed in with them.

The fauna of the forest-tundra is also dominated by lemmings of various species in different longitudinal zones, reindeer, arctic foxes, white and tundra partridges, polar owls and a wide variety of migratory, waterfowl and small birds that settle in bushes. Forest-tundra is a valuable reindeer pasture and hunting grounds.

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the forest-tundra, nature reserves and national parks have been created, including the Taimyr Nature Reserve. Reindeer husbandry and hunting are traditional occupations of the indigenous population, who use up to 90% of the territory for reindeer pastures.

The natural taiga zone is located in the north of Eurasia. Taiga is a biome characterized by the predominance of coniferous forests. It is located in the northern subarctic humid geographical zone. Coniferous trees form the basis of plant life there. In Eurasia, originating on the Scandinavian Peninsula, it spread to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The Eurasian taiga is the largest continuous forest zone on Earth. It occupies more than 60% of the territory of the Russian Federation. The taiga contains huge reserves of wood and supplies large amounts of oxygen to the atmosphere. In the north, the taiga smoothly turns into forest-tundra, gradually taiga forests are replaced by open forests, and then by separate groups of trees. The furthest taiga forests enter the forest-tundra are along river valleys, which are most protected from strong northern winds. In the south, the taiga also smoothly transitions into coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests. In these areas, humans have interfered with the natural landscapes for many centuries, so now they represent a complex natural-anthropogenic complex.

On the territory of Russia, the southern border of the taiga begins approximately at the latitude of St. Petersburg, stretches to the upper reaches of the Volga, north of Moscow to the Urals, further to Novosibirsk, and then to Khabarovsk and Nakhodka in the Far East, where they are replaced by mixed forests. All of Western and Eastern Siberia, most of the Far East, the mountain ranges of the Urals, Altai, Sayan, Baikal region, Sikhote-Alin, Greater Khingan are covered with taiga forests.

The climate of the taiga zone within the temperate climate zone varies from marine in the west of Eurasia to sharply continental in the east. In the west, there are relatively warm summers (+10 °C) and mild winters (-10 °C), and more precipitation falls than can evaporate. Under conditions of excess moisture, the decay products of organic and mineral substances are carried into the lower soil layers, forming a clarified podzolic horizon, from which the predominant soils of the taiga zone are called podzolic. Permafrost contributes to the stagnation of moisture, so significant areas within this natural zone, especially in the north of European Russia and Western Siberia, are occupied by lakes, swamps and swampy woodlands. Dark coniferous forests growing on podzolic and frozen-taiga soils are dominated by spruce and pine and, as a rule, there is no undergrowth. Twilight reigns under the closing crowns; in the lower tier grow mosses, lichens, herbs, dense ferns and berry bushes - lingonberries, blueberries, blueberries. In the north-west of the European part of Russia, pine forests predominate, and on the western slope of the Urals, which is characterized by large clouds, sufficient precipitation and heavy snow cover, spruce-fir and spruce-fir-cedar forests.

On the eastern slope of the Urals, the humidity is less than on the western, and therefore the composition of forest vegetation here is different: light coniferous forests predominate - mainly pine, in places with an admixture of larch and cedar (Siberian pine).

The Asian part of the taiga is characterized by light coniferous forests. In the Siberian taiga, summer temperatures in a continental climate rise to +20 °C, and in winter in northeastern Siberia they can drop to -50 °C. On the territory of the West Siberian Lowland, predominantly larch and spruce forests grow in the northern part, pine forests in the central part, and spruce, cedar and fir in the southern part. Light coniferous forests are less demanding on soil and climatic conditions and can grow even on infertile soils. The crowns of these forests are not closed, and through them the sun's rays freely penetrate into the lower tier. The shrub layer of the light-coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birches and willows, and berry bushes.

In Central and North-Eastern Siberia, in conditions of harsh climate and permafrost, larch taiga dominates. For centuries, almost the entire taiga zone suffered from the negative impact of human economic activity: slash-and-burn agriculture, hunting, haymaking in river floodplains, selective logging, air pollution, etc. Only in remote areas of Siberia today can one find corners of virgin nature. The balance between natural processes and traditional economic activities, which has developed over thousands of years, is now being destroyed, and the taiga as a natural complex is gradually disappearing.

To generalize, the taiga is characterized by the absence or weak development of undergrowth (since there is little light in the forest), as well as the monotony of the grass-shrub layer and moss cover (green mosses). Species of shrubs (juniper, honeysuckle, currant, willow, etc.), shrubs (blueberries, lingonberries, etc.) and herbs (oxalis, wintergreen) are few in number.

In northern Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia) spruce forests predominate. The taiga of the Urals is characterized by light coniferous forests of Scots pine. Siberia and the Far East are dominated by sparse larch taiga with an undergrowth of dwarf cedar, Daurian rhododendron, etc.

The fauna of the taiga is richer and more diverse than the fauna of the tundra. Numerous and widespread: lynx, wolverine, chipmunk, sable, squirrel, etc. Among the ungulates, there are reindeer and red deer, elk, and roe deer; Rodents are numerous: shrews, mice. Common birds include: capercaillie, hazel grouse, nutcracker, crossbills, etc.

In the taiga forest, compared to the forest-tundra, conditions for animal life are more favorable. There are more sedentary animals here. Nowhere in the world, except for the taiga, are there so many fur-bearing animals.

The fauna of the taiga zone of Eurasia is very rich. Both large predators live here - brown bear, wolf, lynx, fox, and smaller predators - otter, mink, marten, wolverine, sable, weasel, ermine. Many taiga animals survive the long, cold and snowy winter in a state of suspended animation (invertebrates) or hibernation (brown bear, chipmunk), and many bird species migrate to other regions. Passerines, woodpeckers, and grouse - capercaillie, hazel grouse, and grouse - constantly live in taiga forests.

Brown bears are typical inhabitants of vast forests, not only taiga, but also mixed forests. There are 125-150 thousand brown bears in the world, two thirds of which live in the Russian Federation. The sizes and colors of the subspecies of brown bears (Kamchatka, Kodiak, grizzly, European brown) are different. Some brown bears reach three meters in height and weigh more than 700 kg. They have a powerful body, strong five-fingered paws with huge claws, a short tail, a large head with small eyes and ears. Bears can be reddish and dark brown, almost black, and in old age (by 20-25 years) the tips of the fur turn gray and the animal becomes gray. Bears eat grass, nuts, berries, honey, animals, carrion, dig up anthills and eat ants. In the fall, bears feed on nutritious berries (they can eat over 40 kg per day) and therefore quickly gain weight, gaining almost 3 kg in weight every day. During the year, bears travel from 230 to 260 kilometers in search of food, and with the approach of winter they return to their dens. Animals make winter “apartments” in natural dry shelters and line them with moss, dry grass, branches, pine needles and leaves. Sometimes male bears sleep outdoors all winter. The brown bear's winter sleep is very light; in fact, it is winter torpor. During the thaw, individuals who have not managed to gain enough fat during the fall go in search of food. Some animals - the so-called connecting rods - do not hibernate at all during the winter, but wander in search of food, posing a great danger to people. In January-February, the female gives birth to from one to four cubs in the den. Babies are born blind, without fur and teeth. They weigh just over 500 grams, but grow quickly on mother's milk. In the spring, furry and nimble cubs emerge from the den. They usually stay with their mother for two and a half to three years, and finally mature by the age of 10.

Wolves are common in many areas of Europe and Asia. They are found in the steppe, desert, mixed forests and taiga. The body length of the largest individuals reaches 160 cm and weight 80 kg. Mostly wolves are gray, but tundra wolves are usually somewhat lighter, and desert wolves are grayish-red. These ruthless predators are distinguished by their developed intelligence. Nature has equipped them with sharp fangs, powerful jaws and strong paws, therefore, when chasing a victim, they are able to run many tens of kilometers and can kill an animal much larger and stronger than themselves. The main prey of the wolf are large and medium-sized mammals, usually ungulates, although they also hunt birds. Wolves usually live in pairs, and in late autumn they gather in packs of 15 - 20 animals.

Lynx is found in the taiga zone from Scandinavia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. She climbs trees well, swims well and feels confident on the ground. High legs, a strong body, sharp teeth and excellently developed sensory organs make it a dangerous predator. The lynx hunts birds, small rodents, less often small ungulates, and sometimes foxes, domestic animals, and gets into herds of sheep and goats. At the beginning of summer, in a deep, well-covered hole, a female lynx gives birth to 2-3 cubs.

The taiga forests of Siberia are inhabited by the Siberian chipmunk, a typical representative of the chipmunk genus, which is also found in Northern Mongolia, China and Japan. The body length of this funny animal is about 15 cm, and the length of its fluffy tail is 10 cm. On the back and sides, there are 5 longitudinal dark stripes on a light gray or reddish background, characteristic of all chipmunks. Chipmunks make nests under fallen trees or, less commonly, in tree hollows. They feed on seeds, berries, mushrooms, lichens, insects and other invertebrates. For the winter, chipmunks store about 5 kg of seeds and, hibernating in the cold season, do not leave their shelters until spring.

The color of squirrels depends on their habitat. In the Siberian taiga they are reddish or copper-gray with a blue tint, and in European forests they are brown or reddish. The squirrel weighs up to a kilogram, and its body length reaches 30 cm, its tail is about the same length. In winter, the animal’s fur is soft and fluffy, and in summer it is coarser, shorter and shiny. The squirrel is well adapted for life in trees. A long, wide and light tail helps her to deftly jump from tree to tree. The squirrel swims beautifully, raising its tail high above the water. She makes a nest in a hollow or builds a so-called gayno from tree branches, which has the shape of a ball with a side entrance. The squirrel's nest is carefully lined with moss, grass, and rags, so even in severe frosts it is warm there. Squirrels give birth to cubs twice a year; in one litter there are from 3 to 10 squirrels. The squirrel feeds on berries, seeds of coniferous trees, nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and when there is a lack of food, it gnaws the bark from shoots, eats leaves and even lichens, sometimes hunts birds, lizards, snakes, and destroys nests. The squirrel stores up for the winter.

The taiga of Eurasia, mainly the massifs of the Siberian taiga, is called the green “lungs” of the planet, since the oxygen and carbon balance of the surface layer of the atmosphere depends on the state of these forests. To protect and study the typical and unique natural landscapes of the taiga in North America and Eurasia, a number of nature reserves and national parks have been created, including Wood Buffalo, Barguzinsky Nature Reserve, etc. Industrial timber reserves are concentrated in the taiga, large mineral deposits (coal) have been discovered and are being developed , oil, gas, etc.). There is also a lot of valuable wood

The traditional occupations of the population are hunting fur-bearing animals, collecting medicinal raw materials, wild fruits, nuts, berries and mushrooms, fishing, forestry, (building houses), and cattle breeding.

The zone of mixed (coniferous-deciduous) forests is a natural zone characterized by a symbiosis of coniferous and deciduous forests. The condition for this is the possibility of them occupying specific niches in the ecological system of the forest. As a rule, it is customary to speak of mixed forests when the admixture of deciduous or coniferous trees makes up more than 5% of the total.

Mixed forests, together with taiga and broad-leaved forests, make up the forest zone. The forest stand of a mixed forest is formed by trees of various species. Within the temperate zone, several types of mixed forests are distinguished: coniferous-deciduous forest; secondary small-leaved forest with an admixture of coniferous or broad-leaved trees and mixed forest consisting of evergreen and deciduous tree species. In the subtropics, mainly laurel-leaved and coniferous trees grow in mixed forests.

In Eurasia, the zone of coniferous-deciduous forests is widespread to the south of the taiga zone. Quite wide in the west, it gradually narrows towards the east. Small areas of mixed forests are found in Kamchatka and the south of the Far East. The mixed forest zone is characterized by a climate with cold, snowy winters and warm summers. Winter temperatures in areas of the marine temperate climate are positive, and as they move away from the oceans they drop to -10 °C. The amount of precipitation (400-1000 mm per year) is not much greater than evaporation.

Coniferous-broad-leaved (and in continental regions - coniferous-small-leaved) forests grow mainly on gray forest and soddy-podzolic soils. The humus horizon of soddy-podzolic soils, located between the forest litter (3-5 cm) and the podzolic horizon, is about 20 cm. The forest floor of mixed forests consists of many grasses. Dying and rotting, they constantly increase the humus horizon.

Mixed forests are distinguished by a clearly visible layering, that is, a change in the composition of vegetation along the height. The upper tree layer is occupied by tall pines and spruces, and below grow oaks, lindens, maples, birches, and elms. Under the shrub layer formed by raspberries, viburnum, rose hips, and hawthorn, shrubs, herbs, mosses and lichens grow.

Coniferous-small-leaved forests, consisting of birch, aspen, and alder, are intermediate forests in the process of coniferous forest formation.

Within the mixed forest zone, there are also treeless spaces. Elevated treeless plains with fertile gray forest soils are called opoles. They are found in the south of the taiga and in the zones of mixed and deciduous forests of the East European Plain.

Polesie - low treeless plains, composed of sandy deposits of melted glacial waters, are common in eastern Poland, in Polesie, in the Meshchera Lowland and are often swampy.

In the south of the Russian Far East, where seasonal winds—monsoons—predominate within the temperate climate zone, mixed and broad-leaved forests called the Ussuri taiga grow on brown forest soils. They are characterized by a more complex layered structure and a huge variety of plant and animal species.

The territory of this natural zone has long been developed by humans and is quite densely populated. Agricultural lands, towns, and cities are spread over large areas. A significant part of the forests has been cut down, so the composition of the forest in many places has changed, and the proportion of small-leaved trees in it has increased.

Fauna of mixed and deciduous forests. Animals and birds living in mixed forests are characteristic of the forest zone as a whole. Foxes, hares, hedgehogs and wild boars are found even in well-developed forests near Moscow, and moose sometimes go out onto roads and on the outskirts of villages. There are a lot of squirrels not only in forests, but also in city parks. Along the banks of rivers in quiet places, away from populated areas, you can see beaver lodges. Mixed forests are also home to bears, wolves, martens, badgers, and a diverse world of birds.

It is not for nothing that the European moose is called a forest giant. Indeed, this is one of the largest ungulates in the forest zone. The average weight of a male is about 300 kg, but there are giants weighing more than half a ton (the largest moose are East Siberian moose, their weight reaches 565 kg). The males have a head decorated with huge spade-shaped horns. Moose fur is coarse, gray-brown or black-brown in color, with a bright tint on the lips and legs.

Moose prefer young clearings and copses. They feed on branches and shoots of deciduous trees (aspen, willow, rowan), and in winter on pine needles, mosses and lichens. Moose are excellent swimmers; an adult animal can swim for two hours at a speed of about ten kilometers per hour. Moose can dive, searching underwater for tender leaves, roots and tubers of aquatic plants. There are known cases when moose dived for food to a depth of more than five meters. In May-June, the moose cow gives birth to one or two calves; they go with their mother until autumn, feeding on her milk and green food.

The fox is a very sensitive and cautious predator. It is about a meter long and has a fluffy tail almost the same size, and triangular ears on its sharp, elongated muzzle. Foxes are most often colored red in various shades, the chest and abdomen are usually light gray, and the tip of the tail is always white.

Foxes prefer mixed forests, alternating with clearings, meadows and ponds. They can be seen near villages, on forest edges, on the edge of a swamp, in groves and bushes among fields. The fox navigates the area mainly with the help of smell and hearing; its vision is much less developed. She is a pretty good swimmer.

Usually the fox settles in abandoned badger holes; less often, it independently digs a hole 2-4 m deep with two or three exits. Sometimes in a complex system of badger holes, foxes and badgers settle side by side. Foxes lead a sedentary lifestyle, often go out hunting at night and at dusk, feed mainly on rodents, birds and hares, and in rare cases attack roe deer cubs. On average, foxes live 6-8 years, but in captivity they can live up to 20 years or longer.

The common badger is found throughout Europe and Asia up to the Far East. The size of an average dog, it has a body length of 90 cm, a tail of 24 cm, and a weight of about 25 kg. At night the badger goes hunting. Its main food is worms, insects, frogs, and nutritious roots. Sometimes he eats up to 70 frogs in one hunt! In the morning the badger returns to the hole and sleeps until the next night. The badger hole is a permanent structure with several floors and about 50 entrances. A central burrow 5-10 m long, lined with dry grass, is located at a depth of 1-3 or even 5 m. The animals carefully bury all waste in the ground. Badgers often live in colonies, and then the area of ​​their burrows reaches several thousand square meters. Scientists believe that some badger burrows are over a thousand years old. By winter, the badger accumulates a significant reserve of fat and sleeps in its hole all winter.

The common hedgehog is one of the most ancient mammals - its age is about 1 million years. The hedgehog has poor eyesight, but a well-developed sense of smell and hearing. To defend itself from enemies, the hedgehog curls up into a prickly ball, which no predator can handle (the hedgehog has about 5,000 spines 20 mm long). In Russia, hedgehogs with gray spines, on which dark transverse stripes are visible, are more common. Hedgehogs live in birch forests with thick grass cover, in thickets of bushes, in old clearings, and in parks. The hedgehog feeds on insects, invertebrates (earthworms, slugs and snails), frogs, snakes, eggs and chicks of birds nesting on the ground, and sometimes berries. Hedgehogs make winter and summer burrows. In winter ones they sleep from October to April, and in summer ones hedgehogs are born. Shortly after birth, the cubs develop soft white needles, and 36 hours after birth, dark-colored needles.

The mountain hare lives not only in forests, but also in the tundra, birch forests, overgrown clearings and burnt areas, and sometimes in steppe bushes. In winter, the brownish or gray color of the skin changes to pure white, only the tips of the ears remain black, and fur “skis” grow on the paws. The mountain hare feeds on herbaceous plants, shoots and bark of willow, aspen, birch, hazel, oak, and maple. The hare does not have a permanent den; in case of danger, it prefers to flee. In the middle zone, a hare usually gives birth to 3 to 6 cubs twice a summer. The young become adults after wintering. The number of white hare varies significantly from year to year. During years of high numbers, hares severely damage young trees in forests and make mass migrations.

Deciduous forest is a forest in which there are no coniferous trees.

Deciduous forests are common in fairly humid areas with mild winters. Unlike coniferous forests, a thick layer of litter does not form in the soils of deciduous forests, since a warmer and more humid climate contributes to the rapid decomposition of plant residues. Although leaves fall annually, the mass of deciduous litter is not much greater than that of conifers, since deciduous trees are more light-loving and grow less frequently than conifers. Deciduous litter, compared to coniferous litter, contains twice as much nutrients, especially calcium. Unlike coniferous humus, biological processes with the participation of earthworms and bacteria actively occur in less acidic deciduous humus. Therefore, almost all the litter decomposes by spring, and a humus horizon is formed, which binds nutrients in the soil and prevents their leaching.

Deciduous forest is divided into broad-leaved forests and small-leaved forests.

European broadleaf forests are endangered forest ecosystems. Just a few centuries ago they occupied most of Europe and were among the richest and most diverse on the planet. In the XVI - XVII centuries. natural oak forests grew over an area of ​​several million hectares, and today, according to forest fund records, there are no more than 100 thousand hectares left. So, over several centuries, the area of ​​these forests has decreased tenfold. Formed by deciduous trees with wide leaf blades, broad-leaved forests are common in Europe, Northern China, Japan and the Far East. They occupy an area between mixed forests in the north and steppes, Mediterranean or subtropical vegetation in the south.

Broad-leaved forests grow in areas with a humid to moderately humid climate, characterized by an even distribution of precipitation (400 to 600 mm) throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. The average temperature in January is -8...0 °C, and in July +20...+24 °C. Moderately warm and humid climatic conditions, as well as the active activity of soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, invertebrates) contribute to the rapid decomposition of leaves and the accumulation of humus. Under broad-leaved forests, fertile gray forest and brown forest soils, and less commonly chernozems, are formed.

The upper tier of these forests is occupied by oak, beech, hornbeam and linden. Ash, elm, maple, and elm are found in Europe. The undergrowth is formed by shrubs - hazel, warty euonymus, and forest honeysuckle. The dense and tall herbaceous cover of European broad-leaved forests is dominated by chickweed, green grass, hoofweed, lungwort, woodruff, hairy sedge, and spring ephemeroids: corydalis, anemone, snowdrop, scilla, goose onion, etc.

Modern broad-leaved and coniferous-deciduous forests formed five to seven thousand years ago, when the planet warmed and broad-leaved tree species were able to move far to the north. In subsequent millennia, the climate became colder and the area of ​​broad-leaved forests gradually decreased. Since the most fertile soils of the entire forest zone formed under these forests, the forests were intensively cut down, and their place was taken by arable land. In addition, oak, which is a very durable wood, was widely used in construction.

The reign of Peter I became for Russia the time of the creation of a sailing fleet. The “royal idea” required a large amount of high-quality wood, so the so-called ship groves were strictly protected. Forests that were not included in protected areas were actively cut down by residents of the forest and forest-steppe zones for arable land and meadows. In the middle of the 19th century. The era of the sailing fleet ended, ship groves were no longer protected, and forests began to be cleared even more intensively.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Only fragments of the once unified and vast belt of broad-leaved forests have survived. Even then they tried to grow new oaks, but this turned out to be difficult: young oak groves died due to frequent and severe droughts. Research conducted under the guidance of the great Russian geographer V.V. Dokuchaev, showed that these disasters were associated with large-scale deforestation and, as a consequence, changes in the hydrological regime and climate of the territory.

Nevertheless, even in the 20th century, the remaining oak forests were intensively cut down. Insect pests and cold winters at the end of the century made the extinction of natural oak forests inevitable.

Today, in some areas where broad-leaved forests once grew, secondary forests and artificial plantations, dominated by coniferous trees, have spread. It is unlikely that it will be possible to restore the structure and dynamics of natural oak forests not only in Russia, but throughout Europe (where they have experienced even stronger anthropogenic influence).

The fauna of broad-leaved forests is represented by ungulates, predators, rodents, insectivores, and bats. They are distributed predominantly in those forests where living conditions are least modified by humans. Moose, red and sika deer, roe deer, fallow deer, and wild boar live here. Wolves, foxes, martens, hori, stoats and weasels represent a group of predators in deciduous forests. Among the rodents there are beavers, nutria, muskrats, and squirrels. The forests are inhabited by rats and mice, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, as well as various types of snakes, lizards and marsh turtles. The birds of broad-leaved forests are diverse. Most of them belong to the order of passerines - finches, starlings, tits, swallows, flycatchers, warblers, larks, etc. Other birds also live here: crows, jackdaws, magpies, rooks, woodpeckers, crossbills, as well as large birds - hazel grouse and black grouse . Among the predators there are hawks, harriers, owls, owls and eagle owls. The swamps are home to waders, cranes, herons, various species of ducks, geese and seagulls.

Red deer previously lived in forests, steppes, forest-steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, but deforestation and plowing of the steppes led to their numbers sharply declining. Red deer prefer light, mainly deciduous forests. The body length of these graceful animals reaches 2.5 m, weight - 340 kg. Deer live in a mixed herd of about 10 individuals. The herd is most often headed by an old female, with whom her children of different ages live.

In autumn, males gather a harem. Their roar, reminiscent of the sound of a trumpet, can be heard 3-4 km away. Having defeated rivals, the deer acquires a harem of 2-3, and sometimes up to 20 females - this is how the second type of reindeer herd appears. At the beginning of summer, a doe gives birth to a fawn. It weighs 8-11 kg and grows very quickly up to six months. A newborn fawn is covered with several rows of light spots. From one year on, males begin to develop antlers; after a year, deer shed their antlers, and new ones immediately begin to grow. Deer eat grass, leaves and shoots of trees, mushrooms, lichens, reeds and saltwort; they will not refuse wormwood, but pine needles are destructive for them. In captivity, deer live up to 30 years, and in natural conditions no more than 15.

Beavers are large rodents and are common in Europe and Asia. The beaver's body length reaches 1 m, weight - 30 kg. The massive body, flattened tail and swimming membranes on the toes of the hind legs are maximally adapted to the aquatic lifestyle. Beaver fur is from light brown to almost black; animals lubricate it with a special secretion, protecting it from getting wet. When a beaver dives into water, its ears fold lengthwise and its nostrils close. A diving beaver uses air so economically that it can stay under water for up to 15 minutes. Beavers settle on the banks of slow-flowing forest rivers, oxbow lakes and lakes, preferring bodies of water with abundant aquatic and coastal vegetation. Beavers make burrows or huts near water, the entrance to which is always located under the surface of the water. In reservoirs with unstable water levels below their “houses,” beavers build famous dams. They regulate the flow so that the hut or hole can always be accessed from the water. Animals easily gnaw branches and fell large trees, gnawing them at the base of the trunk. A beaver fells an aspen with a diameter of 5-7 cm in 2 minutes. Beavers feed on aquatic herbaceous plants - reeds, egg capsules, water lilies, iris, etc., and in the fall they cut down trees, preparing food for the winter. In the spring, the beaver gives birth to beaver cubs, which can swim within two days. Beavers live in families; only in the third year of life do young beavers leave to start their own family.

Wild pigs - wild boars - are typical inhabitants of deciduous forests. The boar has a huge head, an elongated muzzle and a long strong snout ending in a movable “patch”. The beast's jaws are equipped with serious weapons - strong and sharp triangular fangs, curved up and back. Boars' vision is poorly developed, and their sense of smell and hearing is very subtle. Boars may encounter a hunter standing motionless, but will hear even the slightest sound made by him. Boars reach a length of 2 m, and some individuals weigh up to 300 kg. The body is covered with elastic, durable bristles of a dark brown color.

They run quite fast, swim excellently and are able to swim across a body of water several kilometers wide. Boars are omnivorous animals, but their main food is plants. Wild boars are very fond of acorns and beech nuts, which fall to the ground in the fall. They do not refuse frogs, worms, insects, snakes, mice and chicks.

Piglets are usually born in mid-spring. They are covered on the sides with longitudinal dark brown and yellow-gray stripes. After 2-3 months, the stripes gradually disappear, the piglets first become ash-gray and then black-brown

Small-leaved forests are forests formed by deciduous (summer-green) trees with narrow leaf blades.

Tree species are represented mainly by birch, aspen and alder; these trees have small leaves (compared to oak and beech).

Distributed in the forest zone of the West Siberian and East European plains, widely represented in the mountains and plains of the Far East, they are part of the Central Siberian and West Siberian forest-steppe, forming a strip of birch forests (kolki). Small-leaved forests make up a strip of deciduous forests that stretches from the Urals to the Yenisei. In Western Siberia, small-leaved forests form a narrow subzone between the taiga and forest-steppe. Ancient stone-birch forests in Kamchatka form the upper forest belt in the mountains.

Small-leaved forests are light-colored forests, they are distinguished by a wide variety of grass cover. These ancient forests were later replaced by taiga forests, but under human influence on taiga forests (clearing of taiga forests and fires) they again occupied large areas. Small-leaved forests, due to the rapid growth of birch and aspen, have good renewability.

Unlike birch forests, aspen forests are very resistant to human influence, since aspen reproduces not only by seeds, but also vegetatively; they are characterized by the highest average growth rates.

Small-leaved forests often grow in floodplains, where they are most widely represented by willow trees. They stretch along the riverbeds for many kilometers in some places and are formed by several species of willows. Most often these are trees or large shrubs with narrow leaves that develop long shoots and have high growth energy.

Forest-steppe is a natural zone of the Northern Hemisphere, characterized by a combination of forest and steppe areas.

In Eurasia, forest-steppes stretch in a continuous strip from west to east from the eastern foothills of the Carpathians to Altai. In Russia, the border with the forest zone passes through cities such as Kursk and Kazan. To the west and east of this strip, the continuous extension of the forest-steppe is disrupted by the influence of the mountains. Individual areas of forest-steppes are located within the Middle Danube Plain, a number of intermountain basins in Southern Siberia, Northern Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the Far East, and also occupy part of the Songliao Plain in northeast China. The climate of the forest-steppe is temperate, usually with moderately hot summers and moderately cool winters. Evaporation slightly prevails over precipitation.

Forest-steppe is one of the zones that make up the Temperate Zone. The temperate zone implies the presence of four seasons - winter, spring, summer and autumn. In the temperate zone, the change of seasons is always clearly expressed.

The climate of the forest-steppe is usually temperate continental. Annual precipitation is 300--400 mm per year. Sometimes evaporation is almost equal to precipitation. Winter in the forest-steppe is mild, the average January temperature is? 7 degrees in the city of Kharkov, Ukraine (the southern border of the forest-steppe) to about? 10 degrees in Orel, where the mixed forest zone begins. Sometimes in the forest-steppe in winter both severe frosts and mild winters can rage. The absolute minimum in the forest-steppe zone is usually equal to?36?40 degrees. Summer in the forest-steppe is sometimes hot and dry. Sometimes it can be cold and rainy, but this is rare. Most often, summer is characterized by fickle, unstable weather, which can be very different, depending on the activity of certain atmospheric processes. The average July temperature, depending on the location, ranges from 19.50C to 250C. The absolute maximum in the forest-steppe is about 37-39 degrees in the shade. However, heat in the forest-steppe occurs less often than extreme cold, while in the steppe zone it is the other way around. One of the features of the forest-steppe is that the flora and fauna of the forest-steppe is an average between the flora and fauna of the mixed forest zone and the steppe zone. Both drought-resistant plants and plants characteristic of the forest, more northern, zone grow in the forest-steppe. The same applies to the animal world.

I will give a description, as well as a comparative description of steppes and deserts, in the second part of this chapter. Now let's move on to considering the natural zone - semi-desert.

Semi-desert, or desert steppe, is a type of landscape that forms in an arid climate.

Semi-deserts are characterized by the absence of forests and specific vegetation and soil cover. They combine elements of steppe and desert landscapes.

Semi-deserts are found in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of the Earth and form a natural zone located between the steppe zone in the north and the desert zone in the south.

In the temperate zone, semi-deserts are located in a continuous strip from west to east of Asia from the Caspian lowland to the eastern border of China. In the subtropics, semi-deserts are widespread on the slopes of plateaus, plateaus and highlands (Anatolian Plateau, Armenian Plateau, Iranian Plateau, etc.).

Semi-desert soils, formed in dry and semi-arid climates, are rich in salts, since precipitation is small and salts are retained in the soil. Active soil formation is possible only where soils receive additional moisture from rivers or groundwater. Compared to atmospheric precipitation, groundwater and river waters there are much saltier. Due to the high temperature, evaporation is high, during which the soil dries out and salts dissolved in water crystallize.

The high salt content causes the soil to become alkaline, to which plants have to adapt. Most cultivated plants cannot tolerate such conditions. Sodium salts are especially harmful, since sodium prevents the formation of a granular soil structure. As a result, the soil turns into a dense, structureless mass. In addition, excess sodium in the soil interferes with physiological processes and plant nutrition.

The highly sparse vegetation cover of a semi-desert often appears in the form of a mosaic consisting of perennial xerophytic grasses, turf grasses, saltworts and wormwoods, as well as ephemerals and ephemeroids. Succulents, mainly cacti, are common in America. In Africa and Australia, thickets of xerophytic shrubs (see Scrub) and sparse low-growing trees (acacia, doum palm, baobab, etc.) are typical.

Among the animals of the semi-desert, hares, rodents (gophers, jerboas, gerbils, voles, hamsters) and reptiles are especially numerous; among ungulates - antelopes, bezoar goats, mouflon, wild ass, etc. Among small predators, the following are ubiquitous: jackal, striped hyena, caracal, steppe cat, fennec fox, etc. Birds are quite diverse. Many insects and arachnids (karakurt, scorpions, phalanges).

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the world's semi-deserts, a number of national parks and reserves have been created, including the Ustyurt Nature Reserve, Tigrovaya Balka, and Aral-Paigambar. The traditional occupation of the population is pasture farming. Oasis agriculture is developed only on irrigated lands (near water bodies).

The subtropical climate of the Mediterranean is dry, precipitation in the form of rain falls in winter, even mild frosts are extremely rare, summers are dry and hot. The subtropical forests of the Mediterranean are dominated by thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees. Trees stand sparsely, and various herbs and shrubs grow wildly between them. Junipers, noble laurel, strawberry trees that shed their bark annually, wild olives, delicate myrtle, and roses grow here. These types of forests are characteristic mainly in the Mediterranean, and in the mountains of the tropics and subtropics.

The subtropics on the eastern edges of the continents are characterized by a more humid climate. Atmospheric precipitation falls unevenly, but there is more rain in the summer, that is, at a time when vegetation especially needs moisture. Dense humid forests of evergreen oaks, magnolias, and camphor laurel predominate here. Numerous lianas, thickets of tall bamboos and various shrubs enhance the uniqueness of the humid subtropical forest.

Subtropical forest differs from humid tropical forests in lower species diversity, a decrease in the number of epiphytes and lianas, as well as the appearance of coniferous and tree ferns in the forest stand.

Moist evergreen forests are located in narrow stripes and spots along the equator. The largest tropical rain forests exist in the Amazon River basin (Amazon Rainforest), in Nicaragua, in the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula (Guatemala, Belize), in most of Central America (where they are called "selva"), in equatorial Africa from Cameroon to Democratic Republic of the Congo, in many areas of Southeast Asia from Myanmar to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the Australian state of Queensland.

Tropical rainforests are characterized by:

· continuous vegetation growth throughout the year;

· diversity of flora, predominance of dicotyledons;

· the presence of 4-5 tree layers, the absence of shrubs, a large number of epiphytes, epiphalls and lianas;

· predominance of evergreen trees with large evergreen leaves, poorly developed bark, buds not protected by bud scales; in monsoon forests - deciduous trees;

· formation of flowers and then fruits directly on trunks and thick branches (cauliflory).

“Green Hell” - this is what many travelers of past centuries who visited here called these places. Tall multi-tiered forests stand like a solid wall, under the thick crowns of which there is constantly darkness, monstrous humidity, constant high temperatures, there is no change of seasons, and rainfalls regularly fall with an almost continuous stream of water. The forests of the equator are also called permanent rain forests.

The upper floors are at a height of up to 45 m and do not have a closed cover. As a rule, the wood of these trees is the strongest. Below, at a height of 18-20 m, there are tiers of plants and trees, forming a continuous closed canopy and almost preventing sunlight from passing down to the ground. The rarer lower zone is located at an altitude of about 10 m. Shrubs and herbaceous plants, such as pineapples and bananas, and ferns, grow even lower. Tall trees have thickened, overgrown roots (they are called plank-shaped), which help the gigantic plant maintain a strong connection with the soil.

In warm and humid climates, the decomposition of dead plants occurs very quickly. From the resulting nutritional composition, substances for the life of the gyl plant are taken. Among such landscapes flow the deepest rivers on our planet - the Amazon in the rural areas of South America, the Congo in Africa, the Brahmaputra in Southeast Asia.

Partially the rain forests have already been cleared. In their place, people cultivate various crops, including coffee, oil palms and rubber palms.

Like vegetation, the fauna of humid equatorial forests is located at different altitude levels of the forest. The less populated lower tier is home to various insects and rodents. In India, Indian elephants live in such forests. They are not as large as African ones and can move under the cover of multi-story forests. Hippos, crocodiles and water snakes live in deep rivers and lakes and on their banks. Among rodents there are species that live not on the ground, but in the crowns of trees. They acquired devices that allow them to fly from branch to branch - leathery membranes similar to wings. Birds are very diverse. Among them there are very small bright sunbirds that extract nectar from flowers, and quite large birds, such as a huge turaco or banana-eater, a hornbill with a powerful beak and a growth on it. Despite its size, this beak is very light, like the beak of another forest dweller - the toucan. The toucan is very beautiful - bright yellow neck plumage, green beak with a red stripe, and turquoise skin around the eyes. And of course, one of the most common birds of moist evergreen forests is a variety of parrots.

Monkey. When jumping from branch to vine, monkeys use their paws and tails. Chimpanzees, monkeys, and gorillas live in the equatorial forests. The permanent habitat of gibbons is at an altitude of about 40-50 m above the ground, in the crowns of trees. These animals are quite light (5-6 kg) and literally fly from branch to branch, swinging and clinging with flexible front paws. Gorillas are the largest representatives of apes. Their height exceeds 180 cm, and they weigh much more than a person - up to 260 kg. Despite the fact that their impressive size does not allow gorillas to jump along branches as easily as orangutans and chimpanzees, they are quite fast. Gorilla packs live primarily on the ground, roosting in branches only to rest and sleep. Gorillas eat only plant foods, which contain a lot of moisture and allow them to quench their thirst. Adult gorillas are so strong that large predators are afraid to attack them.

Anaconda. The monstrous size (up to 10 meters) of the anaconda allows it to hunt large animals. Usually these are birds, other snakes, small mammals that come to a watering hole, but crocodiles and even people can be among the victims of the anaconda. When attacking a victim, pythons and anacondas first strangle it; and then gradually swallow, “putting on” the body of the prey like a glove. Digestion is slow, so these huge snakes go without food for a long time. Anacondas can live up to 50 years. Boa constrictors give birth to live young. In contrast, pythons that live in the humid forests of India, Sri Lanka, and Africa lay eggs. Pythons also reach very large sizes and can weigh up to 100 kg.

Comparative analysis of steppe and desert zones

In the process of writing this course work, a comparison of two natural zones was carried out and the following picture was obtained. It will be presented in table form (Appendix 1).

The common features are:

1) a type of landscape characterized by a flat surface (only with small hills)

2) complete absence of trees

3) similar fauna (both in species composition and in some ecological features)

4) similar humidification conditions (both zones are characterized by excessive evaporation and, as a consequence, insufficient moisture)

5) it is possible to distinguish the types of these zones (for example, in the forest-steppe zone it is impossible to indicate additional types)

6) the location of the steppes and deserts of Eurasia in the temperate zone (with the exception of the desert territories of the Arabian Peninsula)

The differences are as follows:

1) latitudinal localization: deserts are located further south than the steppe zone

2) a significant difference is the types of soils: steppes have chernozems, and deserts have brown soils

3) steppe soils have a high humus content, and desert soils are highly saline

4) the climate regime is also not the same: in the steppe one can observe a sharp change in seasons, while in deserts a temperature imbalance is observed throughout the day

5) the amount of precipitation in the steppe is much higher

6) grasses growing in the steppe form an almost closed carpet; in deserts, the distance between individual plants can reach several tens of meters.

Basically, the natural zones of Eurasia vary by latitude. But there are two factors that determine the change in zoning in the vertical direction:

• heterogeneous terrain;
• influence of the World Ocean in coastal areas.

Let's consider the main natural zones that are located on the mainland in the direction from north to south.

Rice. 1. Map of natural areas of Eurasia

Table “Natural zones of Eurasia”

Name of the natural area	Geographical position
Arctic deserts	Islands of the Arctic Ocean
Tundra and Forest-tundra	Northern parts of Europe with expansion into eastern Eurasia. Part of Iceland
	Scandinavian Peninsula, most of Russia, Western part of the island of Japan
Mixed forests	Baltic countries, European part of Russia.
Broadleaf forests	European countries, East Pacific coast
Hardleaf evergreen forests (Mediterranean)	Southern regions of Europe
Forest-steppe and steppe	Black Sea region, Kazakhstan, North-Eastern part of Mongolia.
Deserts and semi-deserts	Arabian Peninsula, Caspian countries, China
Savannas and woodlands	India, Southeast of the continent
Variably humid forests	The Pacific coast in the Southeast regions, a narrow strip of the Hindustan Peninsula.
Permanently humid equatorial and tropical forests	Indian Ocean Islands

Almost all natural zones, with the exception of humid equatorial and tropical forests, are located on the mainland.

Characteristics of zones

The high latitude zone is characterized by a harsh cold climate with long winters and short summers. There is little vegetation and poor fauna. Northern latitudes from approximately 71° are considered the Arctic zone. A little lower are the tundra and forest-tundra. They are best expressed in Russia. There is also little vegetation and a cold climate on the island of Iceland.

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The taiga originates on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Thanks to the maritime climate, winters here are milder and there are no piercing winds, as in the continental part. Up to the Ural Mountains, this zone is dominated by pine and spruce trees. In the central part they are joined by fir and cedar. Larch grows in Eastern Siberia. Taiga is a huge forest with great potential. An important part of the industry is hunting for fur-bearing animals.

Most of Europe and a little of near Asia are covered with broadleaf forests. This temperate region is considered the most favorable for life not only of plants and animals, but also of people. It's comfortable here in winter and not too hot in summer. There is an average amount of precipitation throughout the year.

Rice. 2. Steppe in Europe

The position just below the forests is occupied by the forest-steppe and steppe zone. This is the territory of rich fertile lands - black soils. The largest farmlands are concentrated in the European part. To the east, deeper into the continent, the situation changes slightly. There, the steppe area is located near the mountains and has a very arid climate.

Central Eurasia is covered with desert areas. Their location is similar to internal basins: around mountains, far from the ocean. This affects the level of evaporation, which is very high here, and precipitation is insignificant. The vegetation is represented mainly by succulents, and the unique animal world has been practically exterminated. Deserts are inhabited by insects, rodents and reptiles.

The desert occupies the largest area of ​​the Eurasian continent. In addition, it is also the largest natural area in the World. It accounts for 1/5 of the planet's total land mass.

Tropical rainforests are located in the subtropical climate zone. In Europe, this belt is called rigid-leaved. Present on the northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. There are very good fertile soils here, allowing you to grow heat-loving fruits and vegetables.

Eastern Eurasia and the Pacific coast have a slightly different type of subtropical climate. There is a lot of precipitation here, but only in summer. Once upon a time, vast Asian territories were covered with green forests. But now the overpopulation of this region has led to the fact that the forests have been cut down and the land has been built up with buildings. The unique world of plants and animals has been preserved only in protected areas near temples and gorges.

Nature of the lower latitudes

The peninsulas of Hindustan and Malacca, Burma are located in the savannah zone. Nature is represented by many types of drought-resistant tall trees with vines.

The low latitudes of the equatorial belt are moist equatorial forests. Palms and fruit trees are harvested several times a year. This includes warm island countries with good tourism potential.

It is worth highlighting areas with altitudinal zones. They have their own climate, vegetation and fauna. Mountains encircle the entire continent and run in a strip from West to East. The highest mountain system in Eurasia is the Himalayas.

What have we learned?

Eurasia is the largest continent in the world, containing all existing natural areas. If you're wondering which is the biggest, it's the desert. The most favorable regions for living are in the temperate climate zone. The forests are dominated by taiga forests.

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Eurasia is the largest and most colorful planet, uniting all existing natural zones and stripes. Numerous arctic and tropical islands gracefully complement this natural tandem, adding diversity to the flora and fauna. In the west of the continent and nature are determined by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the east the Pacific monsoon conditions prevail. In the center of the continent, the change occurs from north to south and depends on temperature conditions and humidity.

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Map "Natural zones of Eurasia"/Source: uclg.ru

Arctic deserts of Eurasia, turning into tundras

These two natural belts always go inseparably from each other. The Arctic covers all the islands of the Arctic Ocean and is represented by icy, rocky soils. And the forest-tundra is located in the north of the continent, covering Europe, part of Iceland, and the upper belt of Russia. As you move east, the tundra expands.

Fact! The zone of arctic deserts and tundra is located in a narrow strip across the entire continent in the north.

Both of these zones are characterized by minimal species diversity of both animals and plants. The harsh climate of the Arctic does not allow anything to grow here except mosses, lichens, and algae. Low-growing grasses and, in some places, shrubs appear in the tundra. However, the soils here are covered by permafrost, which begins 1-2 m from the surface.

Animals of the Arctic and tundra are well adapted to cold conditions: they have a large layer of fat, like polar bears, or dense fur, like reindeer. There are also many birds here, including waterfowl. In tundra areas, many swamps form due to permafrost.

And the tundra is characterized by difficult climatic conditions: in summer it rarely gets warmer than +5-8 degrees, while frosts in winter reach -60.

Taiga zone

Occupies most of Russia, as well as the Scandinavian Peninsula. Taiga forests are found in northern Japan, on the west coast. The Russian taiga is dominated by sedge and peat bogs, while the European taiga is dominated by pine and spruce trees. In zones below 60 degrees C. w. Mixed forests begin, and species such as ash and oak appear. But in the Asian region there are fir and cedar trees, as well as larch.

The fauna of this natural zone has the same species diversity as the tropical worlds. Hundreds of herbivorous and predatory species live here, including such representatives as the largest bear in the world - the brown Kamchatka bear, as well as charming lynxes and red deer. There are also many animals here whose fur is valued for its beauty and warmth: minks, foxes, wolves, sable.

The species diversity of birds is also impressive. Large predators such as owls, small partridges, as well as wood grouse and woodpeckers can be found here. The temperature in the taiga is harsh, even in summer at +30 in the pine thickets it remains cool, and in winter it stays -30 for a long time.

Broadleaf and mixed forests

The mixed zone predominates in the region of the East European Plain, which occupies part of the Russian Federation and is also located in Europe (the Baltic states). Broad-leaved forests are also found in Europe and on the coast on the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean.

The broad-leaved area is distinguished by a large number of grasses and several tiers of forests. The soils here are mostly soddy-podzolic, and swampy areas are almost never found. Oaks and beeches, as well as some other species, grow on them. Completely broad-leaved forests also consist of maples and lindens.

The animal diversity is amazing: deciduous forests are characterized by all those species that live in the taiga, as well as more heat-loving red deer, wild boars, and brown bears are found in some parts of Europe.

The amount of precipitation here increases to 1-2 thousand mm, while the climate becomes warmer than in the taiga. Rarely does the thermometer show below -16.

Steppes and forest-steppes

The zones are located throughout most of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and are also found in the Black Sea region and Siberia. Few animals live here, small species of rodents predominate, and the vegetation is represented mainly by low-growing shrubs, cereals and other herbs. The soils are mostly gray forest soils.

The climate of the steppes can be different - from confidently cold in the Siberian part to temperate and arid in Mongolia.

Hardleaf subtropical forests

The territory is found mainly in the south of the European part of the world, in the Mediterranean. A favorable, relatively dry and hot summer climate with abundant rainfall prevails here. In winter it is also warm, the soils are chestnut.

There are many trees growing in the Mediterranean, including cork oaks and even cypress trees. But on the banks the forests were almost completely destroyed. Such forests are partially found in southern China and Japan.

Deserts and semi-deserts (temperate zone)

The temperate region is a unique phenomenon, unlike the hot Sahara or the South American regions near the Andes. Temperate deserts occupy the region from Central Asia to the Caspian lowland. The soils here are not red, but brown and gray-brown desert.

The air in them remains dry, and there is little precipitation; in some places there are clayey soils. There is almost no vegetation, but in sandy areas there are grasses such as wormwood. At night the temperature can drop to -50 (as in winter), and in summer and during the day it rises to +50.

Subtropical deserts are located inland, the brightest zone being the Arabian Peninsula. In summer it is very dry here, the temperature fluctuates between 30-35 degrees, and there is practically no rain. There are oases in which acacias and palm trees grow. A lot of rodents. Continental deserts are also common in the countries of the Caspian basin and in China.

Savannas and woodlands

The subequatorial region, as well as the savannas, are located in the Southeast of India. Palms and teak trees grow here, as well as many other trees, but they are located in small groups. The fauna is represented by ungulates, tropical birds, monkeys, and leopards. Wild elephants are found in places.

Equatorial rainforests

They occupy most of the Pacific Ocean from the Southeast, as well as Hindustan. These are regions very rich in vegetation with fertile soils - even there are more than 3 hundred species of palm trees here! Coconut palms and bamboos of all kinds also grow here.

Permanent moist equatorial forests are located on the islands of the Indian Ocean; evergreen vines, ferns, and many southern flowers grow here. The fauna of the regions is also rich in monkeys, wild cats, and elephants.

Altitudinal zonation of the continent

There are a lot of mountains in Eurasia, and some of them - the Tibetan Himalayas - are among the highest complex in the world. There is a pronounced altitudinal zone here. Species diversity is also present in the European Alps.

Other well-known altitude zones include the Urals, characterized by an indistinct belt change, and the Sayans, connecting to the Himalayas. The altitudinal zonation is most interesting in the last series of mountains:

• at an altitude of up to 1000 m, variable-humid forests;
• from 1000 m – subequatorial and evergreen oak and pine zones;
• from 4000 m alpine and subalpine latitudes with low-growing plants and flowers begin;
• above 5000 m is the territory of eternal ice and snow.

Eurasia is one of the most amazing continents, combining the dizzying beauty of the high Himalayas and mysterious Tibet, as well as the fierce severity of the Arctic deserts. But there are also real paradise forests here, located in the equatorial zone of the islands belonging to Eurasia.

Table of natural zones of Eurasia

Name of the natural area	Geographical location	Climate zones	Soils	Animals and plants
Arctic desert	Islands of the Arctic Ocean	Arctic	Arctic, permafrost	Animals: polar bears, arctic foxes, reindeer, lemmings, eiders and guillemots Plants: lichens, arctic willow, cotton grass, forget-me-not and chickweed
Tundra and Forest-tundra	Located in the north of the mainland, covering Europe, part of Iceland, and the upper zone of Russia. As you move east, the tundra expands	Subarctic	Tundra-gley and peaty, podzolic	Animals: wolves, arctic foxes, hares, reindeer and partridges. During the short summer you can watch loons, waders and geese Plants: lichens and mosses. Perennial plants are represented by saxifrage, lingonberry, wild rosemary, cassandra and cloudberry
Taiga	Taiga occupies most of Russia, as well as the Scandinavian Peninsula. Taiga forests are found in northern Japan, on the west coast	Moderate continental, continental, sharply continental	Soddy-podzolic, permafrost-taiga	Animals: lynxes, wolverines, wolves, foxes, brown bears, otters, sables, weasels, stoats, hares, shrews, beavers, chipmunks, mice, voles, squirrels, flying squirrels, reindeer and red deer, moose, roe deer Plants: coniferous and deciduous trees, juniper, honeysuckle, currants, blueberries, lingonberries and various types of herbs
Broad-leaved and mixed forests	The mixed zone predominates in the region of the East European Plain, which occupies part of the Russian Federation and is also located in Europe (the Baltic states). Broad-leaved forests are also found in Europe and on the coast on the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean.	Temperate continental	Sod-podzolic, gray and brown forest	Animals: wolves, stoats, foxes, martens, hedgehogs, badgers, nutria, moles, hares, marsh turtles, vipers, viviparous lizards, grass snakes, hazel grouse, black grouse, crossbills, eagle owls, owls Plants: Korean cedar, Manchurian walnut, Amur linden, larch. There are a lot of shrubs and herbs. Mosses and lichens cover the soil only in dark and damp areas. Forests are rich in fruit and berry plants and mushrooms
Steppes and forest-steppes	Located throughout most of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and also found in the Black Sea region, in Siberia	Temperate continental, continental	Chernozems, chestnut	Animals: squirrels, martens, gophers, bustards, moose Plants: In the European part, maple, oak, and linden grow. In the Asian region, aspen and birch trees predominate. The steppe regions are rich in bluegrass and clover. People cultivate corn, rye, wheat, etc.
Hardleaf subtropical forests	Located mainly in the south of the European part of the world, in the Mediterranean	Mediterranean	Brown	Animals: mountain sheep, rabbits and mountain deer Plants: olive, cork oak, laurel, cypress
Semi-deserts and deserts	Occupy the region from Central Asia to the Caspian Lowland	Continental, sharply continental	The soils are saline, there is a lot of sand, solonetzes and salt marshes.	Animals: gophers, jerboas, gerbils, geckos, boa constrictors, monitor lizards, corsairs, wolves, foxes, saigas, larks, sajs and lapwings Plants: acacia, camel thorn, cacti, cereals, saxaul, black wormwood
Savannas and woodlands	Located in the southeast of the continent, in India	Subequatorial	Red-brown	Animals: antelopes, monkeys, tigers, leopards, elephants Plants: palms, acacias, tiki, tall grasses
Equatorial rainforests	They occupy most of the Pacific Ocean from the Southeast, as well as Hindustan. Permanent moist equatorial forests are located on the Indian Ocean islands	Equatorial		Animals: elephants, rhinoceroses, bulls, tapirs, tigers, tarsiers, pythons, crocodiles, tropical birds Plants: hundreds of types of palm trees, vines, bamboo