Who was a contemporary of Justinian in Western Europe. Justinian Great

And such a marriage caused the protest of Empress Euphimia. In addition, the farodore showed an obvious tendency to monophizite. However, Justinian did not move away. After the death of Evfimia in or year, the emperor Justin did not oppose the receiving son. He issued a marriage decree, which was allowed, in particular, a repentant hypocrite, who threw her formerly occupation, to enter into a legitimate marriage, even with hurried faces. Thus, the wedding took place.

From the beginning of the board of Justinian, Frakia began to be subject to increasingly destructive raids of "Gunnov" - Bulgar and Scythians -Clavyan. In the year, the commander Mund successfully reflected the onslaught of Bulgar in Thrace.

Since the time of Justin, Justinian inherited the policy of persecution of monophimita monasteries and clergy in Northern Syria. However, the ubiquitous persecution of the monophysity in the empire was not undertaken - the number of his adherents was too large. Egypt, the stronghold of monophysitis, constantly kept under the threat of a breakdown of bread supplies to the capital, why Justinian ordered even to build a special fortress in Egypt to protect the grain gathered in the State Hitter. Already at the beginning of the 530s, the Empress Theodore used its influence on the spouse to start negotiations and attempts to reconcile the position of monophysites and Orthodox. In the year, the delegation of Monophysites arrived in Constantinople and was covered by the royal couple at the ORMIZD Palace. Since then, under the constitution of the Feodora and in the silent agreement of Justinian, there was a refuge for monophysites.

NIKA rebellion

However, this agreement was in fact the victory of monophysites and the saint Pope Agapit, sent by the Ostrodsky King of Theodakad to Constantinople as a political ambassador, convinced Justinian to turn away from the false world with monophimite and stand on the side of Chalkidon solutions. The Orthodox Mina Orthodox Saint was erected at the place of the displaced Anfim. Justinian was a confession of faith, which the Saint Agapit recognized quite Orthodox. For the same time, the emperor was the Orthodox prayer of the "only beerable son and the Word of God", which was included in the rank of Divine Liturgy. On May 2, the Cathedral was opened in Constantinople in the presence of an emperor for the final proceedings of an imphim case. During the cathedral, a number of monophimita leaders were convicted, among them Antimi and Sevir.

However, at the same time, the Emperor's ahead of the emperor agreed to the supply to the heirs who died to the dad aggitis that showed readiness for the compromise of Diacon Vigil. His construction on the imperial will on the papal throne took place on March 29, despite the fact that the year in Rome was already elected to the Christian Department of Sylovery. Considering Rome - by his city, and himself - the highest authority, Justinian easily recognized the primacy of the Roman dads over the Konstantinople patriarchs, and also easily put the Poppants at his own discretion.

Troubles 540 and their consequences

In the internal administration, Justinian adhered to the previous line, but much less attention paid to attempts to legislative reforms - after the death of the tribonian lawyer, the emperor published only 18 documents. In the year, Justinian has abolished consulat in Constantinople, declaring himself a lifelong consul, at the same time stopping expensive consular games. The king did not return from its construction undertakings - so, a huge "new church" was completed in the name of the Most Holy Virgin on the ruins of the Jerusalem Temple.

Theological disputes of the 540s and 550s

From the beginning of the 540s, Justinian became deeper into questions of theology. The desire to overcome the monophimitis and the cessation of discord in the church did not leave it. Meanwhile, the Empress Feodorus continued to patronize Monophysites and a year, at the request of Sheikh Arabov -Gassanids Al-Harita (Al-Harith), contributed to the formation of the monophimita hierarchy through the supply of the Western Bishop-Monophysitis of Jacob Baradey. Justinian initially tried to catch him, but it failed, and the emperor subsequently had to accept the activities of Baradeya on the outskirts of the empire. Although the Empress Feodorus died in a year to reconcile with the Orthodox Church, there is a version according to which she taught the emperor not to pursue prominent monophysites, all this time she hollowed in the Konstantinople Palace of Ormard. One way or another, the Orthodox emperor did not strengthen the persecution of monophysites, and tried to collect believers in a single church by condemning other false teachings.

Around the beginning of the 540s, the emperor raised the question of the formal condemnation of Origen. His lugged in 10 eresa in the message to St. Mine, the emperor convened the Cathedral in the capital, which condemned Origen and his teaching.

At the same time, the Imperial Theological Counselor Theodore Askid proposed to condemn some essays of the Blessed Feodorite of the Kirski, Willow of the Edez and Theodore of Mopstetsky, in which Nestorian misconceptions were expressed. Although forgot themselves, the authors have been respected for a long time, the authors were respected in the church, the Cathedral condemnation of their mistakes would have deprived of monophysites to slander the Orthodox accusing them in non-traditional. In the year, Justinian unveiled Edict against the so-called. "Three chapters" - non-uninforded writings of the three above-mentioned teachers. However, instead of reconciling Monophysites with the church, it caused a protest in the West, where the "three chapters" convictions saw an attempt on Orthodoxy. Patriarch Constantinople Saint Mina signed the Imperial Decree, but Pope did not agree for a long time and even went on a break of communication with the Konstantinople church.

The Empire has led a long fight with rebeling in Africa to the troops who hoped for the redistribution of newly obedient lands among themselves. Only a year was able to successfully suppress the rebellion, after which North Africa firmly entered the empire.

At the end of the 540s, Italy seemed lost, but the requests of the Pope Vigil and other noble Roman refugees in Constantinople convinced Justinian not to give things and he again decided to send an expedition to the year there. Numerous troops assembled for the campaign at first moved to Frakia, from where, thanks to this, they left the specifies to the Slavs. Then, in the year, the large forces of Romeev finally arrived in Italy under the start of Nursa and defeated the sharp. Soon the peninsula was cleared of the foci of resistance, and some lands of the North of the River were occupied. After a long-term depleting struggle, bleeding Italy, with an administrative center in Ravenna, the empire was returned. In the year, Justinian issued a "pragmatic sanction", having canceled all the innovations of Totil - the Earth returned to the same owners, as well as the slaves and colons liberated by the king. The emperor, not trusting the competence of imperial administrators, instructed the management of public, financial and educational systems in Italy bishops, since the church remained the only moral and economic force in the destroyed country. In Italy, as in Africa, the Arianism was persecuted.

Considerable success was the import of a silkworm eggs from China about a year, before this strictly stored the secret of silk production. According to legend, the emperor himself persuaded the Persian monks-Nestorian to deliver a precious cargo. From this time, in Constantinople began to manufacture their silk, which was established by the state monopoly, which brought the treasury large income.

Heritage

Prayer status

Tropear, voice 3

The beauty of the worst of glory of God, / in the earth [life] So that lauds are unfortunately, Essays, aggravated by the good talent, aggravated the righteousness, / about the unlikely and moved the righteous. / Sober and the MZDO Acts of Your Acts, / Jaco Righteous, the enjoyment of Christ from Christ of God: // Justinian's eating moths.

Kondak, voice 8

Poorizhnaya / and the champion about the truth of the truth, / honest and on debt praise the people, the Bogomud, / but Iko having a boldness to Christ to God, / you are humming as soon as possible, yes call: // Rejoice, Justinian is confused.

Sources, literature

• Prokokii Caesarian Wars of Justinian.
• Prokokii Caesarian About buildings.
• Prokokii Caesarian Secret History

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• Cameron, Alan, Circus FACTIONS. Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, Oxford, 1976.
• Cameron, Averil, Agathias., Oxford, 1970.
• Cameron, Averil, PROCOPIUS AND THE SIXTH CENTURY, Berkeley, 1985.
• Cameron, Averil, THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD IN LATE ANTIQUITY, London and New York, 1993.
• Capizzi, Giustiniano I TRA Politica E Reliogione, Messina, 1994.
• Chuvin, Pierre, Archer, B. A., TRANS., A CHRONICLE OF THE LAST PAGANS, Cambridge, 1990.
• Diehl, Charles, Justinien Et La Civilisation Byzantine Au Vie Siècle, I-II, Paris, 1901.
• Diehl, Charles, Theodora, Impératrice De Byzance, Paris, 1904.
• Downey, Glanville, "Justinian AS Builder," Art Bulletin., № 32, 1950, 262-66.
• Downey, Glanville, Constantinople in the Age of Justinian, Norman, Okla., 1960.
• Evans, J. A. S., "Procopius and the Emperor Justinian," Historical Papers, The Canadian Historical Association, 1968, 126-39.
• Evans, J. A. S., "The" Niká Rebellion and The Empress Theodora, " Byzaltion., № 54, 1984, 380-82.
• Evans, J. A. S., "The Dates of Procopius" Works: A RecapiTulation of the Evidence, " GRBS., № 37, 1996, 301-13.
• Evans, J. A. S., Procopius., NEW YORK, 1972.
• Evans, J. A. S., THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN. The Circumstances of Imperial Power, London and New York, 1996.
• Fotiou, A., "Recruitment shortages in the vith century," Byzaltion., № 58, 1988, 65-77.
• Fowden, Garth, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequency of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton, 1993.
• Frend, W. H. C., The Rise of the Monophysite Movement: Chapters on the History of the Church In The Fifth and Sixth Centuries, Cambridge, 1972.
• Gerostergios, Asterios, Justinian The Great: The Emperor and Saint, Belmont, 1982.
• rus. Translation: TEROSERGIOS, A., Justinian Great - Emperor and Holy [Per. from English prot. M. Kozlova], M.: Publishing House of the Sretensky Monastery, 2010.
• Gordon, C. D., "PROCOPIUS AND JUSTINIAN" S Financial Policies, " Phoenix., № 13, 1959, 23-30.
• Grabar, andré, The Golden Age of Justinian, from the Death of theodosius to the raise of islam, NEW YORK, 1967.
• GreatRex, Geoffrey, "The Nika Riot: A REAPPRAISAL," JHS., 117, 1997, 60-86.
• GreatRex, Geoffrey, Rome and Persia At War, 502-532, Leeds, 1998.
• Harrison, R. M., A temple for byzantium, London, 1989.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, "Remembering Pain: Syriac Historiography and The Separation of the Churches," Byzaltion., № 58, 1988, 295-308.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, Asceticism and Society In Crisis: John of Ephesus and "The Lives of the Eastern Saints", Berkeley, 1990.
• HERRIN, JUDITH, THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM, Oxford, 1987.
• Herrin, Judith, "Byzance: Le Palais et La Ville," Byzaltion., № 61, 1991, 213-230.
• Holmes, William G., The Age of Justinian and Theodora: a History of the Sixth Century AD, 2nd ed., London, 1912.
• Honoré, Tony, Tribonian, London, 1978.
• Myendorff, J., "Justinian, The Empire, and The Church," DOP., № 22, 1968, 43-60.
• Moorhead, John, Justinian., London and New York, 1994.
• Shahîd, I. BYZANTIUM AND THE ARABS IN THE SIXTH CENTURY, Washington, D.C., 1995.
• ThURMAN, W. S., "How Justinian I Sought to Handle The Problem of Religious Dissidents," Gotr., № 13, 1968, 15-40.
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• see Russian translation T. 1, ch. 3 "Justinian Great and its coming successors (518-610)" at http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_yu/yustinian1.php
• Watson, Alan, Trans. The Digest of Justinian, with Latin Text Edited by T. Mommsen With the Aid Of Paul Krueger, I-IV, Philadelphia, 1985.
• Wescke, Kenneth P., ON THE PERSON OF CHRIST: THE CHRISTOLOGY OF THE EMPEROR JUSTINIAN, Crestwood, 1991.

Used materials

• Historic portal page Chronos:
• http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_yu/yustinian1.php - used by STT. BSE; Encyclopedia The world around us; From the book of Dashkov, S. B., Emperors Byzantium, M., 1997; Historic Almanac Calendar Saint Rus.
• Evans, James Allan, "Justinian (527-565 a.d.)," An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors, St. Petersburg., Publishing House "Noah", 1994, 25-44:, and "Flavius" - a sign of belonging to the imperial family.

  In the original, the word is missing. Probably missed by mistake.

Why did the Roman emperor Konstantin Great decided to transfer the capital of the empire on the shores of the Bosphor?

When was the Eastern Roman Empire? Barbarov, but also existed for more than a thousand years. It included rich and culturally developed areas: the Balkan Peninsula with the surrounding islands, part of the Transcaucasia, Small Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt.

Thus, it was the Eurasian (Eurasian) state with very diverse by origin, appearance and customs of the population. With deep antiquity, agriculture and cattle breeding developed here.

Byzantine ship. Medieval mosaic VI in.

Visantia has been preserved by revitalized, crowded cities: Constantinople,

Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. Here was the production of glassware, silk fabrics, jewelry, papyrus.

Bowl. Product of Byzantine Crafts

Constantinople, located on the shore of the Bosphorus Strait, was at the intersection of two important trade routes: land - from Europe to Asia and Sea - from the Mediterranean Sea to black. Byzantine merchants rich on trade with the Northern Black Sea (there they had their own colony cities), with Iran, India, China. In Western Europe, they brought expensive Eastern products: painted purple wool, wine, spices (sharp seasonings), fragrant and cosmetic substances, swords from the glorified damask steel, the thinnest Indian Kiseu ... 2.

Emperor's power. Unlike the countries of Western Europe, a single state has persisted in medieval Visantia with the imperial power. The emperor was the supreme judge, appointed military leaders and senior officials, received foreign ambassadors. Emperor ruled the country, relying on many officials. The cases of petitioners were solved with the help of bribes or personal connections.

Byzantium could protect his borders from barbarians and even conduct conquering wars. By ordering the rich treasury, the emperor contained a large hired army and a strong fleet. But there were periods when a major military leader overthrew the emperor himself and became a state truck himself.

Justinian. Mosel ka church in Rave is not. Vi in. 3.

Justinian and his reforms. The empire especially expanded its borders to the Board of Justinian (527-565). Smart, energetic, well-educated, Justinian skillfully picked up and sent his assistants. Under the external accessibility and courtesy hid a merciless and cunning tyrant. According to the historian, the procopy, he could, without showing anger, "a quiet, even voice to give the order to kill tens of thousands of innocent people." Justinian was afraid of the attempts on his life, and therefore it was easy to believed a denounced and was soon on the massacre.

Feodora. Mosai Church in Ravenni VI.

The main rule of Justinian was: "A single state, a single law, a single religion." Wanting to enlist the support of the Church, he kicked her land and valuable gifts, built many temples and monasteries. Justinian himself was a zealous Christian who wrote theological treatises. His government began with unprecedented persecution of pagans, inners and apostates from Christian verbation - until condemnation for death. The famous school in Athens is closed - a major center of pagan culture.

To introduce uniform laws for the whole empire, the emperor created a commission from the best lawyers. In a short time, they collected documents: the laws of emperors with the explanation of Roman lawyers, laws

Walls and towers of Constantinople. Reconstruction What did the city of the impregnable?

marked:

1 Church of St. Sophia

Constantinople plan

L "N What was the benefits of strategic & y" 1 of whom the position of the city?

justinian himself. These works were published under the general name of the Civil Law Code. Due to this, the Roman law has been preserved for the next generations of Europeans. He was studied lawyers in the Middle Ages and a new time, making the laws for their states. four.

Wars of Justinian. Yus

tinian attempted to restore the Roman Empire in the same borders. The emperor sent an army for 500 ships and took the capital of the Kingdom of Vandalov Carthage.

Then Justinian conceived to conquer the kingdom of sharp in Italy.

Being coming from the sea, his army occupied Sicily, south of Italy and later

laddeo Rome. Another army, coming from the Balkan Peninsula, entered into the capital of the sharp boom. The kingdom of sharp is palo.

But the oppression of officials and robbery soldiers caused the uprisings of local residents in North Africa and Italy. It took 15 years of intense struggle to completely subordinate to North Africa, and in Italy it took about 20 years.

Justinian's troops also won the southwestern part of Spain.

To protect the borders of the Empire, Justinian built a fortress with garrisons on the outskirts, paved to the road borders. Destroyed cities were restored everywhere, water pipes, hippodrols, theaters were constructed.

But the population of the Byzantium itself was ruined by taxes. According to the historian, the Byzantine Sun "The people of large crowds flew to the Varva-baself in church

Reception of foreign ambassadors

(From the notes of Germans, who visited Byzantium in the middle of the 15th century)

In Constantinople, the Hall is adjacent to the Imperial Palace. Remove the / nude splendor and beauty. Before the throne of the emperor, there was a copper, gold-plated tree, whose branches were filled with various birds, SD Lanned from bronze. The birds published every special melody, and the day of the emperor was arranged so skillfully, that at first it seemed NG Kim, almost at the ground level, then somewhat higher and thundered in the air. The colossal throne was surrounded, in the form of Guardians, the Lions, who flew madly to the land, opening the mouth, moved the tongue and published a loud Röv. After, according to custom, the third time bowed to the emperor, welcoming him, raised his head and saw the emperor in completely different clothes almost the ceiling of the hall ...

a 1. What do you think, for what purpose was such a lush and unusual ceremonial of the appearance of ambassadors? 2. Suppose what was the point in one or another / tali representation shown by the ambassador.

rams to just hide from native land. " The uprisings broke out everywhere, which Justinian suppressed cruelly. In the east, long war with Iran began. Byzantium even lost to Iran part of the territory and paid him a tribute. Byzantium began to endure defeats in wars with neighbors and shortly after the death of Justinian lost almost all the territories conquered in the West.

Byzantine empire in the VI-XI centuries.

Determine which the map is the territory of the Empire in the middle of the 6th century, in the middle of the 9th century, in the middle of the XI century. five.

Invasion of Slavs and Arabs. Since the beginning of the VI century, Slavs attacked Byzantium. In these wars, they acquired military experience, they learned how to fight construction and take the storming of the fortress. From invasions, they switched to the settlement of the territory of the Empire: first they took the north of the Balkan Peninsula, then penetrated Macedonia and Greece. Over time, Slavs became the subjects of the empire: they began to pay taxes in the treasury and serve in the imperial army.

In the VII century, the Arabs attacked the ownership of Byzantium. They captured Palestine, Syria and Egypt, and by the end of the century - and all of North Africa. Since the time of Justinian, the territory of the Empire decreased almost three times. Byzantium has retained only small Asia, the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and some areas in Ita

lii. 1. Prove the advantages of the geographical position of Constantinople. What else do the cities of the empire flourished? 2. What power did the Byzantine emperor possessed? 3. How did Justinian strengthened the unity of the country? What of many centuries created during his reign? 4. Is the attempt of Justinian restore the Roman Empire? Why? 5. What nations invaded the territory of Byzantium after the death of Justinian?

1. Compare the geographical and economic situation of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Roman Empire. Make conclusions. Why did the Eastern Roman Empire manage to resist the onslaught of the barbarians? 2. Try to name several reasons that the idea of \u200b\u200bJustinian restore the Roman Empire in the former borders was doomed to failure. 3. Write a reflection on the topic "Is it possible to consider Justinian an outstanding ruler?". Argument your point of view. 4. Who was the contemporary of Justinian in Western Europe? What is the similarity and distinction of the tasks that the emperors of Byzantium and Kings in Europe solve the same time? 5. Give examples of modern Eurasian states.

Bodily glimpse began to overcome the elderly after he crossed the threshold of the 80th anniversary; He, however, continued to keep the brars of state reign in his own hands. But his soul, and previously found a consolation in the thinking about the mining and eternal, about the "one on the need", now, in old years, with a special paint and constancy indulged. S. Diel wrote about this immersion in theological reflections with an arrogant prejudice of a fallen positivist: "They took possession of the mania of a sir. For a long time, the concern for religious affairs was so expensive to His heart that he forgot the most significant interests of the state; Now this concern has covered it entirely. It is noteworthy that the last decree issued by Justinian on March 26, 565, refers to church affairs, and the overflow of its quotes from the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers of the Church perfectly characterizes the mood of the sovereign ... Naturally, the infection of such a sad sample of government has covered all the control steps. " In confirmation of his sentence, S. Diel quotes the poems of the younger contemporary of Justinian Poet Korippa, in which, however, there is no shadow of the conviction of the Holy Emperor: "The old man has no longer care about anything; already a cold, he lived only by the expectation of eternal life; The mind was vital in heaven. "

Edict, which says "On the nettiness of the Body of the Lord", mentions only Evagry

A year before the death, at the end of 564, Justinian, according to Evagria Scholasty, was published by the theological edict, "in which he called the body of the Lord with the net and unresponsive to genuine physical suffering." This edict has not been preserved and is known only from the reference to it of this historian, therefore, to judge his actual content of a somewhat foggy, too laconic and not deprived of internal contradictions in Evagria is difficult. On the one hand, Evagry attributes the idea of \u200b\u200bthe thought that the body of the Lord was not subject to a damnation, nor a genuine suffering, and on the other - sets out this document, writes about the "natural or elected feebles in their own will". Nevertheless, Evagry accuses Justinian in the fact that at the end of his life he fell into a hundred-catering heresy. This heresy rose on the basis of the extreme monophimitism, it was her who defended Julian Galicarnassky in a dispute with Moderate Monophysitis Sevir Antioch. There is no data that Justinian ever, and in old age also spoke out against the Chalkidon Eau, that he ever renounced sequential diaphysitism; It is well known that he has always strived for reconciliation with monophysites, but on the soil of Chalkidon Christology, which it was necessary to state in the key, compatible with the teaching of St. Cyril Alexandrian, who served the continued authority for moderate monophysites - Severian. Based on such difficulties in identifying the actual content of said Edicca, a modern researcher A. Terostertergios comes to the conclusion that there was no such edict at all and that he was fictitious with the opponents of the emperor, accused of falling into a hundred-catering heresy.

It may be, but since, since the Patriarch of the Patriarch of Constantinople St. Eutichia took place, and, judging by the story about these events, Evagria, it was lowered by the emperor for refusal to agree with the teaching on the battle of the body of the Savior, the statement of Herosergios is too brave. It can be assumed that in a deep old age, losing the former sharpness of the mind, Justinian began to insist on a nettiness because she accepted the argument and consistent conclusions of the Anshardcietic doctrine, monophimita in its origin and in its inner logic and even clone towards the doctrum, but simply because that words about the tolenness sounded for the pious hearing of the elderly emperor on the verge of blasphemy, as they, say, are perceived by the Orthodox unrelmented in theological subtleties, which are fully committed to Chalkidon Orozu, simply because they may not have the meaning in the concept of detergency who invested in him in his time Sevir and Orthodox opponents of Afartcieretism. Justinian was a sophisticated theologian, but at the time of the draininess, he may have no longer possess the ability to sophisticated logic, which could keep him from a careless Christological formula.

On the night of November 13-14, 565 from R.Kh. at the age of 83 years old Emperor Caesar August Flavius \u200b\u200bPeter Savvatiy Justinian Roman, Alechansky, Gothic, Franksky, German, Anthorsky, Vandalsky, African, Happy, Winner (Imperator Caesar Augustus Flavius \u200b\u200bPetrus Sabbatius Justinianus Romanus, Alemannicus, Gothicus, Francicus, Germanicus, Anticus, Vandalicus, Africanus, Felix, Victor) peacefully moved to the Lord. Like his predecessors, he was buried in the temple of 12 apostles.

Contemporaries and descendants were judged by the emperor of Justiniana not indifferent and contradictory

The scale of their acts, the depth of influence on the course of world history from the emperors of Rome, rules after St. Constantine, he was not equal. But contemporaries and descendants were judged about him not indifferent and gave him different estimates, right up to the opposite. Prokokii Caesarian, from the writings of which we learn the maximum of information about his era, I was illuminated to offer our readers to choose from three radically differing certifications: a reptilely panegyric in the "stories of structures", viciously in the "Secret History" - "Jokes" and restrained apologetic, although Not without inserted criticism - in the "History of Wars", which one and deserves a serious relationship, while the sentence made by the Great Emperor in "Jokes" sheds the light rather to the personality of the Historian himself than those historical figures that are presented in it .

The younger contemporary of Justinian and the proofer of Evagry Scholastik in his "church history" joined the competition with a proofer for the irresponsible gravity of the sentence, which he endures the emperor. The anticipating court of God and ignoring the Court of Church, with whom he resolutely broke up in his assessment, Evagry will noise Justinian, who, according to him, "filled everything with disorder and turmoil", "in the lowest limits of hell." At such a wide gesture of the historian, as it seems, a pious jealousy, which is not quite reasonable: Evagry, as already mentioned, imposes Justinianan aftoctetical heresy.

Agaphi Mirinean in its assessment of the fruits of state activities of Justinian acts rather as an apologist, but avoids one-sidedness: "The emperor ... conquered the whole of Italy and Libya, held successfully these greatest wars and the first ... Among all those who reign in Byzantium did not show themselves in words, but in fact Roman Emperor. But these ... Acts were committed when he was still young and full of strength. " Agaphius does not approve of the policy of Justinian in the late period of his rule, when he preferred not to fight, but to faced the opponents of the Empire between him, resorting to bribes and thus the plant treasury, and strokes him for the fact that he easily transferred the elimination of legions as if They were not needed in the future. " Moreover, as a result, "the neraction covered those who occupied the second position in the management of the state ... they often discredited (warriors), often paid the content much later than due," but, despite the deficiencies of the administrative system fairly designated by Agafi Overall, the fruits of artificial diplomacy of Justinian: when some Varvars entered the war with others, "and destroyed each other, he himself without resorting to the weapon, won them only with his wisdom at any end of the struggle and deprived them of any hope for the future. When they suffered absorbed by internal disasters, they naturally did not think about the campaigns against the Romans. "

The historians of the new time reproduce the characteristics that were given by the personality and the Board of Justinian by his contemporaries. E. Gibbon, who asked the tone of Western Visantophobia, relying on the proofer, and more definitely on his breathless hatred to the emperor "secret story", which he wouldingly trust, in his characteristic of Justinian sulfging in peeling: "He was distinguished by the virtues of domestic life - chastity and accuracy, But impartial love for female beauty would have causing less harm than his marital attachment to the farodore, and his absolutely lifestyle was settled not by the prudence of the philosopher, but the monk superstitions. "

For an incomparably more objective historian Sh. Dilya, the Board of Justinian is divided into periods that deserve a different assessment, because he really experienced himself ... However, to unjust judge the emperor in this period of decline, when his weaknesses were revealed under the appearance of greatness and glory. This is also unfair, how to judge Louis XIV, whom Justinian reminds many features, on the last fifteen years of his long reign ... The great intentions of his politicians have repeatedly darned by the mediocrity of execution, the final results of his giant ambition were crying in many ways. The work of the reform of the Office remained unfulfilled, the attempt of a religious agreement failed the most pathetic manner, and diplomatic tricks were powerless to protect the state. " In this list of imaginary or bloated failures, the famous vistentologist discovers excessive picklight, and yet he calls not to close his eyes to the "noble intentions and high thoughts of this ... Office, to see the undisputed greatness of this long reign" and a decent way to evaluate "the huge and fruitful progress of civilization" In the huge areas of its empire. "

F.I. Uspensky: Justinian "donated real interests in the east for fictitious benefits in the West"

Characteristics of the Russian historian F.I. Assumption, expressed not as a rhetorical and high-speed syllable, are more specific: "Justinian knew how to awaken the state of state and gave an incredible tension to everyone skillfully focused in the hands of the material and spiritual means of the empire. Justinian showed that he could do a persistent and talented sovereign in the 6th century, leading to the ideals of the Greco-Roman world. Many subsequent emperors tried to repeat Justinian, but no one reached the tasks planned to them. " But the revolving side of the grandiosa of his plan was, according to Assumption, the wrath of state resources for false and ultimately ghostly targets and the fragility of the results achieved: "Justinian did not understand the medieval Byzantium and does not imbued with the life interests of his nearest subjects. If the ghost of the Roman Empire would have mastered his imagination, he would not use so much perseverance and would not have spent so many funds for distant enterprises, what are the Italian wars, but would take care of, above all, to protect the core of the empire and fastening Syria and Palestine. Donating real interests in the East for fictitious benefits in the West, Justinian did not weigh those ethnographic changes, which took place on the Balkan Peninsula, "other words, F.I. Uspensky rearly recommends Justiniananin the political course of the rules of the rules without a small century later, but he focused on the state of the state in the east, as a result of an arbitrary choice, and forced to the losses that the empire had suffered in the West, when, in connection with the increased threat On the eastern borders, the revenge in the West lay outside the possible. The reproach of Justinian for the fact that he did not want to become the ruler of medieval Byzantium, Uspensky demands an unthinkable: Justinian was the Roman emperor, but not Romeysky. Enter your state program in the concepts of scientists who wrote their works over a thousand years later after it, - this is, of course, the Cunter Kunstushuk, which lies away from the field of real politics, in the space of which Justinian acted.

"A single state, a single law and a single church" is a brief formula of all state activities of Justinian

A.A. Vasilyev more adequately assesses the situation with understanding by Emperor Justinian: "As the heir to Roman Caesarians, Justinian considered his duty to recreate the risk empire. But at the same time he wanted that the state was one law and one faith. "A single state, a single law and a single church" was such a brief formula of all state activities of Justinian. " His successes in the implementation of this program, according to Vasilyev, were relative, but he had a legislative reform: "The gigantic legislative creation of the VI century has a worldwide incredit value. The Code of Laws of Justinian retains us the Roman law, which introduced the essential principles of the right, which manages modern to our societies. " But Vasilyev estimates as a completely faithful financial policy of Justinian: "In financially, the empire stood on the edge of death ... His extensive military enterprises in the West, who demanded enormous funds, ruined the East and left the successors a severe, confusing inheritance." Words about the threat of the death of the state are an exaggeration: the imperial treasury was really exhausted, as followed by the successor of Justinian, but the flow of taxes in the treasury did not cease. Meanwhile, it is well known as modern states, and even the most powerful among them, are able to do with chronic budget deficit, far overlapping government reserves of precious metals, and the Roman Empire at Justinian was a superpower.

G.A. Ostrogorsky in his assessment of Justinian and the fruits of his activity will not be bought on pathos expressions: "It is indisputable that the Empire of Justinian is a picture of grand power. As if wishing to show myself again, the old empire discovered all his strength and both in political, and in culturally survived the last large rise. In its territorial trace, she reached the highest point, the entire Mediterranean world announced. In the literature and art, the old culture survived in the Christian case an unprecedented flourishing. " But this is not a panegyric, or, it is better to say, this passagiric passage ends, and then the historian, repeating the predecessors, has already been diagnosed or even a sentence: "The era of Justinian did not marks himself, as he wanted it, began a new era; She meant the end of a great dying era. Justinianan was not given to update the empire. He was able only for a brief time to externally restore it, the internal rebirth of the prominent Late Rima state did not experience with it. " In this conclusion, it strikes the ignoring of that tremendous circumstance that the late Roman Empire under Justinian has completed rebirth that began under Holy Constantine, unparalleled in its radicality, - it became Christian from the pagan. "Territorial recovery," Ostrogorsky believes, was deprived of a solid foundation, and that is why the consequences of the rapid collapse of the restoration efforts of Justinian were doubly heavy ... Justinian left its successors internally exhausted, economically and financially fully upset state. "

It was Justinian that developed the concept of diplomacy as complex science and beautiful art

In the same line, it lies with a summarizing conclusion about the Board of Justinian, made by the modern British historian J. Norvich, who also establishes the balance of praise and censures: "Despite all its efforts, Justinian left the empire in a state of economic decline ... but on the other hand He left her also endlessly richer institutions, public services and buildings and incomparably more beautiful. During his rule, the boundaries of the Empire were expanded, and the laws were simplified and ordered. He himself worked without sparing himself and was tired of being taken for what he saw the benefit of his subjects. If he failed, this is due to the fact that he set too high goals, and never because of the opposite. The time of his reign imposed his stamp on the empire, and held a century before this seal was thinning. " D. Obolensky, characterizing the political heritage of Justinian, a special emphasis on his diplomatic success: "It was he ... who developed and bequeathed his successors, the concept of diplomacy as complex science and wonderful art in which military pressure, political mind, material woust and religious propaganda merged into Powerful weapons of imperial aspirations. "

Historians are jointly in judgment about the collapse of the "restoration of the Universe perfect by Justinian", about the ambulance after its death, the loss of conquests made in the West, but what is the measure of the sustainability and the fragility of the results of state acts and in particular victorious wars? You can judge this in different ways, and in any case the conclusions will not be deprived of arbitrariness. Part of the territories in Italy was already lost in the reign of the successor of Justinian Justina Jr., but other regions of Italy remained under the rule of Constantinople for many more centuries. Rome remained in the Lon of the Empire until the middle of the VIII century, until he switched to francs. In the south of Italy and in Sicily, Romeic presence lasted a few more centuries. Wandered by Vandalov Africa belonged to the empire until the Arabs were conquered. And how long did the empire gogyenzollerns existing, not to mention the first and second empire in France? At the same time, however, in any case, it is not customary to talk about the Bismarck as a policy, whose works were disappeared by V., rather, he has a reputation as a maximum successful statesman. For the most relevant comparison, it is possible to indicate the duration of the existence of the Karl Great Empire, which as a real political value did not last half a century, and its nominal existence ceased at the beginning of the X century. It does not mean that with the last of the emperors all the consequences of the assimilation of the Frankish king of the Imperial title disappeared, but the fact of the fact that after the Italy was captured by new barbarians - Langobard, the other part of it was left for the subsequent centuries. And the most Rome remained in the Lon of the Empire with the capital in Constantinople. Justinianan Italy is obliged to the fact that it has survived the focus of a highly developed culture of Christianized Hellenism in the era, when most of Western Europe experienced metamorphosis, one aspect of which was the Warvarization of the regions, which were previously part of the empire, or, which is the same, Mediterranean Ecumen, but They were doried from her as a result of the resettlement of peoples.

Thanks to the efforts of Justinian in Italy, the focus of highly developed culture was preserved when the barbarians redid Europe

The expansion of the empire is more than doubled, the return to the imperial Lono Rome and Italy, the preparation of the Grand Legislative Corps, the organization of the V of the Universal Cathedral and, as the highest symbol of accomplishments, the creation of the Church of St. Sophia is the most striking creation of the architectural genius of human and higher than the human, Those victorious trophies that were erected by Justinian in memory of his great epoch, one of the most brilliant in the history of mankind.

The Orthodox Church gloves Justinian and his wife Augustus Feodoro in the face of saints, setting the day of their overall memory on November 14 for the Julian calendar. In the sacrats of the Catholic Church there are no names nor Justinian, nor Feodorah, as they are not in them and the name of equivalent Konstantin, but in the West there has always existed and fundamentally different attitude towards him. Dante, who did not confuse in his "Divine Comedy" to settle the modern Dad Nikolai III, Boniface III and Clement V in the depths of hell, the soul of Emperor Justinian meets in paradise in the radiance of unearthly light. The poet appeals to him with the question:

"But who you are, decent spirit, and before us
Why appeared in that sphere whose man
From mortals hidden by alien rays? "

So I said to the shiny light,
Someone who spent me; and Siagy
His still rays elapsed ...

"There was a Caesar, now - Justinian;
I, the first love inspired
In the laws, everyone eliminated the flaw ...

I began to step like a church; because
And God noted me, I was inspired
High labor; I betrayed him

Weapon versery entangling
Which the Lord in the battles raised,
From the root deeds to free me ... "

Osanna, Sanctus Deus Sabaoth,
Superillustrans Claritate Tua ...

So saw i singing the essence of that
And how she flooded under his entry,
Double light movement beauty.

Dante never seen Saint Sophia, but the image of the soul of Justinian, moving in the radiance of a dreamy light, as if inspired by the vision of this light-blooded temple, enthusiastic stories about which the poet could hear from different mouths.

The successor of Justina was the famous niece of Justinian (527-565), which is the central figure of the entire period.

With the name of Justinian, the name of his royal spouse, one of the most interesting and talented women in the Byzantine state, is inextricably connected with the name of Justinian.

"The Secret History" belonging to Peru Prokopy, the historian of the era of Justinian, draws into the condensed paints of the depraved life of Theodore in her young years, when she, occurring from the bottom of society (her father was a guy of bears in the circus), in the morally unhealthy environment of the then scene turned into A woman who gave many loves. Nature endowed it with beauty, grace, mind and wit. According to one historian (Dilya), "she entertained, chored and scandalized Constantinople." Honest people, having met Feodoro on the street, tells the proof, turned off the road so that touch does not defile their dresses. But all the dirty details about the young lifetime of the future empress must be taken with great caution, as emanating from the proof, which in their "secret history" was aimed at finding Justinian and Feodoro. After such a turbulent life, she disappears for a while from the capital to Africa. Upon returning to Constantinople Feodor was no longer an formerly frivolous actress: she, leaving the scene, led a secluded life, interested in church issues and engaged in yarn wool. At this time, Justinian saw her. Beauty Theodora struck him. The enthusiastic emperor brought her to the court, he granted the title of Patrikia and soon married her. With the accession of Justinian to the throne, she was made by the empress of Byzantium. In his new role, Feodora was at the height of the situation: remaining a loyal wife, she was interested in public affairs, knew how to deal with them and influenced Justinian's respect. In the uprising of 532, what will be the point below, Feodoro played one of the main roles; She is his cooling and energy, maybe saved the state from further shocks. In his religious sympathies, she opened on the side of Monophysites, in contrast to the spouse's fluctuating policy, which most of his long reign, with some concessions in favor of Monophizite, maintained mainly Orthodoxy. In the latter case, Feodor is better than Justinian understood the meaning for the Byzantium of the Eastern Monophimitsky provinces, in which the live strength for the empire was concluded, and wanted to join the path of reconciliation with them. Theodore died from cancer in 548 long before the death of Justinian.

At the famous equestrian mosaic of the VI century in the church of St. Vitaly Theodore is depicted in royal closure, surrounded by his staff. Church historians, its modern and later, severely treated the personality of the Feodora. Nevertheless, in our month, under November 14, we read: "The Assumption of the Orthodox Tsar of Justinian and the memory of Queen Feodora." It is buried in the Church of St. Apostles.

The external policy of Justinian and his ideology. Numerous wars of Justinian were part of the offensive, part of the defensive. The first was conducted with the barbaric German states of Western Europe, the second with the Persia in the East and the Slavs in the north.

The main forces were sent to the emperor to the West, where the military operations of the Byzantine troops were accompanied by external brilliant success. Vandals, Ostagov and Partly Waistcot were to submit to the emperor. The Mediterranean Sea has turned almost to the Byzantine lake. In its declaration, Justinian called himself a Caesar Flavie Justinian Alamansky, Gothic, Frankish, German, Anthorsky, Alan, Vandali, African. But this brilliant appearance had its opposite direction. The successes were bought by too expensive price and entailed the country's material exhaustion. Due to the transfer of troops to the West, East and North were open to attacks of Persians, Slavs and Gunnov.

The main enemy, from the point of view of Justinian, were the Germans. Thus, the German question again stood in the VI century before Byzantia; But the difference was that in the V century the Germans were close to the empire, in the 6th century the empire was tested by the Germans.

Justinian joined the throne with the ideas of the Emperor of Roman and Christian. Seeing the heir to Roman Caesarians, he considered his sacred duty to restore a single empire within the I-II century. As the Emperor Christian, he could not allow the German-Arians to oppress the Orthodox population. Constantinople state trucks, being legitimate heirs of Caessees, had historical rights to Western Europe, occupied by barbarians. The German kings were only vassals of the Byzantine Emperor, who delegated power to them. Frankish King Claudwig received the title of Patricia from Anastasia; From him, he received his royal statement to theodorih Osthots. Justinian, deciding to start a war with Gotami, wrote: "Goths, capturing our strength, ITALY, decided not to give it." He remains natural over all rulers who settled within the Roman Empire. As the Emperor Christian, Justinian received the mission to impose the right faith among the wrong, whether the heretics or pagans will be. In the IV century, Eusevius Kaesarian in his "praise Konstantin" wrote that after the triumph of Christianity clarified the creation of demons, that is, the false gods, the pagan states have sentenced their time. "One God is leaving everyone; however, the uniform empire appeared for everyone: this is the Roman Empire ... At the same time, as if heavenly will, two grains of goodness as well: this is the Roman Empire and Christian Faith. Disposher From one root, two great forces immediately subordinate to all and joined the Uzami of Love: this is the unique Roman Empire and the teaching of Christ. " This theory of the IV century lived in the VI century. From it, for Justinian, the obligation to recreate the unified Roman empire, which, according to one of his novels, reached before two oceans, and which Romans were lost on negligence, and establish a unified Christian faith in the recreated empire, both among the sismists and among the pagans. Such was the ideology of Justinian, who forced this comprehensive politician and Crusader to dream of the subordination of the world, then the world.

But it should be remembered that the extensive claims of the emperor on the rejected parts of the Roman Empire were not exclusively his personal conviction. Such claims seemed natural and the population of the provinces occupied by barbarians, which, hitting Arian, saw the sole defender in the face of Justinian. The position of North Africa with vandalas was especially hard; They opened harsh persecution against the Orthodox native population, sharpened residents and representatives of the clergy in prison, confiscated property. Refugees and exiles from Africa, among whom there were a lot of Orthodox bishops, came to Constantinople and begged the emperor to make a campaign against the vandals, promising the universal uprising of the natives.

A similar mood is noticed in Italy, where the native Orthodox population, despite the prolonged religious tolerance of theodorich and its love for Roman civilization, continued to keep secret discontent and also paid her eyes to Constantinople, expecting help from there, getting rid of the aliens and restoring Orthodox faith.

But even more interesting things that the barbaric kings themselves supported the amperor's amperious aspirations. They showed the signs of deep respect for the Empire, cried in front of the emperor, sought with all the forces of Roman honors, knocked their coins with the image of the emperor, etc. In the expression of the French Byzantinist Dilya,

They would be willing to repeat the words of the Westgoth Leader, who said: "Yes. Emperor is God on Earth, and anyone who will raise his hand to him, must pay for this crime his blood."

Despite the mood favorable for the emperor, the mood in Africa and Italy, undertaken to them vandals and the sharp of the war were extremely difficult and long.

Wars with vandals, outputs and wigs; their results. Persia. Slavs

Vanda Expedition seemed extremely difficult. It was necessary to transport the numerous army by the sea to North Africa, which was to join the struggle with the people who have a strong fleet and in the middle of the 5th century already ruined Rome. In addition, the transfer of large forces to the West was to affect the eastern border, where the Persia, the most dangerous enemy of the Empire, led with the last permanent border wars.

The historian informs an interesting story about the Council on which the issue of the African expedition was first discussed. The most faithful advisers of the emperor expressed doubt in the fulfillment of the conceived enterprise and considered it reckless. Justinian himself has already begun to fluctuate and only, in the end, having recovered from short-term weakness, insisted at the initial plan. The expedition was solved. In addition, at this time, the Persia had a change of rulers, and Justinian was managed in 532 with a new sovereign to conclude the "Eternal" world on the smisiary for Byzantium the conditions for the annual payment of the Persian king of a major amount of money. The latter circumstance allowed Justinianan with greater freedom to act in the West and the south. At the head of the numerous army and the fleet, a talented commander of the Delianius was raised, the chief assistant in the Military enterprises of the emperor, shortly before the premises of a large inner uprising "Nika", about which it will be lower.

It must be said that by that time the vandals and the isgotes were no longer the scary enemies as they were before. Once at the conditions of the relaxing southern climate unusual for them and faced with Roman civilization, they quickly lost their former energy and strength. Already known to us, the Arianism of the Germans put them in a stretched relationship with the native Roman population. The rebel Berber tribes also relaxed a lot of vandals. Justinian perfectly taken into account the created position: With the help of the skillful diplomacy, he aggravated their inner parties and was confident that German states would never oppose him, as the Orthodoxes were in a quarrel with vandals, Orthodox francs were hostile to the Ostnotas, and too far, who lived in Spain Westges will not seriously intervene in this struggle. Justinian, therefore hoped to break the eneterns by one.

Vandalle war continued with some interruptions from 533 to 548 years. At the beginning of Veliar, in the shortest term, a nearby victory was subordinated to the Vandaal State, so the triumphant Justinian announced that "God, in his mercy, betrayed us not only Africa and all her provinces, but also returned to us imperial decorations, which, after taking Rome (vandals), they were carried out "thinking that the war was finished, the emperor recalled the Gazier with most of the troops in Constantinople. Then in North Africa broke out a fierce rebellion of Berbers, with which the left occupying corpus was very difficult to fight.

The successor of Gaizaria Solomon was completely broken and killed. The grueling war lasted until 548, when the imperial power was fully restored by the strong victory of John the Torritis, both a diplomat and a talented general. The third hero of the Imperial Occupation of Africa, he supported there full calm about fourteen years. His acts are told by the contemporary, the African poet Koripper in his historical work "John".

These victories did not quite fit the hopes and plans of Justinian, since the western part of it to the Atlantic Ocean was not reunited, with the exception of the Septem's strong fortress (Septem) on the Pillars Strait (now the Spanish Ceuta Fortress - Ceuta). But nevertheless, most of North Africa, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands obeyed Justinian, who laid a lot of labor on the waters of the order in the conquered country. Currently, the magnificent ruins of the numerous Byzantine fortresses and fortifications erected by Justinian in North Africa are indicated by the emperor to protect the country.

Even more grueling was the Osthots of the campaign, which continued with interruptions from 535 to 554. From these chronological dates it can be seen that this war was carried out in the continuation of the first thirteen years at the same time with the Wandow War. Having intervened in the inner part of the sharp, Justinian opened military actions. One army began the conquest of Dalmatia's Osthots; Another army, planted on the court and had the leadership at the head, was easily taken by Sicily and, moved hostilities to Italy, won Naples and Rome. Shortly after this, the capital of the sharp is the gate of the gate. Their king was transported to Constantinople. Justinian to his title "African and Vandalsky" added "Gothic". It seemed that; Italy is finally conquered by Byzantia.

At this time, the sharply appeared energetic and talented King Totil, the last defender of Osthots of independence. He quickly restored the case of sharp. One after another, the Byzantine conquests in Italy and on the islands went into the hands of the sharp Rome, who passed several times from hand to hand, turned into a pile of ruins. After so much failures, the Delianius was withdrawn from Italy. The cases corrected another outstanding Byzantine Commissioner Narzes, who was the first to be ready to win. The Totil Army was divided into battle at Busta Gallorum in Umbria. Heat Tethyl fled, but in vain. "His bloody clothes and a helmet, decorated with the precious stones, which he wore was delivered to Narzesa, who sent them to Constantinople, where they were put on the legs of the emperor as a visible proof that the enemy, who had challenged his authority for so long, no longer ". After the twenty-year-old devastating war, in 554, Italy, Dalmatia and Sicily were reunited with the Empire. Pragmatic sanction, published in the same year by Justinian, returned a large land aristocracy in Italy and the churches taken from them from the Earth Ostats and privileges and emerged a number of measures to facilitate the ruined population. Since the Ostogotka war, industry and trade for long times stayed in Italy, and due to lack of working hands, Italian fields remained untreated. Rome turned into an abandoned, destroyed, who did not have a political value of the center where the dad was sheltered.

The last conquering enterprise of Justinian was sent to the end of the Ostrovskaya War (554) against the Visigoths on the Pyrenean Peninsula. But forgotten in view of the threatened danger, their internal distribution of posges gave a strong rejection by the Byzantine army and defended their independence. Only the south-eastern corphagen campus with cities of Carthagen took place in the hands of Justinian. Malaga and Cordova. Its territory, ultimately, stretched from Cape St. Vincent in the West for Carthage in the East.

Vasilyev in subsequent editions. Meanwhile, it seems important: "Similar to the nearestness and backwardness of Rome as a city is its characteristic feature up to the Renaissance."

With known changes, the imperial province thus established in Spain existed under the rule of Constantinople about seventy years. It was not quite clear whether this province was independent, or she depended on the governor of Africa. Some churches and other architectural monuments of Byzantine art were recently open in Spain and, as far as you can judge, they do not have great value.

As a result of the offensive wars of Justinian, the space of his monarchy, it can be said, doubled: Dalmatia, Italy, the eastern part of North Africa (part of the modern Algeria and Tunisia), Southeast of Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands entered the state of Justinian. The borders extended from the Hercules pillars to Euphrates. But despite these huge successes, the difference between Justinian's plans and valid results was very significant: the Western Roman Empire in her whole was failed to return. Outside his power remained the western part of North Africa, the Pyrenean Peninsula, the northern parts of the Ostrovsky state north of the Alps (the former provinces of Registration and Norik). All Gallium not only remained in complete independence from Byzantium, but Justinian, in view of the threat from the Franksky state, even agreed to concession to the Frankish king of Provence. It should not be forgotten that in the whole great space of the newly conquered territory, the power of the emperor was far from everywhere was equally strong; The state has lacking neither forces or funds. Meanwhile, it was possible to keep these territories only by force. Therefore, the brilliant appearance of the offensive wars of Justinian taled in itself the primitives of serious future difficulties of both political and economic nature.

The defensive wars of Justinian were much less successful and sometimes very humiliated by the results. These wars were conducted with Persia in the East and Slavs and Huns in the north.

In the 6th century, there were two "great" powers: Byzantium and Persia, who have already long had passed tedious and bloody wars on the eastern border. After the "eternal" world with a percue, about whom the speech was higher and who unleashed the hands of Hands in the West, the Persian king of Hosras Anushirvan, that is, a fair, talented and skillful ruler, leading the amperor's amperor's intention to the West, took advantage of the situation.

Having received a request for help from close sharp and having always pressing questions in the border areas, he violated the "eternal" world and opened the hostilities against Byzantium. The bloody war began with a translate towards the Persians. Delivered from Italy, the Gazisari could not do anything. The hosers mean to invade Syria, took and ruined the antioch, this, according to the proof, "the ancient, famous, richest, large, crowded and beautiful city from all Roman cities in the East," and reached the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In the north, Persians fought in the Finnish countries, with Lazami (in Lasik, modern Lasistan), trying to break through to the Black Sea. Lasik was at that time depending on Byzantium. Justinian after large works managed to buy a truce for five years for paying a major amount of money. But, in the end, endless military clashes tired and Hoshrov. In 562, the world was imprisoned between Byzantium and Persia, fifty years. Thanks to the historian Menandra, we reached us accurate, detailed information about the negotiations and the conditions of the world. The emperor pledged every year to pay Persia a very large amount of money and spent religious tolerance for Christians living in Persia, but under an indispensable condition, no further Christian propaganda in it. What was important for Byzantium, this is the consent of Persian to clean the lasik, the coastal area in the south-east of the Black Sea. In other words, Persians failed to establish themselves on the shores of the Black Sea, which remained in complete disposal of Byzantium. The latter circumstance had a large political and commercial significance.

Other character had defensive wars in the north, i.e. on the Balkan Peninsula. As mentioned above, the northern barbarians, Bulgarians and, in all likelihood, the Slavs devastated the province of the peninsula even with Anastasia. Under Justinian, the Slavs are for the first time under their own name (with the procopia avalante). In his time, the Slavs are already much more dense crowds and partly Bulgarians, whom the proof calls the Gunns, almost annually move the Danube and deepen far away in the Byzantine regions, betraying fire and sword passable terrain. They reach, on the one hand, before considering the capital and penetrate Gellespont, on the other hand, in Greece to the Corinthian island and west to the shores of the Adriatic Sea. With Justinian, the Slavs have already shown their desire to the shores of the Aegean Sea and threatened the Dessalonik (Soluni), the second after Constantinople in the Empire, which, together with its surroundings, will soon be done by one of the centers of Slavic on the Balkan Peninsula. The imperial troops with a huge tension fought with Slavic invasions and very often forced the Slavs to leave again for the Danube. But almost certainly it can be said that not all of the Slavs went back; Some of them remained, as the troops of Justinian, engaged in other theaters of the war, was unable to bring the annual operations on the Balkan Peninsula to the end. The era of Justinian is important precisely the fact that she put the foundation of the Slavic issue on the Balkan Peninsula, which we will see below, by the end of the VI and the beginning of the VII century, will receive more paramount importance for Byzantium.

In addition to Slavs, Hermann Guns and Coutes, the people who are related to the Huns, invaded the Balkan Peninsula from the north. In the winter of 558-559, Couteurgura, led by their leader, Zavengan, took Thrace. From here one squad (One Band) was directed to ruin Greece, the other captured Chersonese Thracian, and the third, equestrian squad, headed under the leadership of the Berezgan himself at Constantinople. The country was ruined. Panic reigned in Constantinople. The churches of the captured regions sent their treasures to the capital or sent them by the sea to the Asian Bosphorce Coast. Justinian called on the Gaizard to save Constantinople in this crisis situation. Coupurguras were ultimately divided into all three directions of their attacks, but Frakia, Macedonia and Fessiona suffered a terrible economic damage from their invasion.

Gunnskaya danger was felt not only in the Balkans, but also in the Crimea, which partly belonged to the Empire. Here were famous by the fact that Greek civilization in the barbaric surroundings remained during the centuries, two cities - Chersonese and Bosporus. These cities played an important role in trade between the empire and the territory of modern Russia. At the very end of the V century, Hunns captured the plains of the peninsula and began to threaten the Byzantine possessions on the peninsula, as well as the small Gothic settlement around Dori in the mountains, under the Byzantine Protectorate. Under the influence of the Gunnskaya danger, Justinian built and restored many forts and elevated long walls, traces of which are still visible, a kind of Limes Tauricus, which ensured efficient protection.

Finally, the missionary fervor of Justinian and Theodora did not pay attention to African peoples who lived in the upper Nile between Egypt and Ethiopia, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe first threshold - Blemmeys and Nobadov (Nubi residents). Thanks to the energy and art of Theodore, Nobada with their king Silko was addressed to the Christianity of the Monophimitsky sense and the new King, having connected with the Byzantine commander, forced Blemmeys to take the same faith. In order to celebrate his victory, Silko left the Blemmeys in one temple the inscription, about which Beuri said: "The boasting of this little ruler would be appropriate in the mouth of Attila or Tamerlan." The inscriptions say: "I, Silko, Tsarek (Basiliskov) of Nobadov and all Ethiopians."

Legislative activity of Justinian. Tribonian

World fame received Justinian due to its legislative activity, which strikes the breadth of the scope. The emperor, from his point of view, "should not only be decorated with weapons, but also armed with laws to be able to manage both military and peacetime; it should be both a solid defender of law and a triumph for defeated enemies." God himself bestowed the emperors the right to create and interpret the laws. Thus, the emperor, in the representation of Justinian, should be a legislator, and the right to it is consecrated over.

But, of course, in addition to such theoretical foundations, the emperor was led by practical motivations. In his time, a full disorder reigned in Roman law.

During the same pagan Roman Empire, when the legislative power was fully in the hands of the emperor, the only form of law was the imperial constitutions that were called "laws" (Leges). In contrast to the latter, all the right created by the former legislation and the classical period developed by lawyers was called "ancient law" (JUS Vetus or Jus Antiquum). From half of the III century, jurisprudence began to quickly fall; The legal literature was limited to a purely compile work, trying on the basis of excerpts from the imperial constitutions and the most famous writings of old lawyers to draw up compilations to facilitate the judges who were no longer able to cope with all legal literature. But these were only private collections that did not have any official strength. Therefore, in reality, the judge should have been able to understand all the imperial constitutions and in all extensive classical literature, that one person was unable. It should be remembered that any central body for publishing the imperial constitutions did not exist; By increasing annually in the amount and being scattered in different archives, the imperial constitutions represented enormous difficulties for use, especially since new decrees were very often canceled or changed old. Therefore, I felt the urgent need to collect the imperial decrees together and give everyone the opportunity to use such a collection. We know that in this respect was made quite a lot before Justinian, who, with his legislative work, had already in the hands of Codex Gregorianus, Codex Hermogenian and Codex Theodosianus. As for the relief of the use of classical literature, i.e., "ancient right," then at Feodosia II and its Western contemporary Valentinian III, a law was published, attached to the legally binding works of only five of the most famous lawyers. Other legal writers could not be taken into account. Of course, it was only a formal resolution of the issue, especially since five legalized lawyers were not easy to find a suitable solution for this case; The lawyers themselves sometimes contradicted each other; Finally, with the changed conditions of life, the decision of classical lawyers was sometimes outdated. In short, the overall need for the full and official revision of the entire legal system in summing up the total centuries-old development was felt.

In the preceding codes were collected for a certain time only the imperial constitutions. Legal literature in them was not affected. Justinian made huge legislative work to draw up not only the arch of the imperial constitutions until his time, but also to recycle legal literature. The chief assistant of the emperor in this difficult endeavor and the soul of the whole case was Tribonian.

The work went amazing quickly. In February 528, the Emperor was convened by the Commission out of ten experienced and knowledgeable people, including the tribonian, "the right hand of the emperor in his big codification business and, perhaps, in something inspired by the work of the Commission," and Ferofil, Professor of Law in Constantinople .

The task of the Commission was to revise the previous three codes, to remove all obsolete and in the procedure of the Constitution, published after the Code of the Feodosia; All this had to make one compilation. In April 529, the code of Justinian (Codex Justinianus) has already been published; Being divided into twelve books and enforcing the Constitution since the Emperor Adrian to Justinian, he became the only mandatory for the entire empire by the arch of laws and canceled the former three code.

If the work of Justinian over the code was facilitated by the preceding legislative collections, the same work on the "ancient right" was already the personal matter of the emperor. In 530, the tribonian was instructed to draw up a commission, which was supposed to review the compositions of all classical lawyers, to make extraction, to discard outdated, eliminate disagreements and, finally, the entire collected material is in a certain order. For this purpose, the Commission had to read and disassemble about two thousand books and more than three million lines. This is a huge job, on the execution of which, according to Justinian, "none of his predecessors hoped, which was considered impossible for the human mind" and "which freed all the oldest right from unnecessary verbia," this work was completed in three years. The arch-published in 533, divided by fifty-books, was called Digest (Digesta), or a Pandektae (Pandectae), and immediately entered into force.

Despite the importance of Digest, the hasty of work could not not affect the virtues of labor in which the repetition, contradictions, outdated solutions can be noted; Then, thanks to the authority, this commission, to reduce the texts, explain them and, finally, to reduce several texts in one, in work some arbitrariness is noticeable, the consequence of the distortion of ancient texts. Unity in this work was not. The latter circumstance sometimes made scholars of lawyers of the XIX century, attached paramount importance to the classical Roman law, to severely judge the Digests of Justinian. However, Digesians, despite many of their imperfections, served a great practical service, besides, they retained the offspring the rich material, extracted from the works of classical Roman lawyers, which far from all reached us. Simultaneously with the work on Digests, the tribonian and his two scientists, Feofil, Professor in Constantinople, and Dorofey, Professor in Beirut (Syria), was assigned a new task. According to Justinian, not everyone "was able to endure the gravity of such a great wisdom", that is, the Codex and Digest; For example, young people, "who, standing on the eve of the laws, seek to enter the most sanctuary," it was necessary to have a good practical guide. In the same 533, it was compiled, mainly for training purposes, an official elementary course of civil law, consisting of four books and the name of Institutions (Institutions); The latter were, according to the emperor, bring "all muddy sources of ancient right to one transparent lake ". The Imperial Decree, who authorized institutions, was addressed to "to the thirsty laws of youth" (Cupidae Legum Juvenuti).

During work on digests and institutions, current legislation was not inactive; a lot of decrees were published; A number of questions requiring revision. In a word, the Code in the publication 529 was already in many of its parts outdated. Then it was attached to the new processing of the Code, which was completed in 534. In November of this year, the second edition of the Code, corrected and complemented, was published under the name Codex Repetitae Praelectionis. The last edition destroyed the Edition of 529 and imprisoned decrees since Adriana to 534. This completed the compilation of the arch. This first edition of the arch has not been preserved.

Decrees that came out after 534 were called Novella (Novellae Leges). While the Codex, Digesians and Institutions were written in Latin, the huge majority of the novel was published already in the Greek language, which was a serious concession from the emperor, impregnated with Roman traditions, the requirements of real life. In one novel, Justinian wrote: "We wrote this law not in the domestic language, but in conversational Greek, so that the law is known to everyone because of the ease of understanding." Justinian himself, despite his intention, did not collect one of the novels with him. But some private novel collections were drawn up during his board. Novels are considered as the last part of the legislation and are one of the most important sources for the inner history of its era.

All these four parts - the Code, Digesites, Institutions and Novels - were to have the idea of \u200b\u200bthe emperor, to make one arch, or Corpus, the right; But with it, they were not connected to such a collection. Only later, in the Middle Ages, starting from the XII century, when the study of Roman law was revived in Europe, the entire legislative arch of Justinian became known as Corpus Juris Civilis, that is, the Civil Law Code. So it is called and now.

The bulky of the Legislative Creation of Justinian and the Latin Latin already lowered for most people led to the fact that there was a number of Greek interpretations (paraphrase, Indices, comments) of individual parts of the arch, more or less literal translations of the institution and Digest with notes, various processing Codex in Greek, especially with the presence or translation of its text with notes (so-called Indices). These times caused by the needs of time and practical considerations are small legal compilations in Greek, sometimes a lot of mistakes and distortions of the original Latin text, they pushed the original and almost replaced it.

According to the new legislative works, legal teaching was also transformed. New programs were drawn up. The course was announced five years old. The main subject of study in the first year was institutions, in the second, third and fourth - digests and, finally, on the fifth year - the Code. "Pupils," Justinian wrote, - Open all the secrets of rights, but have nothing hidden, but reading everything is compiled by Tribonian and others, and they will make excellent speakers and the keepers of a fair trial, excellent masters in their business and happy rulers Any place and at all time. " Turning to professors, Justinian wrote: "Start, with the help of God, teach the right of students and open them the path that we found that they, following this path, were made by excellent ministers of justice and the state and that you deserve the eternal greatest glory. . Turning to students of young people, the emperor wrote: "With the greatest attention and vigorous diligence, accept these our laws and show yourself so knowledgeable so that you are encouraging the most beautiful hope, at the end of the full course of law, be able to manage the state in those parts of it that you will be entrusted. " The teacher itself was reduced only to the simple learning of the material taught and interpreting on the basis of the latter; To resort to primary sources, i.e., the compositions of classical lawyers, for verification and better understanding of the text, was not allowed. Only literal translations and the preparation of short retellings and extracts were allowed.

Despite completely understandable imperfections in the implementation and many methodological disadvantages, the gigantic legislative creation of the VI century has a worldwide incredit value. The arch of Justinian retains us the Roman law, the significant principles of the right, which manages modern societies to us. "The will of Justinian, - as Deal writes, - made one of the most fruitful acts for the progress of mankind." When in Western Europe began with the XII century, the study of Roman law, or, as usual is called this phenomenon, the reception of the Roman law, then in many places the civil law is being done in this law. "Roman law - writes prof. I. A. Pokrovsky, - resurrected for a new life and joined the world for the second time. All the legal development of Western Europe goes under the sign of Roman law, the most valuable thing is overclit in paragraphs and articles of modern codes and Acts under the name of these latter. " Already one legislative case of Justinian gives him a full right to be called in the history of the Great.

In the newest time, an interesting phenomenon is noticed in the latest time in the study of the legislative creation of Justinian. Until now, the study of Justinian Vault, not counting the novel, served as a means for a better acquaintance with Roman law and therefore, auxiliary value. He alone did not understand the arch, did not serve as the subject of the "independent" study. With such a formulation, the main reproaches of Justinian was that he or rather, Tribonian, was distinguished by classical law, reducing or complementing texts. Nowadays, however, it is focused on whether the Creation of Justinian appropriate needs of his time, to what extent it had time to satisfy them. Changes in classical texts are necessary, respectively, to consider not as a result of the arbitrariness of compilers, but as a result of their desire to adapt the Roman law to the conditions of life of the Eastern Empire VI century.

The success of the Code in performing this task should be considered in connection with the general public conditions of time. Both Hellenism and Christianity had to influence the work of compilers. Live customs of the East should also be reflected in the revision of old Roman laws. In accordance with this, some researchers talk about the eastern nature of the legislative activities of Justinian. The task of modern historical and legal science is to identify and evaluate the Byzantine influences on the Justinian Code, namely, in the Code, Digests and Institutions. Novels of Justinian as current legislation, of course, reflected the conditions and needs of the modern era.

Ostrogorsky does not call (he only has a note). In the basic text, A. A. Vasilyev for incomprehensible reasons, writes about G. A. Ostrogorsk - "A German Scholar". Due to the fact that the last characteristic does not correspond to the truth, the editor risked to offer a replacement.

During Justinian, three schools have flourished. One thing in Constantinople, the other - in Rome and the third in Beirut. All other schools were closed, because they served as a base for paganism. In 551, Beirut (Berit) was destroyed by a terrible earthquake, followed by a tidal wave and a fire. Beirut school was transferred to Sidon, but in the future did not have. In Russia, with Tsar Fyodor Alekseyevich (1676-1682), there was a project for the translation of Justinian Vault into Russian. G. A. Ostrogorsky published a recent article on this issue, where he called this project a feat decent Hercule (Hoc Opus Hercule Dignum). Unfortunately, this project was not implemented.

Church policy of Justinian

As the heir to Roman Caesarians, Justinian considered his duty to recreate the Roman Empire. But at the same time he wanted that the state was one law and one faith. "A single state, a single law and a single church" was such a brief formula of all state activities of Justinian. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in the well-established state everything was supposed to be subject to imperial attention. Understanding what a wonderful instrument for the government was a church, he made every effort to be in his hands. Researchers discussed the question of which motives were led by Justinian in his church policy; While alone was inclined to the fact that in the last political motives were in the foreground, that religion was only a state of state for state purposes, others wrote that this "Second Constantine Great for the Church Affairs was ready to forget his direct duties of state" wishing Being a host in the church, Justinian not only striving to have in his hands internal management and the fate of the clergy, not excluding the highest representatives of his representatives, but also considered it his right to establish among his subjects a certain dogma. What religious direction adhered to the emperor, the same directions were to adhere to his subjects. Based on the above, the Byzantine emperor had the right to regulate the life of the clergy, to replace higher hierarchical positions at his own discretion, act as an intermediary and judge in a clearing; He patronized the church in her servants, contributed to the construction of temples, monasteries, multiplying their privileges; Finally, the emperor established a religious unity among all the subjects of the Empire, gave the last rule of faithful teachings, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave a final decision on controversial dogmatic issues. A similar policy of the secular prevalence in religious and church affairs, up to the cachens of the religious beliefs of a person, especially the vividly shown by Justinian, received the name of CaesaParapism in history, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of the CaesaPaptic direction. The head of state was Caesar and Dad, that is, combined the entire completeness of the power of secular and spiritual. For historians who put forward the political side of Justinian's activities, the main motive of his CaesaParapism was the desire to ensure its political power, strengthen the state and find a religious support for the throne accidentally.

Justinian was a religiously educated person, knew a good sacred writing, loved to participate in religious disputes personally and was the author of church chants. For Justinian, religious disagreements, as the confusion of confusion, seemed dangerous and from a political point of view: they threatened the unity of the Empire.

We already know that the last two predecessors of Justina and Justinian, Zeno and Anastasii, joined the path of reconciliation with the eastern Monophysitian church and thereby have a relationship with the Roman Church. Justin and Justinian definitely stood on the side of the latter and resumed communication with her. This circumstance should again push away the eastern provinces from Justinian, which was not at all in the plans of the emperor who desired to establish a single faith in his extensive state. The same religious combination of the East with the West, Alexandria and Antioch with Rome was impossible. "The Government of Justinian," according to one historian, "in church politics, he was a two-limit Janus, one person was addressed to the West, asked Rome directives, and another to the east, I was looking for truth from the Syrian and Egyptian monastics."

After putting a convergence with Rome as the basis of his church policy at the beginning of his board, Justinian was supposed to act as a defender of the Khalkidon Cathedral, against which the Eastern provinces were indisputable. The Roman throne used with him the highest church authority. In his letters to the Roman bishop, Justinian called his "Pope", "Pope Roman", "Apostolic Father", "Pope and Patriarch", etc., and the title "Dad" was attached exclusively to the Roman bishop. In one message, the emperor calls Dad "Chapter All Sanctarum Ecclesiarum" and in one of his novels definitely says that "the Blessed Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome, ranks second after the Holy Apostolic Throne of Old Rome"

Justinian had to face Jews, pagans and heretics; In the latter, he ranked Manicheev, Nestorian, Monophysites, Arian and other representatives of less significant religious teachings. The Arianism was distributed in the West among the German peoples. The remains of paganism existed in various parts of the empire and had the main center of philosophical school in Athens. Jews and representatives of other heretic teachings were mainly in the eastern provinces. Of course, monophysites used the greatest influence. The fight against Ariana was expressed in the form of his military enterprises in the West, who had already ended with the subordinates, full or partial, German states.

With the conviction of Justinian, the need to have a single faith in the state, could not be a speech about tolerant attitude to representatives of other religions and heretical teachings, which were subjected to severe persecution with the help of military and civil authorities.

Closing of the Athenian school

For the final eradication of the residues of the Logistan, Justinian closed in 529, the famous philosophical school in Athens, this last stronghold of the taught paganism, which, as mentioned above, caused a strong blow-founded in the V century at Feodosia II Constantinople University. After the closure of the school, at Justinian, Athenian professors were exposed to expellation; The property of the school was confiscated. One historian writes: "In the same year, in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, the stronghold of the ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed. Since then, Athens has lost their own importance of the cultural center and turned into a deaf provincial city. The full eradication of the paganism of Justinian did not reach; It continued to be hidden in some impact localities.

Jews and their closest Samarita in Palestine, who did not bring government persecution and raised the uprising, were graspted with great cruelty. The synagogues were destroyed; In the remaining synagogues, it was forbidden to read the books of the Old Testament on the ancient Jewish text, which was supposed to be replaced by the Greek translation of seventy intercursors; Civil rights are told. Nestorian was also pursued.

Church problems and fifth Ecumenical Cathedral

Of course, of course, the attitude of Justinian to Monophysites was. First, the attitude towards them was state importance and raised the question of the highest extent important to the state of Eastern provinces: Egypt and Syria with Palestine; Secondly, on the side of Monophysites was the spouse of Justinian Feodor, who had a strong influence on him. One modern monophimitis writer calls her "Orthodox, performed jealousy," a Christ-loving queen, assigned by God in difficult times to support the persecuted. "

According to the Council, the Feodora Justinian in relation to monophysitis has already entered the path of reconciliation at the beginning of his board. The monophimitsky bishops expected during Justin and in the early years of Justinian received the right to return from the link. Many monophysites were invited to the capital to a religious conciliatory meeting, on which the emperor, according to an eyewitness, urged them "with the mildness of David, the patience of Moses and indulgence of the apostolic." Five hundred of the monophimitian monks settled in one of the metropolitan palaces, to express the contemporary, turned the palace in the "Great and Warrant Desert". In 535, the north, the head and "true lawmaker of monophysites" arrived in Constantinople and remained there a year. The capital of the empire at the beginning of 535 acquired an appearance as a better point, as in the reign of Anastasia. The Bishop of Trapezund Anfim, known for its conciliation policy towards monophysitis, was erected at the Constantinople Patriarchal Department. Apparently, monophysites triumphed.

The situation, however, has changed very soon. Drope arrived at Constantinople (strictly Orthodox) lifted such noise against the religious clerk of Anfima that Justinian, of course, with internal regret, was forced to give up: Anfim was dismissed, and a convinced Orthodox presbyter was appointed in his place. The source tells us about such a conversation between the emperor and dad: "" I or make you agree with us, or send it to the link, "said Justinian. What Agapit answered: "I wished to come to the Christian emperor Justinian, and I found now Diocletian; However, I'm not afraid of your threats. "" It is very likely that the concession of the emperor dad was discussed partly the fact that at this time the Ostoghota of War began in Italy, and Justinian was needed by the sympathy of the West.

But making the above concession, Justinian did not refuse further conciliatory attempts on monophysites. This time the emperor raised a well-known question about three chapters. The case was about three church writers of the V century, Theodore Mopshesty, Feodorite Kirch and Iva Edessky, regarding which monophysites put in reproach to the Chalkidon Cathedral that the above-mentioned writers, despite their non-monitoring image of thoughts, were not condemned on it. Justinian, annoyed by opposition to Pope and Akimitov, acknowledged that in this case the monophysites of the right and that Orthodox should make a concession. Therefore, at the beginning of the forties, he issued a decree in which the anathema writing these three writers and threatened the anathema to all those who will protect or approve the compositions.

The West was confused by the fact that the consent to sign the Imperial Decree would designate an encroachment on the authority of the Chalkidon Cathedral. They said that, "if the definition of the Chalkidon Cathedral is subjected to the definition of the Chalkidon Cathedral, as it were, no one and the Nicene Cathedral. Then the question was raised, whether it is possible to condemn the dead, because all three writers died back in the previous century. Finally, some of the representatives of the West kept the opinion that the emperor would make violence against the conscience of the members of the Church by his decree. The latter doubt almost did not exist in the Eastern Church, where the intervention of the imperial authorities in solving dogmatic disputes was enshrined in long-term practice. The question of the condemnation of the dead was justified by reference to the Old Testament Tsar Iosiya, not only the excavated living priests of the Idolian, but also the excavated the coffins of those who were long before that time (IV Book of Kings, 23, 16). Thus, while the Eastern Church agreed to recognize the decree and condemn three chapters, the Western Church spoke out against it. The decree of the Justinian Miscellaneous Value did not receive.

In order to attract the Western Church to his side, it was necessary first to convince to approve the decree of the Roman dad. The then Dad Vigili was summoned to Constantinople, where she lived for more than seven years. Waving there, Dad openly rebelled against the Decree of Justinian and left the Maida from the Church of the Konstantinople Patriarch. But little, by little, by virtue of various influences, Vigili gave way to Justinian and Feodore and in 548 issued a condemnation of three chapters, the so-called Ludicatum, and thus joined his voice to the vote of the four Oriental Patriarchs. It was the last celebration of Theodore, confident in the final victory of monophimitis. In the same year she died. By order of Vigil, priests in Western Europe had to start continuous prayers for the "highest Sovereign Sovereigns of Justinian and Feodoro"

However, the Western Church did not approve the concessions of Vigil. African bishops, collecting the cathedral, even excused him from church communication. Under the influence of the Western Church, Dad began to fluctuate in his decision and took back Ludicatum. In such circumstances, Justinian decided to resort to the convening of the Universal Cathedral, which was gathered in Constantinople in 553.

The task of this fifth universal cathedral was much already the tasks of the preceding cathedrals. It was not affected by any new heresy; The task was to resolve some issues related to the activities of the third and fourth cathedrals and relating to non-traditional and mainly monophimitis. The emperor wanted a dad at the cathedral who lived at the time in Constantinople. But dad under different pretexts shied away from this, so all meetings of the cathedral took place without him. The cathedral, disassemblering the writings of the above-mentioned three writers and agreed with the opinion of the emperor, condemned and betrayed Anathema "The Unholy Feodorus, who was a bishop of Popshestian, together with his writings, and everything that was wicked by the Feodorith, and the wicked message attributed to IWA and those who write or wrote to protect them (AD Defensionern Eorum). " The ruling of the Cathedral was binding, and Justinian began to pursue and subjected to the link of the bishops who did not agree to the condemnation of three chapters. Dad Vigili was exiled to one of the islands of the Marmara Sea. Agreeing, in the end, sign a condemnation, he received permission to return to Rome, but not rearing, died in Syracuse. The West, until the end of the 6th century, did not recognize the decisions of the cathedral of 553, and only under Pope Gregory I Great (590-604), who announced that "on the cathedral, on which the case was about three chapters, nothing was broken in faith or whatever Something changed, "the Cathedral of 553 was recognized in all the West by the Universal Cathedral, along with the first four cathedrals.

The tense religious struggle, which Justinian led and who should have expected, to reconcile monophysites with Orthodox, did not meet his hopes. Monophysites calmly treated the deployed events and did not seem satisfied with the concessions. In the last years of his life, Justinian was increasingly increasing towards monophysites. The bishops disgraced with him were sent to the link. Monophysitism could have become a state religion, mandatory for all, which would lead to new major complications. But at this time the elderly emperor did not, and with his death the imperial religious policy has changed.

If, summing up the whole of the observed church-religious policy of Justinian, to propose a question whether he reached the establishment of a single church in the Empire, the answer, of course, will have to give a negative. Reconciliation of Orthodoxy with Monophizite did not take place; Nestoriance, manikenism, Jews and, in some cases, paganism continued to exist. There was no religious unity, and the whole policy of Justinian to establish such must be declared failed.

But, speaking of the religious policy of Justinian, it is impossible to forget about missionary activities in his time. He, as the Emperor, Christian, considered his duty to impose Christian faith and outside the state. We have reached the news of the adoption of Christianity by Georules on the Danube, some Caucasian peoples, the native tribes of North Africa and the Middle Nile.

Internal policy of Justinian. Nick's uprising

At the time of Justinian's accession to the throne in the inner life of the Empire, the mess was reigned everywhere and troubled. Poverty, especially in the provinces, gave herself to feel much; Taxes entered the treasury badly. Circus Parties, devoid of throne relatives of Emperor Anastasia and, finally, religious distribution even more increased internal disagreement and created a very disturbing environment.

Having entered the throne, Justinian clearly understood that the inner life of the empire needs large reforms; To the last he boldly and started. The main source for the administrative activity of the emperor is its novels, the treatise of John Lydius "On the Magistrants of the Roman State" and "The Secret History" of his contemporary proof. In recent times, valuable material was also discovered in papyrus.

At the beginning of the board, Justinian had to survive a terrible uprising in the capital, almost deprived of his throne.

The central point in Constantinople was a circus, or a hippodrome, which was a favorite place to accute the metropolitan population, which was fond of in the past time with lush circus spectacles in the form of a struggle of the gladiators and running chariots. On the same hippodrome, the new emperor after the coronation was often appeared in the royal bed - a café - and received the first greetings of the crowd there. Circus chariots wore robes of four colors: green, blue, white and red. Running on the chariots remained the only spectacle in the circus since the Christian Church banned gladiatorial competitions. About the matures of a certain color were formed by parties that received an excellent organization that had had a cash desk, which gave funds to the maintenance of Kucher, horses and chariots and always competing and hostile other colors with parties. The parties became known as green, blue, etc. As the most circus with his competitions, and the circus parties moved to Byzantium from the Roman state, and the later literary tradition relates their origin to the mythical times of Romulus and Rem. The initial meaning of the names of four parties is also unclear. Sources of the VI century, i.e., the era of Justinian, they say that these names correspond to the four elements: land (green), water (blue), air (white) and fire (red). Circus festivities were distinguished by an extraordinary pomp; Spectators sometimes had to 50,000 people.

Little marked circus parties, called in Byzantine time, Dimami turned into a political party, which were made by expressants of one or another political or public, or religious mood. The crowd in the circus became a public opinion and popular voice. The hippodrome, according to F. I. Uspensky, "represented the only stage, for the lack of a printing machine, for a high-profile expression of public opinion, which sometimes had mandatory power for the government," the Emperor was sometimes in the circus and gave the crowd of explanation.

In the 6th century, two parties were specially influenced: Blue (Vennets), which stood for Orthodoxy, or Chalkidonites, as the adherents of the Chalkidon Cathedral were called, and green (prasans), who stood for monophysites. At the end of the reign of Anastasia, a supporter of monophysites, the rebellion broke out in the capital, and the Orthodox party, which produces great ruins and proclaiming the new emperor, rushed at the racetrack, where the frightened Anastasi came out, without diadems, and commanded the shelters to declare people that he was ready to make himself power. Seeing his emperor in such a pitiful position, the people calmed down, and the rebellion stopped. This episode is very characteristic, as an indicator of the influence of the hippodrome and the metropolitan crowd on the government and the emperor himself. Anastasiya, as monophysit, sympathized, of course, the Green Party.

With the entry into the throne of Justin and Justinian, the Orthodox point of view was enthusiastic, and with her together and the Blue Party. Theodora was on the side of the Green Party. At the imperial throne, the defenders of various parties appeared. It is almost as clear that Dima expressed not only political and religious views, but also various class interests. Blue can be viewed as a batch of wealthy classes, green - as a party of the poor. If so, the Byzantine faults acquire a new and very important importance as a social element of society.

An interesting manifestation of this model can be found at the beginning of the sixth century in Rome, with the theodorich Great, when two rival parties, green and blue, continued to compete. At the same time, the blue represented well-handed classes, and green - poor.

An important new approach to this issue was recently declared and nominated for discussion. A. Dyakonov emphasized the "Methodological mistake" Rambo, Manylovich and others who did not distinguish between Dima and Party, which are not at all identical and which should be considered separately. The task of the work of Dyakonov was not a permission of the problem, but a new appeal to it, so that this new approach should be considered in the future, in more special studies.

The reasons that caused a terrible uprising of 532 in the capital were diverse. The opposition, directed against Justinian, was a Trojic kind: dynastic, public and religious. The nephews who remained even in the living, the nephews of the late Anastasia considered themselves by the entry into the throne of Justin, and then Justinian and, relying on the monophimitski-tuned Green Party, sought to reach Justinian. The public opposition was created from universal irritation against the highest officials, especially against the John Cappadocysky prefect known to us, John Cappadocyan, who their shameless violation of laws, extortion and cruelty caused a deep outrage of the people. Finally, the religious opposition went from the side of monophysites, which have undergone strong constraints at the beginning of the Board of Justinian. All this together caused a popular uprising in the capital. It is interesting to note that blue and green, for a while, forgetting about their religious bargaining, spoke together against the hateful government. Negotiations of the Emperor with the people through the ledging at the racetrack did not lead to what result. The rebellion quickly spread around the city. From the scream of the rebel "Nick!", That is, "win!", This rebellion carries the name "Nick's uprising" in history. The best buildings, art monuments were destroyed and fires. Basilica of St. Sofia, in the place of which the famous temple of St. Sofia. The promise of the Emperor to set aside from the posts of Tribonian and John Cappadocyan and his personal appeal to the crowd on the hippodrome did not have success. The nephew Anastasia was proclaimed by the emperor. By hiding in the palace, Justinian and his advisers already thought to flee from the capital. But at this critical moment, they encouraged theeodore. Prokoki reports even her speech in which she expressed, for example, such thoughts: "A person who appeared on the light, it is necessary to die, but be a fugitive for the one who was the emperor, unbearably ... if you, the sovereign, you want to escape, this is not at all It is not difficult: we have a lot of money: here is the sea, here are the ships. However, think about after the flight you did not prefer the death of salvation. I also like the ancient saying that the royal dignity is a wonderful funeral outfit. " Then the case of the rebound of the rebellion, which lasted for six days, was instructed by the Gazesia, who, who was able to drive the riotone crowd inside the hippodrome and locked it there, interrupted from 30 to 40 thousand rebels. The uprising was suppressed, and Justinian again strengthened on the throne. Anastasia nephews were executed. Suppression of the rebellion of 532 years has strengthened even more imperial power in the sense of its unlimitedness.

Taxation and financial problems

One of the distinguishing features of the domestic policy of Justinian was his stubborn, still not fully explained, the struggle against major landowners. This struggle is reflected in the novels, papyrus, as well as in the "Secret History", the proofer, which, despite the protection of the views of the aristocracy and despite the abundance in the composition of the absurd accusations against Justinian, attachment, in his eyes, on the throne, still gives a very interesting Picture of the social struggle in the VI century. The government felt that his most dangerous rivals and enemies were major landowners who conducted the affairs of their large possessions, without taking into account the central government. One of the novels of Justinian, condemning the desperate position of public and private land tenure in the provinces due to any unlimited behavior of local magnates and addressed to Capadokia's presented, has the following very significant lines: "News reached us about such significant abuses in the provinces that their correction is hardly It can be carried out by one person with great powers. And we are even ashamed to speak, however, the control of major landowners behave indecently, walking with the bodyguards, as follows them to the whole crowd of people, as they defiantly steal everything in a row ... State land property almost completely crossed In private hands, for she was stolen and looted, including all herds of horses, and no one was opposed, because everyone was stopped by gold. " As it seems, Cappadocian magnates had complete power in their province and even had their own detachments of armed men and bodyguards. Magnates captured private and state land. It is interesting to note that this novel appeared for the next year after Nick's uprising. Similar information about Egypt of the time of Justinian is found in papyrus. A member of the famous Egyptian family of landowners aponov owned in the 6th century with property in different places of Egypt. Whole villages were part of his possessions. His household was almost a royal. He had secretaries and servants, many workers, their own experts (Assessors) and tax collectors, their own treasurer, their police and even their own mail. Such magnates had their own prisons and contained their troops. Large possessions were also concentrated in the hands of the church and monasteries.

Justinian led against large land owners a merciless war. Coming in the case of inheritance, violent and sometimes with false sentences, the emperor, confiscations on the basis of false evidence or incitement of religious disputes in order to try to deprive the church of land possessions, Justinian consciously and stubbornly sought to destroy major land tenure. Especially numerous confiscations were held after the attempt of the palace coup 532. Justinian, however, did not achieve success in the crushing of major land tenure and it remained one of the unchanged features of the Empire's life in later periods.

Justinian saw and understood the shortcomings of the internal administration of the state, expressed in sales, theft, extortion and enhanced poverty, ruin, and for them the inevitable confusion; He gave himself aware that such a situation was harmful to public security, in urban finances and at the state of agriculture, which financial disorder contributed to the clock. The emperor wished to help with the state. In his presentation, the role of the converter was the responsibility of the imperial service and the act on the part of the emperor thanks to God, who had fallen him with his blessings. But as a convinced representative of the idea of \u200b\u200babsolute imperial authority, Justinian saw the only means to relieve the country in a centralized administration with an improved and quite submissive staff to him.

In the foreground stood the financial position of the country, inspired the most serious concerns. Military enterprises demanded enormous funds; Meanwhile, taxes entered the treasury all with great difficulties. It was bothered by the emperor, and he wrote in one of the novel that in view of the large military commodity spending "should make state taxes with all the readiness of full." But, speaking, on the one hand, as soon as we have seen, the defender of the undisturbality of the Rights of the treasury, he, on the other hand, declared himself a passage of the payer against extortion of officials.

For the characteristics of the conversion activity of Justinian, the two of its large novels of 535 is largely important. They contain the main foundations of administrative reform and the new responsibilities of officials are accurately defined. Novel commands the rulers "to divert a bonseous, everywhere to guard subjects from oppression, not to take any offerings from them, to be fair in sentences and in administrative decisions, pursuing a crime, protecting innocent and imposing legal cavities on the perpetrators, and in general How my father would be to children. " But at the same time, the rulers, "having free clean hands everywhere", that is, without taking bribes, they must take care of state income, "increasing the state treasury and makes all sorts of diligence." In view of the conquests of Africa and Vandals, and other alleged extensive enterprises, it is said in Novella, "it is necessary to make state taxes in full, willingly and within a certain time. So, if you are prudently meeting the rulers and they will easily gather state taxes with us, then we will praise rulers and subordinates. " Officials were supposed to give a solemn oath to the honest performance of their duties and at the same time became responsible for the full contribution of the regulations in the region entrusted. The bishops were to observe the behavior of the rulers. The guilty officials threatened severe punishment, honestly perforing the responsibilities were promised to increase. So, the duty of both government officials and payers, according to the novels of Justinian, is extremely simple: the first should be honest people, the second must be willing to pay taxes in full and in time. In subsequent decrees, the emperor repeatedly refers to these basic principles of its administrative reform.

Not all the provinces of the Empire were controlled equally. There were provinces, especially border, with restless native population, which demanded stronger power. It is known that Diocletian and Konstantin reforms before excessiveness increased provincial divisions and arranged a huge state of officials with the strict branch of civil power from the military. With Justinian, it can be seen in some cases a break with this system and return to the previous, pre-diocletian system. Justinian connected several small provinces, mostly eastern, in larger units; In some provinces of Malaya Asia, he, noting a quarrel and distributing between representatives of the military and civil authority, who wondered the case, decided to combine the functions of both authorities in the hands of one person, the governor called the pretyman. Justinian paid special attention to Egypt with Alexandria, from where Constantinople supplied bread. The organization of bread in Egypt and its delivery to the capital came, as follows from the novel, in full disorder. To resolve such an important branch of public life again, Justinian handed over to civilians, Augusta (Vir Spectabilis Augustalis), also military functions both in Alexandria itself, in this crowded and restless city and in both Egyptian provinces. But such attempts to centralize the territories and authorities in the provinces under Justinian did not wear a systematic nature.

Conducting in some Eastern provinces the idea of \u200b\u200bthe compound of the authorities, Justinian left in the West, in the recently conquered prefectures of North Africa and Italy, the former separation of civil authorities from the military.

The emperor hoped that he had been fixed by the country's hasty decrees alongside and "gave," he said, "to his state, thanks to brilliant events, a new flourishing." The reality deceived his expectations, and numerous decrees could not reverse people. Evidence of the next novel proves that the former troubles, extortion and ruin continued. Constantly had to resume decrees and remind of them. In some provinces, enhanced security was introduced, and sometimes they resorted almost to the siege position.

In need of funds, Justinian sometimes appealed to those measures, which he strictly prohibited in the Decrees: He sold his posts for big money and introduced, contrary to his promise, new taxes, although, on the basis of the novel, it is clear that he knew about the complete inconsistency of the population New tax liabilities. Under the influence of financial difficulties, he began to resort to the devaluation of money and the release of low-quality coins. However, the attitude of the population to this quickly became so threatening that he was forced to almost immediately refuse this measure. He needed to be replenished by the state treasury - Fisk, which, according to Koripp, the poet of the VI century, "the place of the stomach, through which all members feed." The severity of taxation has reached extreme limits and responded dislikedly on an exhausted population. According to one contemporary, "the foreign invading seemed less terrible taxpayers than the arrival of the Fisk officials." The villages were immunified and empty, as the inhabitants ran out. The country's performance decreased. At various localities occurred.

Seeing the ruin of the country and conscious of the need for economy, Justinian began to resort to it in the areas most dangerous for the empire. He reduced the number of troops and began to delay him a salary; And since the troops mainly consisted of mercenaries, the latter, not receiving the conventional content, raised the uprisings and revenge the defenseless population. As a result of these measures, the border was not keenly guarded enough, and Barbarians penetrated the Byzantine territory with impunity, exposing it to robbery and ruin. Constructed by Justinian Fortresses were not supported. Without the opportunity to confront the power of invading barbarians, he had to bother them, to which new funds were needed. Formed, according to the French scientist Dilya, enchanted circle: due to lack of money, the army reduced; Due to the lack of soldiers, it was necessary to now find even more money for paying attacking enemies.

If you add frequent hungry years, epidemics and earthquakes, which ruined the population and increased requests for government assistance, it becomes clear that by the end of the board of Justinian, the position of the empire was truly regrettable. Among these disasters, a devastating plague of 542 years deserves special mention. She began near Peluzia, on the shores of Egypt. Her, presumably Ethiopian, is unclear the origin. There was a traditional ancient suspicion that this disease was usually followed from Ethiopia. As Fukidide studied the plague in Athens at the beginning of the Peloponess War, as the historian of the proof, which witnessed her actions in Constantinople, determined the nature and course of the bubonic plague. From Egypt, the infection went to the north to Palestine and Syria; The next year she reached Constantinople, then spreading through Malaya Asia and Mesopotamia, headed for Persia. From the overseas territories, she captured Italy and Sicily. In Constantinople, the epidemic lasted four months. Mortality was huge. The villages and cities were abandoned, the agriculture froze and hunger, panic and the flight of a large number of people away from the infected places were endless. All this plunged the empire in chaos. All courtie events were interrupted. The emperor himself fell ill with Chuma, however, the infection was not fatal. It was only one of the factors that caused the wrong picture, which was reflected in the first novel of Justin II, in which he talks about the "state treasury, burdened by many debts and brought to extreme poverty", and about "troops, so already impregnated with a disadvantage In everything we need that the state suffered from countless attacks and barbar raids. "

An attempt by the administrative reform of Justinian ended in complete failure. In financially, the empire stood on the edge of death. From this side, of course, it is impossible to lose sight of the close connection, which existed between the internal and foreign policy of the emperor. His extensive military enterprises in the West, demanding enormous funds, ruined the East and left the successors a severe, confusing inheritance. Good, sincere intentions of Justinian streamline the life of the empire and raise the moral level of government agencies, which his new-time newly announced the newly announced, faced his military plans, as the heir to Roman Caessees, and could not be carried out.

Summing up the general results of the foreign policy of Justinian, it is necessary to say that his endless and tense wars, as a result, which did not correspond to his hopes and plans, were disgusted with the general state of the state. First of all, these gigantic enterprises demanded huge funds. According to the exaggerated, probably counting the proof in his "secret story", i.e. the source to be treated with caution, Anastasius left an extensive cash in the treasury for that time in the amount of 320,000 pounds of gold (about 130-140 million gold rubles) That Justinian as if quickly spent even in the reign of her uncle.

But, according to the testimony of another source of the VI century, Syrian John Ephesus, the Kaz Treated Anastasia was finally confidently only under Justin II, that is, after the death of Justinian. In any case, Anastasiev Foundation, adopted by us even in smaller sizes than the procopy, was to be Justinian very useful in his military enterprises. But nevertheless, this was not enough. New taxes did not comply with the country's payment forces. Attempts by the emperor to reduce the cost of the content of troops responded on their numbers, and the decrease in the latter made the rods all its Western conquests.

From the point of view of the Roman ideology of Justinian, his Western wars are understandable and natural. But from the point of view of the real interests of the country, they should be recognized as unnecessary and harmful. The difference between East and West in the VI century was already so great that the idea of \u200b\u200bthe west accession to the Eastern Empire was an anachronism; There could no longer be fused. It was possible to hold the countries conquered only; But it was noticed above, there was no strength or money from the empire. Justinian did not understand the values \u200b\u200bof the eastern border and the eastern provinces, where the real life interest of Byzantium was located. Western campaigns, being the result of one, personal will of the emperor, could not have durable results, and the plan to restore the Unified Roman Empire died with Justinian. Thanks to its common foreign policy, the empire had to survive a heavy inner economic crisis.

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Question 1. Prove the advantages of the geographical position of Constantinople. What else do the cities of the empire flourished?

Answer. Constantinople was at the intersection of trade routes. He could not bear those that sailed into the Black Sea or back. And through the Black Sea, he was trading not only the nearest states to him. Over time, the ancient Russia traded through it. Also, through Constantinople, a land distance from Europe to Asia and back was held. The goods that came from China and India long, were spent through this city. Other shopping centers flourished in the empire: Alexandria, Antioch. The major religious center of Jerusalem also flourished.

Question 2. What power did the Byzantine emperor possessed?

Answer. The emperor possessed the absolute power, which relied on a powerful system of officials and the army.

Question 3. How did Justinian strengthened the unity of the country? What of many centuries created during his reign?

Answer. Reforms.

1) The basic principle of Justinian was the "Unified State, a single law, a single religion". Therefore, he fought with numerous church teachings, which differed from Orthodoxy and called the Hergeles. The struggle with them continued after Justinian. It even became one of the reasons for the success of Arab conquest - the enemy troops met with joy and helped them, because Muslims turned well with people of all Christian denominations, their power was better than the power of Orthodox officials.

2) To give a single law of its empire, Justinian collected the team of lawyers who summed up many centuries of the development of Roman law. The result of their work is known for the name "Court of Civil Law". The document was widely used not only in Byzantium, but over time and in Europe many many centuries. Thanks to it, the famous Roman law has been preserved, besides systematized.

3) To strengthen Orthodoxy, Justinian built huge beautiful churches. The best and most famous of them is the Sofia Cathedral in Constantinople. It still stands, although most of its internal decoration of the times of Justinian is destroyed by subsequent generations of the Byzantians themselves.

4) Justinian struggled with numerous riots (for example, Nika's uprising) and took steps to prevent the military bosses (very often in the history of Byzantium, the commander, using the army faithful to them, overthrew emperors). The results of these actions and should not have remained in centuries. But every time they gave Justinianan to rule further, which means to continue all other reforms.

Question 4. Is the attempt of Justinian restore the Roman Empire? Why?

Answer. Attempt failed. Byzantine troops seized many territories of the Western Roman Empire, others did not have time. And we are not talking about Britain or Gaul, which the Romans are not very valued, but about Spain (only one coast was managed to return), which was a rich Roman territory. And most importantly, it was not possible to organize the good protection of these lands. Create a system against new invasions.

Question 5. What nations invaded the territory of Byzantium after the death of Justinian?

Answer. Narodi:

1) Slavs (on the Balkan Peninsula);

2) Bulgarians (on the Balkan Peninsula);

3) Langobard (on the Apennine Peninsula);

4) Iranians (on the eastern part of the Empire);

5) Arabs (captured most of the Byzantine lands).