In science (natural science), as in religion, there are such unconditional provisions of "dogmas", which are not proved (and cannot be proven), but are accepted as source, since they are necessary to build the entire knowledge system. Such provisions are called in it postulates or axiomas. Natural science is based at least in the following two main provisions: on recognition, firstly, the reality of the life of the world and, secondly, the patterns of its device and the knowledge of the person.
Consider these postulates.
1. No matter how surprisingly, but the statement about objective, i.e., independent of the consciousness of a person, the existence of the world is, rather, with direct evidence, rather than the scientifically proven truth, more than the subject of faith, rather than knowledge. The famous philosopher Bertrand Russell († 1970) on this occasion is witty: "I don't think I'm going to sleep and see a dream, but I can't prove it." Einstein († 1955), in turn, directly declares: "Belief in the existence of an external world, independent of the perceive subject, is the basis of all natural science." These statements of famous scientists simply illustrate an understanding of the science of the reality of the outside world: it is the subject of her faith, dogma (expressing theological language), but not knowledge.
2. The second postulate of science is a belief in rationality, the patterns of the device of the world and his cognition - is the main driving force of all scientific research. But it also turns out to be the same subject of faith (dogma) for science, as well as the first. Authoritative scientists talk about it completely unequivocally. So, Academician L. S. Berg († 1950) wrote: "The main postulate, with which the naturalist approaches the understanding of nature, is the one that in nature there is no sense that it is possible to comprehend and understand that between the laws of thinking and knowledge, On the one hand, and build nature, on the other, there is some predefined harmony. Without this silent assumption, no natural science is impossible. Maybe this postulate is incorrect (just as, perhaps, it is not necessary to postulate Euclide on parallel lines), but it is practically necessary. " Einstein said the same: "Without faith in what it is possible to embrace the reality of our theoretical buildings, without faith in the inner harmony of our world could not be any science. This faith is and will always remain the main motive of all scientific creativity. " Father Cybernetics N. Wiener († 1964) wrote: "Without faith in the fact that nature is subject to laws, there can be no science. It is impossible to proof that nature is subordinated to the laws, for we all know that the world from the next moment can become a game in a crockety from the book "Alice in Wonderland." "The scientist must be imbued with conviction in advance," writes a well-known modern American physicist Ch. Towns († 1992) that there is order in the Universe and that the human mind is able to understand this order. The world is random or incomprehensible it would be even trying to understand. "
But even if these postulates are true (and this is hardly able to doubt), then it remains the most important question, without the decision of which the formulation of the problem "Science and Religion" loses any meaning - this is the question of the reliability of the most scientific knowledge. But first two words about his methods.
Axioms and postulates in exact sciences
Canaryov F.M.
kanarevfm.@
mail.
ru
Announcement.Given the interest of our readers to the concept of "Axioma", on which the truth of the initial scientific assertions is based, will present summarized information on the role of this concept in the exact sciences.
1. A brief analysis of the status of the problem
The scientific concepts of "axiom" and "postulate" appeared long ago. They were presented in the third century before our era in the geometry of Evalklid, but without definitions of the entities that he laid in these concepts. Isaac Newton also based his evidence using these concepts, and also did not give them the definition. Subsequently, these concepts were widely used by mathematicians and physicists. They gave these concepts historically established washed, which was not defined by anyone.
Euclide in its "beginning" gives definitions The concepts that he used in the formulation of postulates and axioms. We will not give all these definitions, but we list a number of concepts that he determined.
In the first place the famous definition of the concept of "point". "The point is what has no parts." The following are definitions of concepts: line, straight line, surface, angle and determination of concepts about various geometric shapes. After that, Euclid leads postulatewithout defining the very concept of "postulate".
"Postulate
Suppose:
That from any point to any point you can spend a straight line.
And that the limited direct can be continuously continued in a straight line.
And that from any center and all sorts of solution can be described.
(AKS. 10) And that all direct angles are equal to each other.
(AKS. 11) And if direct, falling into two straight lines, forms internal and one side of the angles, less than two straight lines, then the continued two straight directly will meet from the other side where the corners are less than two straight lines. "
« General concepts
(Axioms)
1. Equal to the same, equal to each other.
2. And if equal is added to equal, then the whole will be equal.
3. And if equal is equal, then the residues will be equal.
4. And if equal is unequal, then the whole will not be equal.
5. And doubled one and the same equal to each other.
6. And half of the same are equal to each other.
7. And combined with each other are equal to each other.
8. And the whole part.
9. And two direct does not contain spaces. "
It's hard to believe, but it is. The information provided is the foundation of all accurate sciences. Pay attention to the fourth postulate. In brackets, it is as a tenth axiom, and the fifth - as the eleventh. We do not know why the fourth and fifth postulated statements are assigned to axioms. Or it must be assumed that they can be considered simultaneously and the postulates and axioms. Of course, if Euclide had defined the concepts of "postulate" and "Axioma", the fourth and fifth postulates could be in the list of axioms.
Dispute scientists are known about the correctness of the formulation of the fifth postulate Euclidea. They were the result of the lack of definitions of the concepts of "postulate" and "Axioma". Subsequent definitions of these concepts no longer acquired in the minds of scientists, the significance that would be attached if they were in the "beginning of the Euclide". Nevertheless, we must treat this lack of a natural, not infrinning the genius of Euclidea ,.
After about two thousand years after Euclide, there were brilliant "mathematical starts of natural philosophy" Isaac Newton ,. He, as well as Euclide, paid great attention to the definition of new concepts, on which his laws are based. His "mathematical principles" begin with a header
"Definitions
Definition 1.The amount of matter (mass) is a measure that is set proportionally density and its volume. "
After that, Newton describes its understanding of the absolute space and absolute time, without giving the properties of entities, which are concluded in these concepts, axiomatic meaning. The most important ideas are outlined under the title: "Axioms or the laws of motion."
"Law 1. Any body continues to hold in its condition of peace or uniform and rectilinear movement, while since it is not shared by the attached forces to change this state. "
After putting the law of a uniform straight line, which is always a consequence of an accelerated movement, in the first place, he set a consequence of the reason, violating the causal relationships between different phases of the body's movement, which automatically generated contradictions in the aggregate of its laws that remained unnoticed more than 300 years. The correction of these contradictions led to the birth of a new combination of laws describing the accelerated, uniform and slow mechanical movements of the tel. As a result, the former dynamics of Newton received the new name "Mechanodynamics".
"Law 2. The change in the amount of movement is proportional to the applied strength and occurs in the direction of the direct one for which this force is valid. " This law also received a clarification that takes into account the intensity of changes in the amount of movement, which gives rise to the phenomenon of the impact and forming shock power.
"Law 3. The action is always equal and the opposite opposition, otherwise the interaction of the two bodies each other is equal to each other and are directed in opposite sides. " This law remained unchanged, but received another sequence number - 4.
Further, Isaac Newton formulates consequences arising from these laws. The listed laws relate to the mechanical movement of tel. After these laws, many other laws were opened, which describe electrical, magnetic, electromagnetic and other properties of bodies, gases, liquids and various physical phenomena and processes.
Analyzing the postulates of Euclidean and Axioms or Newton's laws, we notice that they first attached great importance to the need to determine the concepts they enjoyed. It was done in order to achieve the monotony in understanding the essence of these concepts, since without this, mutual understanding is impossible.
Further, it should be paid to the fact that the fundamental concepts that have formed the basis of all other evidence, Euclidea divided into two classes: postulates and axioms. It is difficult to conclude from his "began", which principles he was guided, relating to some statements to the class of postulates, and others to the class of axiom. There is no explanation and Newton. He immediately called his laws by axioms.
The followers of Euclidean and Newton also did not attach significance to this moment, therefore the process of assigning fundamental scientific statements to the class of axioms or the class of postulates adopted a chaotic character. Each scientist, without having a clear criterion, when evaluating the essence of its fundamental scientific statements, referred them or to the class of postulates, or to the Axiom class. The current situation of use of these concepts was reflected in the dictionary of the Russian language and in the Soviet encyclopedic dictionary.
In the dictionary of the Russian language, the concept of "axiom" and "postulate" are presented as follows.
Axioma - the situation taken without evidence as the initial position, or, as an undeniable truth, is a completely obvious statement.
The postulate is the initial position taken without evidence.
In the Soviet encyclopedic dictionary of the concept of "Axiom" and "postulate" are presented as follows:
Axioma - the situation taken without a logical evidence due to immediate persuasiveness, the true initial position of the theory.
The postulate is an approval taken in the framework of any scientific theory for true, although the consequences unoccupied by its consequences, and therefore playing the role of axioms in it.
So, the main thing is that it follows from the definitions of the concepts of "axiom" and "postulate" - the absence of unambiguity of these definitions and similarity of functions, the implementation of which is attributed to these concepts.
We will not dwell on the use of the concepts of "axiom" and "postulate" by other scientists, and imagine the definition of these concepts that we have done for the first time in our scientific works ,.
Axioma is an obvious statement that does not require experimental verification and no exception.
The postulate is a non-obvious statement, to prove the reliability of which an experimental verification is required.
The final formulation of the concept of "axiom" and "postulate" was adopted in the last editions of our monograph.
We note another feature of the aggregate of scientific statements, which relate to axioms and postulates - rankings (the level of significance in scientific research) in real reality, independent of humans. This is necessary to form correct ideas about the methods of searching for the start of any scientific problem when analyzing it. Prior to that, there was no clear idea that in order to strengthen the significance of various axioms in the scientific search, they need to rank them in terms of community and importance. It seems that we realized it only when the signs of the crisis of theoretical physics are extremely exposure. We will not be able to overcome it if you do not bring order in the fundamental scientific concepts we use.
The task that needs to be solved is not simple. First of all, it is necessary to find its beginning. Without this, we will not be able to systematize our fundamental scientific statements and establish their fullness. Now we will see that it is necessary to start with the analysis of the essence of the main properties of the scientific concepts we use. This area of \u200b\u200bresearch refers to the theory of knowledge. With it and let's start.
2. Definition of concepts characterizing
primary elements of the universe
The process of knowledge was born, apparently, when words were created from individual human sounds, which led to the formation of images corresponding to the semantic content of these words. Gradually, the circle of objects and phenomena enclosed in verbal shells expanded. Now a person enjoys such a large number of words in which such a diverse content is invested that the same understanding of the meaning of this content has become one of the most complex problems of communication between people, including between scientists,.
Any knowledge is formed by our brain, so the theory of knowledge is closely related to the process of our thinking. The basis of thinking is the process of communication of concepts into logical structures that form our ideas about a learned object. Consequently, the accuracy of our knowledge depends on the accuracy of the concepts used and the completeness of the reflection of the important entity with the help of these concepts.
The accuracy of the concepts we use is determined by their semantic tank. The smaller the meaning capacity of the concept, the more accurately reflects the essence concluded in this concept, and the one more thing it is understood by those who use this concept. For example, the concept of "point" is one of the poor concepts, so it causes approximately the same representations of almost everyone who uses this concept, and does not form disagreements in understanding the essence of this concept.
Compare the violent concept of "point" with a vastly sensible concept "knowledge". It is obvious that it forms in different people a different semantic essence and a different semantic capacity of the process of cognition. For example, the knowledge of the meaning of life, the knowledge of happiness, microworld, the universe, the knowledge of the rules of arithmetic, the knowledge of the taste of food by man or animals, etc.
It is impossible to give such a definition of the concept of "knowledge", which would reflect all possible or conceivable variants of this process. Therefore, this concept forms someone who enjoys them, purely personal ideas about the essence of the process of knowledge.
Thus, in the head of each person its own sense capacity of each concept. Taking into account this container, he also judges the reliability of one or another judgment.
The different meaning capacity of the same concepts among different people and is the main obstacle on the way of accurate transmission and accurate perception of information. It follows from this that the complexity of knowledge increases with an increase in the semantic capacity of the concepts used, because with an increase in the semantic capacity of the concepts grow difficulties with its unambiguous definition.
Take, for example, the concept of "happiness" and try to give it a definition. We immediately see that it is impossible to do it, as it is closely connected with the sensual perception by the person of the world around him. Losing the expensive thing feels unhappy. Founding this thing - happy. We will not concern the problems of the impossibility of a logical substantiation of the norms of morality, but we note that the impact of the effect of morality on human behavior is the source of all his troubles and the problems of humanity in general.
Mathematics is considered the most accurate science and it is not surprising, as it enjoys the most violent concepts that can be more or less accurate definition. For example, concepts: unit, zero, two, three, point, line, plane, angle, triangle, etc. It is not only easy to determine, but also easily associate them with numbers, which are then automatically included in mathematical dependences describing the various characteristics of the entities of these concepts.
We will not deepen into this analysis, but we note the exceptional importance of the semantic capacity of the concepts for their unequivocal understanding, without which the science is not conceived at all. Now we understand why the genius of mankind Euclidean and Newton began with the definition of those concepts on the basis of which they built their evidence.
It is quite natural that not all scientific concepts have the same summary meaning and, by virtue of this, the same significance for scientific knowledge. From this it follows the need to rank fundamental scientific concepts in terms of summarizing meaning and scientific significance.
What concepts do we use, above all, with the knowledge of the world around us? The answer is unambiguous - those of them, which determine the fundamental or primary elements of the universe. Is it possible to exist outside the space? Of course not. Therefore, the concept of "space" defines the primary element of the universe, without which no existence is impossible. Thus, in terms of importance for scientific knowledge of the world, the concept of "space" ranks first.
Putting the concept of "space" in the first place in terms of significance for scientific knowledge of the world, we must give it a definition. But this is not so easy to do, because the concept of "space" refers to the number of concepts with a large sense-tank. Nevertheless, most people have identified or close ideas about the essence or meaning of this concept. This we use. For us, it is more important not to define the concept of "space", and the fact that it is the extensive entire existing and therefore we put it in the first place in importance for scientific knowledge.
Now it is necessary to determine the basic properties of space, on which the accuracy of our knowledge of everything is depends on this space. The first and most important property of space is his absolitness. How to understand it? How to determine absoluteness? The current level of knowledge allows us to consider the space absolute because there are no such phenomena in nature that could affect the space: compress, stretch or curb it.
The statement on the relativity of the space, on which the theoretical physics of the twentieth century was based, still does not have an unequivocal experimental evidence of its reliability, so we do not take it into account.
What scientific concept is the second most important? Matter, without her space would be empty. We now understand that an incredibly large sense capacity of this concept excludes the possibility of its unambiguous definition for us. Further, the essence reflected by this concept, has such a large number of diverse properties that we cannot choose a sign of this entity that would give us the reason to consider matter absolute. We can rely on more or less the same understanding of scientists with the semantic essence of the concept of "matter" and this is enough for us at this stage of the development of scientific knowledge.
The following for the scientific knowledge of the world around us is the concept of "time". The essence that is laid in this concept appeared when matteria appeared in space. In an empty space, there was no time. The experience gained by mankind in the awareness of the essence of the concept of "time" indicates the importance of its main property - irreversibility. It flows only in one direction. Another important property of the time is constantly the tempo of his flow. So we have every reason to consider time absolute. This property is defined as follows. Time absolutelyBecause in nature there are no such phenomena that could affect the rate of its flow - to speed up or slow down this pace.
The statement of the relativity of the time on which theoretical physics of the twentieth century was based, does not have direct experimental proof of its reliability. A fixed change in the flow rate of time by various devices in various conditions reflects the properties of the instruments themselves, but not the fact of changes in the flow rate. Therefore, we believe that this error will go away from the science of scientists in the section of science.
So, we set three primary elements of the universe, on which it is based since its creation, if such. The probability of it we describe later.
Now we have to pay attention to what remained unnoticed by Euclide, Newton and his followers and which plays the same importance in the knowledge of the world, as well as the concepts of "space", "matter" and "time". How are the entities that are reflected in these concepts?
First of all, all three primary elements of the universe: space, matter and time exist independently of each other. However, it is impossible to divide them. Time also flows only in space containing matter. That is, all three primary elements of the universe are inseparable. Since this important property remained unnoticed, theories appeared in which the spatial coordinate of the moving object seems independent of time. It turned out that time can be separated from the space, as is done in Lorentz transformations, and analyze the pattern of its flow separately. This is the main misconception, on which theoretical physics of the twentieth century was based.
Since the space cannot be separated from time to time and it is impossible to present the existence of matter outside the space, the inefficiency of these three primary elements of the universe is an axioma. This is the third in the importance of the axiom of the exact sciences.
And now, referring to the postulates and axioms of Euclide, we immediately feel the need to determine these concepts.
Axioma is an obvious statement that does not require experimental verification and no exception.
The postulate is a non-obvious statement, the reliability of which is proved only experimentally or follows from experiments.
We add to this the definition of the concept of the hypothesis.
Hypothesis - unproved statement. Proof may be theoretical and experimental. Both of these evidence should not contradict the axioms and generally accepted postulates.
You can, of course, challenge the accuracy of these definitions. However, they are sufficient to share all the fundamental approval of the exact sciences into two classes: axioms and postulates.
It is necessary to make it in order to facilitate the procedure for checking a connection with the reality of any theory. If the theory contradicts at least one axiom of natural science, then it must turn away the scientific community automatically, without discussion. If the theory contradicts a recognized postulate and does not contradict any axiom of natural science, it deserves discussions, as a result of which the accuracy or scope of the postulate may be questioned.
Taking into account the definitions of the concepts of "postulate" and "axiom", postulates and axioms of Euclidea can be considered axioms with some adjustment of their content. Axioms or Newton's laws automatically become postulates, since the essence reflected in its laws is far from the evidence and accuracy of the statements reflected in its laws require experimental verification.
Since we decided to systematize the axioms of the exact sciences, or rather the axioms of natural science, and arrange them in terms of the level of importance and capacity of the summary meaning, then we give an updated list of natural science list.
3. Axioms of natural science
1 - space absolutely;
2 - time absolutely;
3 - space, matter and time - primary, independent and inseparable from each other, elements of the universe;
4 - between two points you can spend only one straight line;
5 - the limited straight line can be continued to continue in both directions;
6 - from any center and all sorts of a circular solution, you can describe the circle;
7 - all straight corners are equal to each other;
8 - if direct, falling into two straight, forms the amount of internal angles equal to two direct corners, then the continued direct direct will not meet anywhere else 1 ;
9 - equal to the same, equal to each other;
10 - if equal is equal, then the whole will be equal;
11 - if equal to equal, then the remains will be equal;
12 - if equal is unequal, then the whole will not be equal;
13 - doubled one and the same equal to each other;
14 - half of the same equal to each other;
15 - those who combine each other are equal to each other;
As can be seen, we added three new axioms to the axioms of Euclidea, but in terms of a generalizing meaning and significance for natural science they turned out to be in the first place. It seems to us that the continuation of the list of axiom is the case, above all, mathematicians.
4. Chopulates of natural science
At the first place of postulates, we set the main law of Newton:
The main law of mehanodynamics. The force acting on the material body moving with acceleration is always equal to the mass of the body multiplied by acceleration, and coincides with the direction of acceleration.
1 - Law 1. The accelerated movement of the body occurs under the action of the Newtonian active force and the forces of resistance to move in the form of the inertia forces, and the mechanical forces of resistance, the sum of all forces at accelerated body movement at any time is zero.
2 - Law 2. The uniform body movement occurs under the action of the inertia strength, and the constant active force applied to the body overcomes the resistance force with uniform movement.
3 - Law 3. Slowing downstream of the solid body is controlled by the excess of the forces of resistance to movement over the power of inertia.4 - Law 4. Forces with which two bodies act on each other are always equal in the module and are directed in a straight line, connecting the centers of the masses of these bodies, in opposite sides.
5 - Law 5. With the accelerated movement of the solid body, Newtonian acceleration, formed by Newtonian power, is equal to the sum of the decelerations formed by all the forces of resistance to movement.
6 - the law of world community. The strength of the interaction between the bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their mass centers.
Let us give the formulation of the second postulate A. Einstein, on which theoretical physics of the twentieth century was based.
"2. Each beam of light moves in a resting coordinate system at a certain speed, regardless of whether this ray of light is emitted or a moving body. "
The current level of knowledge allows us to give more accurate wording to this postulate.
6 - the speed of photons emitted by a resting or moving source is constant relative to the space and does not depend on the direction of movement of the source and its speed.
In the new microworous theory, the number of scientific statements with the statuses of scientific postulates reaches several hundred and this amount is growing. Most of the new scientific postulates are expressed in the form of mathematical models describing the structure of the inhabitants of the micromyr and their interaction, as well as various physical processes and phenomena.
We provide the opportunity to other researchers to continue the list of postulates. It will be many times longer than the list of axioms. It seems that mathematicians will agree with the need to translate many of their statements that they still considered axiomatic and which now do not correspond to the concept of "axiom" in the class of postulates.
5. Discussion of the results
So, we have a list of axioms needed to verify communication with the reality of existing physical theories. If it turns out that some kind of theory or new postulates contradict at least one of the axis of natural science, they are erroneous.
The most important role of axiom is to be the foundation of new theories. The foundation of any future theory that will be built on the basis of the estimated axiom will have eternal strength.
In their numerous publications, we have already shown how to use axioms to analyze communication with the reality of existing theories and to develop new, ,,,,,,,,.
Now the statement that parallel straight lines intersect in infinity is not an axiom, but by the postulate and the experimental proof of the reliability of this statement is required. It is impossible to do this, of course, since intersecting parallel straight lines cease to be straight.
Thus, the first three fundamental axioms of natural science act as independent criteria to verify the reliability of mathematical models of various physical theories. For those who agree with the obvious reliability of the three fundamental assets of natural science, I inform you that they are implemented only in Euclidean geometry. From this it follows the first unambiguous conclusion about the connection of mathematical models of this geometry with real reality.
Especially emphasized the role of axioms Unity Spaces - Matters - Time In the mathematical description of the process of moving any objects in space. This axiom sets a strict match between the movement of any object in space and the flow during this movement. Mathematically, this is expressed by the dependence of the coordinates of the object of the object in space from time.
Matter can not be separated from the space. It is impossible to imagine the course of time outside the space. Space, matter and time are the primary elements of the universe inseparable from each other. I think that the accuracy of the statement about the unity of space, matter and time is obvious. It does not have exceptions and contains all the signs of axioms. As soon as we recognize this fact, as immediately axiom Unityspaces - matter - time enters into the rights of an independent judge of the reliability of mathematical models describing the movement of material objects in space, and those theories that these models belong.
Mathematical models of motion of material objects in space, built in pseudo-chilide geometries, contradict axiom Unityspaces - matter - time. Therefore, the first four-dimensional geometry of Minkowski and his idea will be rejected. unity of space and time, Since the mathematical model postulated by them is a four-dimensional geometry, where this idea is being implemented, contradicts the axiom Unity , .
Scientists of the exact sciences were too fascinated by the process of attributing their scientific statements to the category of axiomatic. Mathematics sin more than all. After all axioma is an obvious statement that does not require experimental verification and no exception. Everything else is postulates. If the theory contradicts at least one axiom of natural science or a generally accepted scientific posture, it is erroneous.
Of course, the process of implementing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe presentation of the presented axioms of natural science will go faster and fruitful if the global scientific community matures until the need to give the list of fundamental axioms of the status of commitment.
Conclusion
Thus, in terms of summarizing meaning and significance for scientific research in the first place is the axiom:space absolutely, on the second - time absolutely, on the third - space, matter and time inseparable. The value of axioms does not depend on its recognition. She herself protects its reliability of the apparent connection with reality.
A important role in scientific research is played by postulates - statements, the accuracy of which is not obvious, but is proven experimentally or follows from experiments. The value of postulate is determined by the level of recognition of its accuracy by the scientific community.
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1 This is a refined wording of the Euclideus axiom on the parallelism of direct.
Science and Religion
What are the main postulates of science?
In science (Natural) There are unconditional provisions that are not proved, but are accepted as source, since they are necessary to build the entire knowledge system.
The most concise these axioms expressed one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century: « Vera In the existence of an external world independent of the perceived subject, there is the basis of all natural science ". (Einstein A. Collection of scientific papers / M. 1964. T. 4. P. 136)
Can accurate sciences express the worldview? Since science in its essence is a system of developing knowledge about the world, that is, knowledge, continuously changing and therefore never you are not able to give a complete and complete idea of \u200b\u200bthe world as a whole. Scientific knowledge is unstable, which contradicts the very concept of worldview as something defined and finished.
Scientific knowledge against religion? Not. Because science and religion are also incomparable as a kilometer and kilogram. These areas can come into contact, intersect, but not refute each other.
In addition, those meager knowledge of the Universe, which has humanity, not only do not refute the being of God, but they are not able to seriously seriously give answers to the origin of space, life on Earth, the human mind.
Religion against science development? In religion, as in the exact sciences, the main method of knowledge is the experience. Vera and in religion, and in science - the thing is necessary, but not more than in the remaining manifestations of human activity. Many great inventors and scientists were believers, which confirms the idea that scientific facts are neutral in the ideological sense.. Moreover, some achievements of science confirm the main religious, especially Christian, realities.
Data data can be confirmed by biblical events?
The last 50 years have made a lot of discoveries that indirectly or directly confirm the basic data of the Bible. (Great Flood, Babylonian Tower, the existence of cities and countries where biblical events occurred, the outcome of the Jews from Egypt, the circumstances of the miracle passing through the Cherry Sea, etc.)
True
Is it possible to find the truth in philosophy?
Theology is based on divine revelation, and philosophy - on a number of distracted ideas or postulates. Theology comes from the fact - from the revelation, the completeness of which is given in Christ, for God ... these days the latter told us in the Son (Heb. 1: 1-2). The philosophy, arguing about God, does not come from the fact of the phenomenon of the living God, but from the distracted idea of \u200b\u200bthe Divine. For philosophers, God is convenient for building a philosophical system. For the theologian, God is the one who opens and whom it is impossible to know the dispersion, outside of revelation. (Dogmatic theology. Archim. Alpilation (Castal).
Is it possible to gain the truth in Magism and the occult?
The goals of the magic and the occultism of the Sustiner. Magic is trying the highest strength to force to serve the earthly interests, regardless of eternal values. Witchcraft, Magism and Okkultism suggest "religious freedom", open indifference relative to the truth and human justice. The oligarchic authority is in fact there is the only purpose of such "spiritual" practices.
What consequences leads the vision of the essence of Christianity in the performance of moral debt?
The opinion that the execution of generally accepted moral principles is already making a person worthy of eternal benefits, erroneously. Since the tools for salvation of a person from slavery sin - dogmas, belonging to the church, Christ, etc., - become unnecessary, "Christian atheism" arises, which is usually killed in the denial of Christ as God, "decent nihilism."In addition, such an opinion entails an infinite and insane crushing for "religious circles" and "sect-one-day".
Example -10 Communism Communication
The modern concepts of morality are almost fundamentally different from the understanding of morality, which existed, for example, another 2 centuries ago. Without having divine basics, the patristic experience and experience of life in the church, a person almost never can become genuinely moral, not to mention the state of "oblivion" or holiness.
Workshop on the general psychology Kondakov I.M.
Section 1. Methods of research in psychology
Topic 1. Modern methodology of scientific knowledge
Methodology of scientific knowledge: the postulate of an active entity.
The basic concepts of the modern theory of knowledge.
Every science is based on facts. She collects facts, compares them and makes conclusions - Sets lawsthe area of \u200b\u200bactivity is studied. Methods for obtaining these facts are called methodsscientific research. The main methods of scientific research in psychology - observation, analysis of documents, survey, conversation, experiment (see Fig. 1) and testing. The rationale for certain methods is given by the methodology of science.
Methodology of science - The doctrine of the principles and methods of scientific knowledge (see [Scho-V.S. Scientific knowledge as activity. M., 1984; Yudin B.G. Methodological analysis as a direction of studying science. M., 1986]). It prescribes certain standards for scientific research. Among such standards are the main ones:
Construction of a model of a particular subject area explaining certain, previously recorded facts;
Extension hypothesesstudies; Verification of this hypothesis, i.e. An attempt to confirm it (or falsification, i.e. attempt to refute);
Building forecastand the possibility of obtaining new facts.
Scientific knowledge acts as activities. Activities aimed at a specific subject, both subject-transformative and cognitive, is implemented subject (from lat. Subjectum - subjectable), which is or an individual, or a social group. The subject is opposed an objecty An object (from Lat. Objectum is an item) - what exists outside of a learning and acting subject, regardless of his sensations, feelings and desires and can be the subject of its directional activity as a subject of knowledge or activity.
There are certain signs inherent in the subject of cognition [Maturna W. Biology of knowledge // Language and intellect. M., Progress, 1984], such as:
Belonging to the subject of knowledge of living systems;
The orientation of the subject of knowledge for a holistic an objecthaving both a certain historical and defined structural context;
The inclusion of the subject of knowledge in the circle of other subjects of knowledge;
Possibility in quality an objectand the knowledge of yourself and others.
(See: Reader. Maturna W. Biology of Cognition // Language and Intellect. M., Progress, 1984.)
In a psychological study an object - The process or phenomenon with which a certain problem situation is associated, to solve a scientific and psychological study. Based on the theoretical analysis of this problem situation conducted at the preliminary stage, is formulated hypothesesand the studies in which the psychological mechanisms are indicated, which allegedly determine the occurrence of the problem and, accordingly, are subject to research.
On this basis, the demarcation line is carried out between objective and subjective, introspeccionist psychology. Objective psychology (from Greek. Psyche - Soul) - a number of psychological schools focused on the use of objective methods of analysis and based on conventional rules for fixing mental phenomena.
In different directions of objective psychology, as a subject of research appear:
Behavior (in behaviorism),
Reactions (in reactology),
Reflexes (in reflexology), etc.
Objective psychology is characterized by its method. This is an objective method protruding a methodological installation based on the analysis of mental content that is maximally oriented towards another subject (and not himself, as in introspeccionism) and involving the use of verified hypotheses. Hypotheses that can be checked in standardized conditions.
The extension of scientific hypotheses is carried out on the basis of a scientific paradigm. Paradigm (from Greek. Paradeigma is a sample) - a conceptual model formed in a particular scientific field, prescribing those or other rules for the problems and determine how to solve them. On the basis of the paradigm, the a priori possibility of confirmation of certain hypotheses is estimated and a methodological support for experimental studies is formed.
Initially, the paradigm is an example from history used as evidence or for comparison. The modern content of the concept of the paradigm was set by TS. [Kun T.S. The structure of scientific revolutions. M., 1977].
During certain periods of time, those or other paradigms dominate the scientific community.
In a narrower sense, the paradigm is the principle of constructing an experimental study, optionally correlated with generally accepted axioms of scientific knowledge in a specific scientific field. It is in this sense that the concept of paradigm is most commonly in psychology, since so far, psychology does not correspond to the criteria of operationalization, in particular, mathematization, which are defined by natural sciences (mathematics, logic, physics, etc.).
Nevertheless, it can be said that at present the most influential paradigm in domestic psychology is an activity paradigm, a predetermining research focus on the process of interaction between the subject and an objectbut.
As part of the research paradigm, certain units of mental analysis are developed. Actually, analysis of psychic (from Greek. Analysis - decomposition, dismemberment) is a methodological installation oriented to the allocation of such formations in the mental life that cannot be dissected on smaller without loss of mental quality, on the one hand, and the species variations of which are satisfactory description and forecast The flow of all psychological processes, on the other.
In the history of psychology, as units of analysis appeared:
Association,
Behavior,
Gestalt,
Need,
Activity,
Communication
Interaction, etc.
In real research, after the adoption of one or another paradigm and allocating the main unit of analysis of the psychic begins the step of nomination of concrete hypotheses. Hypothesis (from Greek. Hypothesis is an assumption) - an element of the cognitive process submitted by the assumption of the individual properties of the surrounding world, which arises as a factor in the orientation of the activity and due to the existing individual of the subjective picture of the world.
In the event that the solution of the task is not known to the individual, very general hypotheses are formed at the beginning, due to the verification of which the direction of further search is established.
As grounds for nomination hypotheses, theoretical concepts may be. At the same time, the hypotheses of hypotheses may be outside of initial theoretical constructions, i.e. intuitive, without reflection of logical grounds.
The main postulates of the modern theory of knowledge.
Traditionally, within the framework of psychological issues, two most common topics are allocated:
Study of motivational processes (motivational and considerable activity; in terminology D.B. Elconina (see Fig. 2) );
The study of cognitive processes (operational and technical sphere).
As part of the first topic, motives, emotions, temperament, character, personality, second - sensation and perception, attention, memory, thinking are considered. In terms of everyday consciousness in the first case, it is about the fact that the body needs, in the second, as this "necessary" is achieved.
But if you get up to the point of view of the modern theory of knowledge, then this dichotomy, at first glance, quite clear and understandable, inevitably modified.
Turning to early theorym of knowledge, namely to the classical theory of knowledge, one can see that two areas were identified here:
Subject area, i.e. knowing a person
Region an objectand those. Causeable reality.
The subject was interpreted as a completely "impartial", and the object as a completely objectively existing.
But as knowledge (including psychological) accumulated (including psychological), it was increasingly discovered that the subject is not so impartial, and the objective reality itself is structured by the reflection of the needs of this knowledgeable entity.
Therefore, it was formulated " anthropic principle in epistemology " This principle is illustrated by the following analogy.
In science (natural science), as in religion, there are such unconditional provisions - "dogmas" - which are not proved (and cannot be proven), but are accepted as source, since they are necessary to build the entire knowledge system. Such provisions are called in it postulates or axiomas. Natural science is based at least in the following two main positions: recognition, firstly, the reality of the life of the world and, secondly, the patterns of its device and the knowledgeability of a person.
Consider these postulates.
1) no matter how surprisingly, but the statement about objective, i.e. Independent from the consciousness of a person, the existence of the world is, rather, with direct evidence, rather than the scientifically proven truth, more than the subject of faith, rather than knowledge. The famous Philosopher Bertrand Russell († 1970) on this occasion is wittlessly noticed: " I don't think I'm going now and see a dream, but I can not prove it" Einstein († 1955) In turn, directly declares: " Belief in the existence of an external world independent of the perceive subject is the basis of all natural science" These statements of famous scientists illustrate the understanding of the science of the reality of the outside world: it is the subject of her faith, Dogmat (expressing theological language), but not knowledge.
2). The second postulate of science is the belief in rationality, the patterns of the device of the world and his cognition - is the main driving force of all scientific research. But it also turns out to be the same subject of faith (dogma) for science, as well as the first. Authoritative scientists talk about it unambiguously. So, Academician L.S. Berg († 1950) wrote: " The main postulate, with which the naturalist is suitable for understanding nature, is the one that in nature there is a sense that it is possible to comprehend and understand that between the laws of thinking and knowledge, on the one hand, and the building of nature, on the other, there is some predetermined harmony . Without this silent assumption, no natural science is impossible. Maybe this postulate is incorrect (just like, perhaps, the postulate of Euclid about parallel lines is incorrect), but it is practically necessary" Einstein asserted the same: " Without faith in what it is possible to cover the reality of our theoretical constructions, without faith in the inner harmony of our world, there could be no science. This faith is and will always remain the main motive of all scientific creativity." Father Cybernetics N. Wiener († 1964) wrote: " Without faith in the fact that nature is subordinated to the laws, there can be no science. It is impossible to proof that nature is subordinated to the laws, because we all know that the world from the next moment can become a game in a crockety from the book "Alice in Wonderland"". Famous modern American physicist Ch. Towns († 1992) writes: " The scientist must be imbued with the conviction in advance that there is order in the universe and that the human mind is able to understand this order. The world is random or incomprehensible senseless it would be even trying to understand».
But even if these postulates are true (and this is hardly able to doubt), then it remains the most important question, without the decision of which the formulation of the problem "Science and Religion" loses any meaning - this is the question of the reliability of the most scientific knowledge. But first a brief remark about his methods.