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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL State BUDGETARY educational institution of higher professional education "Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI)"
Minsk branch
Department of Economics
Test
in the discipline "Organizational behavior"
Topic: Psychological personality traits
Student A. V. Khnykov
Head of Art. teacher Tishchenko L.I.
Introduction
1.1 The concept of temperament
1.2 General concept of character
3. Incompatibility of psychological characteristics of individuals. Interpersonal conflicts
Conclusion
Introduction
It is known that the problems of accidents and injuries cannot be solved only by engineering methods, since the cause of the danger can be:
1. low level of professional training;
2. lack of education;
3. undemanding compliance with safety rules;
4. admission to hazardous types of work for persons with increased injuries;
5. stay of people in a state of fatigue, intoxication or drug exposure.
Statistics show that about 60-90% of injuries at home and at work occur through the fault of the victims themselves. Therefore, the study of such mental qualities of a person as emotionality, temperament, will, character, intellectuality and morality, will allow to study the mental state in the process of activity and reduce the risk of exposure to dangerous factors.
Work psychology arose in the process of studying the correspondence of professional skills to the requirements of the workplace and was based on the principles and methods of individual psychology.
1. Psychological personality traits
Psychological personality traits are the main prerequisites for success in a particular type of professional activity. Incorrect career guidance, the choice of an individual's profession that does not correspond to the type of temperament inevitably leads to failure in this type of professional activity, disappointment in it. At the same time, identifying and taking into account psychological characteristics can provide a person with a favorite job, contribute to the achievement of the highest levels of professional skill. Among the psychological characteristics that determine the success of professional activity, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the personality temperament.
1.1 The concept of temperament
Temperament (from Lat. - the proper ratio of parts, proportionality) are individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior. There are two main indicators of the dynamics of mental manifestations and behavior: activity and emotionality. Activity of behavior characterizes the degree of energy, impetuosity, speed and, conversely, slowness, inertia, and emotionality - the features of the flow of emotions, feelings, moods and their quality: sign (positive, negative) and modality (joy, grief, fear, sadness, anger , fun, etc.).
There are three main systems of explanations for the essence of temperament and its organic basis. The first (humoral) connected the state of the body with the ratio of various juices (liquids) in it, in connection with which four types of temperament were distinguished: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic (Hippocrates, Galen, etc.). This terminology later became widely used.
The second (constitutional) is based on differences in the constitution of the organism - its physical structure, the ratio of its individual parts, various tissues (Kretschmer, Sheldon, etc.). The third connects the types of temperament with the activity of the central nervous system (I.P. Pavlov).
I.P. Pavlov discovered three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition: a) the strength of the processes; b) their balance; c) their mobility. Thus, temperament is a manifestation of the type of the nervous system in human activity and behavior:
* strong, balanced, mobile type ("live") - sanguine temperament (from Latin - "blood");
* strong, balanced, inert ("calm") - phlegmatic temperament (from Latin - "phlegm");
* strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement ("unrestrained") - choleric temperament (from the Greek - "red-yellow bile");
* weak - melancholic temperament (from the Greek - "black bile").
The type of nervous system is a natural, innate property of the nervous system, which, however, may change somewhat under the influence of the conditions of life and activity.
B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsin showed that the structure of the basic properties of the nervous system is much more complex, and the number of combinations is much larger than previously thought. Nevertheless, these four types of temperament as the most generalized can be used to study individuality.
Differences in temperament are not differences in the level of capabilities of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations. Features of temperament determine the ways and methods of work, but not the level of achievement. In turn, the mental and volitional capabilities of a person create conditions for compensating for deficiencies in temperament. At the same time, temperament determines the individual style of activity.
To refer a person to a certain type of temperament, one should make sure of one or another severity in him, first of all, of such traits: activity, emotionality, and motor skills. In upbringing, it is necessary to promote the development of the positive aspects of each temperament and at the same time help to get rid of those negative aspects that may be associated with this temperament. (Table 1)
Table 1. Psychological characteristics of types of temperament
|
Temperament type |
Psychological characteristics |
|
|
Sanguine |
It is characterized by a slightly decreased sensitivity, high reactivity and activity, poise, emotional mobility, plasticity, lability, extroversion |
|
|
It is characterized by increased excitability, high reactivity and activity with a predominance of reactivity, increased emotional excitability, rigidity, an accelerated rate of reactions, extroversion |
||
|
Phlegmatic person |
It is characterized by decreased sensitivity, low reactivity, rigidity, decreased emotional excitability, slower reaction rate, introversion |
|
|
Melancholic |
It is characterized by increased sensitivity, low reactivity and low activity, decreased emotional excitability, introversion |
In their pure form, these four types of temperament are extremely rare, since various properties of the human nervous system in their various combinations determine a large number of intermediate types. Thus, when analyzing individual psychological characteristics of a personality, it is required to establish the degree of predominance of certain characteristics of the traditionally distinguished four types of temperament.
1.2 General concept of character
Literally translated from Greek, character means chasing, imprint. In psychology, character is understood as a set of individually unique mental properties that are manifested in a person under typical conditions and are expressed in his inherent ways of acting in such conditions.
Character is an individual combination of essential personality traits that express a person's attitude to reality and are manifested in his behavior, in his actions.
Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. The character, like the temperament, is quite stable and hardly changeable. Temperament on the form of manifestation of character, in a peculiar way coloring certain of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. The choleric person works energetically, passionately, the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character.
In communicating with people, a person's character manifests itself in a demeanor, in ways of responding to the actions and deeds of people. The manner of communication can be more or less delicate, tactful or unceremonious, polite or rude. Character, in contrast to temperament, is determined not so much by the properties of the nervous system as by the culture of a person, his upbringing.
There is a division of human personality traits into motivational and instrumental. Motivational motivates, direct the activity, support it, and instrumental give it a certain style. Character can be attributed to the number of instrumental personality traits. It is no longer the content that depends on it, but the manner of performing the activity. True, as has been said, character can also manifest itself in the choice of the goal of action. However, when the goal is determined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e. as a means to achieve the goal.
Let's list the main personality traits that are part of a person's character. First, these are the personality traits that determine a person's actions in choosing the goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological traits, rationality, prudence or qualities opposite to them may appear. Secondly, character structures include traits that relate to actions aimed at achieving the set goals: persistence, dedication, consistency, and others, as well as alternatives to them (as evidence of lack of character). In this regard, the character approaches not only the temperament, but also with the will of the person. Thirdly, the composition of the character includes purely instrumental traits directly related to temperament: extraversion - introversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsivity, switchability - rigidity, etc. a peculiar combination of all these character traits in one person makes it possible to attribute him to a certain type ... In the next section, we'll look at a typology of characters.
2. Psychological compatibility of individuals in communication and joint activities
psychological temperament
Interpersonal relationships are expressed in the compatibility of people.
Compatibility is the optimal combination of the qualities of people in the process of communication, contributing to the success of the implementation of joint actions. It is customary to distinguish four types of compatibility: physical, psychophysiological, socio-psychological and socio-ideological.
Physical compatibility is expressed in a harmonious combination of physical qualities of two or more people performing a joint action (compatibility in strength, endurance, etc.). For example, when manning the crews of rowing ships (kayaks, canoes, academic boats), athletes are selected who are equal in physical data. Another example: in some sports there is a division of athletes into weight categories. This is done in order to equalize, combine the anatomical prerequisites, on the basis of which physical properties develop. And they can be different with relatively the same body weight. It depends on fitness level. In the course of a sports competition, there is a competition not of body weights, but of those physical properties that the athlete has achieved by training at a given weight.
Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the features of the analyzer systems, as well as the properties of temperament. This kind of compatibility presupposes the relationship of people in the course of their joint action, in which the sensitivity within the limits of a particular analytic system is decisive. In this respect, the situation of Leo Tolstoy's story "The Blind and the Deaf" is indicative. The attack on someone else's pea planting, undertaken by two characters in the story, ended in vain, since one did not hear, and the other did not see, and the signals of each of them did not reach the other. They turned out to be physiologically incompatible. Two female supervisors at a weaving mill who work together and have different visual acuity and color sensitivity are incompatible. Their labor productivity will be low.
Socio-psychological compatibility presupposes the relationship of people with such personal characteristics that contribute to the successful fulfillment of social roles. In this case, the similarity of characters and abilities is not necessary, but their harmony is required. As life practice shows, contacts are established faster and are stronger in people with character traits that complement one another: one is cocky, decisive, the other is calm, reasonable, unhurried. One is more capable of acquiring knowledge, the other is more capable of acquiring motor skills. This does not mean that in any cases only people with opposite traits, with dissimilar abilities and other properties are compatible. Compatibility is possible with similar temperaments, but the likelihood of the collapse of the community in this case is great.
Socio-ideological compatibility presupposes common ideological views, similarity of social attitudes and values.
Ideological kinship, striving for the same moral and aesthetic values \u200b\u200bbrings people closer together. Compatibility on a socio-ideological basis can be considered a higher level compared to compatibility on other bases. Ideological similarity, the coincidence of social attitudes, as it were, overlaps and integrates all other bases. Physical, psychophysiological and socio-psychological factors, if they run counter to the socio-ideological, can be muted, and incompatibility based on these parameters will not appear. This is due to the fact that a group or collective effort is aimed at solving not private, albeit group, but large-scale tasks facing large communities.
3. Incompatibility of psychological characteristics of individuals. Interpersonal conflicts
Individuals differ significantly in their psychological characteristics. These differences can often complicate relationships between people, lead to conflicts.
A conflict is a contradiction that arises between people in connection with the solution of certain issues of social and personal life.
Among the many causes of conflict, a certain place is occupied by incompatibility in physical, psychophysiological, socio-psychological and socio-ideological terms.
Contradictions in interpersonal relationships do not always lead to conflicts: many of them are resolved peacefully. Others cause confrontation and are resolved in it.
In groups, collectives, already formed and well-established, contradictions arise less often than in communities, the life of which is short. This is due to the fact that in long-standing communities, under the influence of dropout and mutual recognition, a level of compatibility is achieved, at which contradictions are not resolved in a conflict situation. In groups and collectives that are in the stage of formation and development, contradictions often end in conflicts. The reasons for this may be psychophysiological and socio-psychological incompatibilities. And more specifically: the appearance in these communities of persons with difficult characters - arrogant capricious, with exaggerated self-esteem and pretensions, envious gossips. Such people are capable of creating an atmosphere of bullying, hooking. They are compatible only with those who fulfill their whims, contribute to the realization of their insidious plans.
In a conflict situation, business and personal relationships are so confusing that they are difficult to understand. Therefore, a way out of this situation is sometimes found along the path of administration.
In personal relationships, incompatibility is rarely the cause of conflict. Rather, incompatibility precludes relationships on a personal basis. The point is, personal relationships are optional. Therefore, as soon as the incompatibility is indicated and it becomes obvious, people part and the relationship ends.
Conclusion
No two people are exactly alike. This is true for both physical and psychological characteristics. Some people are calm, others are quick-tempered, some are able to work long and hard to achieve a result, others put all their strength into one "jerk". Psychological differences between people are objective - they are explained by the physiological characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system. The character of the individual, his success or failure in specific professional activities, the style of interpersonal communication, and interaction with other people in the professional and personal spheres largely depend on these features (although not completely - the most important role is played by the upbringing of the personality).
It should be noted that differences in psychological characteristics are not differences in the level of capabilities, but in the originality of their manifestations. Psychological characteristics determine the ways and means of work, but not the level of achievement. In turn, the mental capabilities of a person create conditions for compensating for psychological deficiencies.
Summing up, we can say that knowledge of the psychological characteristics of a person, understanding their nature can provide correct career guidance, effective selection of personnel for a specific type of professional activity, and, if necessary, the development of measures for psychological correction of individual personality traits. Thus, such knowledge is indispensable for teachers, educators, personnel service workers, managers of various levels.
Bibliography
1. Organizational behavior of teaching materials 2008.pdf
2. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of Psychology: Inform.-Method. Manual for the course "Human Psychology": - M .: Ped. Society in Russia, 1999 .-- 397 s
3. Maslyaev O. Psychology of personality. - Donetsk, 1997.
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Lecture 12. Individual personality traits
Many seemingly very different personality traits are linked by relatively stable dependencies into certain dynamic structures. This is especially clearly manifested in the character of a person.
Character is a pivotal mental property of a person that leaves an imprint on all his actions and deeds, a property on which, first of all, a person's activity depends in various life situations.
In other words, giving a definition of character, we can say that it is a set of personality traits that determines the typical ways of her response to life circumstances.
Character should be understood not as any individual psychological characteristics of a person, but only a set of the most pronounced and relatively stable personality traits typical for a given person and systematically manifested in his actions and deeds.
In the opinion of B. G. Ananyev, character "expresses the main life orientation and manifests itself in a way of action that is peculiar to a given personality." The word "character" in translation from Greek means "sign", "feature".
Very often the character is understood as something that almost coincides with the personality or differs from the personality according to the criterion that everything that is individual belongs to the character, and the personality is only general. We had such views in the 40s, 50s and 60s. In fact, of course, this is not the case. There is such a comic typology that BS Bratus cites in one of his books: "A good person with a good character, a good person with a bad character, a bad person with a good character and a bad person with a bad character." From the point of view of common sense, this typology corresponds to reality, it works. This says, first of all, that personality and character are not the same thing, they do not coincide.
In character, a person is characterized not only by what she does, but also by how she does it.
It is no coincidence that the words "characteristic" and "character" have a common root. A well-composed psychological characteristic of a person, first of all and most deeply, should reveal his character, since it is in him that personality traits are most significantly manifested. However, it is impossible, as is sometimes done, to replace all personality traits only with character traits. The concept of "personality" is broader than the concept of "character", and the concept of "individuality of a person as a person" is not limited only to his character.
In psychology, a person is distinguished in the wide and narrow sense of the word, and the character is outside the personality in the narrow sense of the word. Character is understood as such characteristics of a person that describe the ways of his behavior in different situations. In relation to character, concepts such as "expressive characteristics" (characteristics of external manifestation, external expression of a person) or "stylistic characteristics" are used. In general, the concept of "style" is quite close in its essence to the concept of "character", but more on that later.
A remarkable illustration of this relationship between personality and character is Henry Kuttner's little fantasy story The Mechanical Ego. The hero of the story is an American writer and screenwriter of the 50s. XX century - is preoccupied with clarifying relations with his employers, with his girlfriend and at the same time a literary agent defending his interests, as well as a number of other problems. Suddenly, a robot arrives from the future, which traveled in time and filmed and recorded "character matrices" from interesting figures of different times and peoples. The hero manages to "drink" this robot with the help of high-frequency current and persuade him to impose some matrices on it. Further, the hero goes out several times and communicates with different people, first imposing the matrices of the character of Disraeli, an English aristocrat and politician of the last century, then Tsar Ivan the Terrible, and, finally, Mamontoboy from the Stone Age. It is interesting to see what changes and what remains unchanged when changing matrices. The hero's goals, his aspirations, his desires, his values \u200b\u200bremain unchanged. He strives for the same thing, but acts in different ways, showing in one case the refinement and cunning of Disraeli, in the other case - the directness and aggressiveness of Mamontoboy, etc.
Thus, the difference between character and personality in the narrow sense of the word lies in the fact that the character includes features related to the mode of behavior, to the forms in which the same behavior can be clothed in content.
Each person differs from others in a huge, truly inexhaustible number of individual characteristics, that is, characteristics inherent in him as an individual. The concept of "individual characteristics" includes not only psychological, but also somatic ("soma" - Latin for "body") features of a person: eye and hair color, height and figure, development of the skeleton and muscles, etc.
An important individual feature of a person is his facial expression. It manifests itself not only somatic, but also psychological characteristics of a person. When they say about a person: “he has a meaningful expression on his face, or“ he has cunning eyes, ”or“ stubborn mouth, ”they mean, of course, not an anatomical feature, but the expression in facial expressions of the psychological characteristics peculiar to this individual.
Individual psychological characteristics distinguish one person from another. The branch of psychological science that studies the individual characteristics of various aspects of personality and mental processes is called differential psychology.
The most general dynamic structure of personality is the generalization of all its possible individual psychological characteristics into four groups, which form four main aspects of personality:
1. Biologically determined characteristics (temperament, inclinations, basic needs).
2. Socially determined features (orientation, moral qualities, worldview).
3. Individual characteristics of various mental processes.
4. Experience (volume and quality of existing knowledge, skills, abilities and habits).
Not all individual psychological characteristics of these sides of the personality will be character traits. But all character traits, of course, are personality traits.
First of all, it must be said about the fundamental differences between character traits and general traits, which were discussed above.
First, character is only one of the substructures of the personality, and the substructure is subordinate. A developed mature personality has good command of his character and is able to control its manifestations. On the contrary, character breakthroughs, when a person acts directly according to the logic of what certain character traits induce him to do, are typical, say, of psychopaths. Adults are meant. As for childhood and adolescence, this is a special conversation.
Thus, the character takes a subordinate position, and the actual manifestations of character depend on what motives and goals these manifestations serve in a particular case. That is, character traits are not something that acts on its own, manifests itself in all situations.
Secondly, the essence of those traits that make up character can be clarified through the mechanisms of character formation. Before talking about these mechanisms, let's fix the main myths that exist in relation to the character:
1) the character is biologically determined, and nothing can be done about it;
2) the character is fully educated, any character can be formed at will with a specially organized system of influences;
3) there is such a very serious thing as national character, that is, there are very different character structures inherent in different nations, which significantly affect the individual character of all representatives of a given nation.
Every myth has a grain of truth, but only a grain. There are really certain things in the character that are associated with biological factors. The biological basis of character is the temperament that we really get from birth, and we have to live with it.
The character also has, so to speak, a macrosocial basis. There is also some truth in the myth of the national character. There is a lot of controversy in the literature about the national character. The main problem was posed as follows: is there a national character or not? It turned out very clearly that there are at least very strong stereotypes regarding the national character, that is, that representatives of some nations demonstrate rather persistent beliefs in the existence of certain sets of traits in other nations. Moreover, these stereotypes in the perception of another nation directly depend on how this nation "behaves". For example, a few years ago in West Germany, studies were conducted on the attitude towards the French. Two surveys were conducted with an interval of 2 years, but over these 2 years, relations between Germany and France have noticeably deteriorated. In the second survey, the number of people who named frivolity and nationalism among the characteristic features of the French sharply increased, and the number of those who ascribed such positive qualities as charm and courtesy to the French sharply decreased.
Are there real differences between nations? Yes there is. But it turned out that, firstly, differences are always distinguished by a small number of features in comparison with those features for which the similarity prevails, and, secondly, that differences between different people within the same nation are much greater than stable differences between nations. Therefore, the verdict passed by the American psychologist T. Shibutani is fair: "The national character, despite the various forms of its study, is in many ways similar to a respectable ethnic stereotype, acceptable primarily for those who are not familiar enough with the people in question."
In fact, the idea of \u200b\u200ba national character is a form of manifestation of the very typological thinking that has already been mentioned. Certain minimal differences that actually exist (for example, the temperament of southern peoples) and which are less significant than similarity are taken as the basis for a certain type. Typological thinking, as already mentioned, is distinguished, first of all, by its categorical nature (either one or the other), by the absence of gradations, by highlighting something private and inflating it by ignoring everything else. Thus, an ideological monster appears under the sonorous title of "national character".
There is also a so-called social character, that is, some invariant character traits inherent in certain social groups. At one time it was fashionable in our country to talk about class character, and there really is some reality behind it. It was also fashionable to talk about some characterological features of bureaucrats, managers, etc. Behind this, there is also a certain reality associated with the fact that the character is formed in the real life of a person, and to the extent of the generality of the conditions in which representatives of some and the same classes, social groups, etc., some common traits of character are formed in them. After all, the character plays the role of a kind of shock absorber, a kind of buffer between the personality and the environment, therefore it is largely determined by this environment. In many ways, but not in all. The main thing depends on the personality. If the personality is aimed at adaptation, adaptation to the world, then the character helps to do this. If, on the contrary, the personality is aimed at overcoming the environment or at transforming it, then the character helps her to overcome the environment or transform it.
According to the observations of E. R. Kaliteevskaya, adaptability and the absence of roughness, difficulties in the so-called "difficult age" fixes the adaptive character and then leads to the fact that a person experiences many difficulties in life. And vice versa, outwardly violent manifestations of "difficult age" help a person to form certain elements of independence, self-determination, which will give him the opportunity to live normally in the future, actively influence reality, and not only adapt to it.
However, character cannot be viewed as a simple sum of individual qualities or personality traits. Some of his features will always be leading; it is by them that one can characterize a person, otherwise the task of understanding character would be impossible, since each individual has a large number of individual characteristic features, and the number of shades of each of these features is even greater. For example, neatness can have shades: punctuality, pedantry, cleanliness, smartness, etc.
Individual character traits are classified much more easily and clearly than character types in general.
A character trait is understood as those or other features of a person's personality, which are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions in certain conditions.
BM Teplov proposed to divide character traits into several groups.
The first group includes the most general character traits that form the main mental makeup of the personality. These include: adherence to principles, purposefulness, honesty, courage, etc. It is clear that the opposite, that is, negative, qualities can appear in character traits, for example: lack of principle, passivity, deceit, etc.
The second group consists of character traits in which a person's attitude towards other people is expressed. This is sociability, which can be broad and superficial or selective and the opposite feature is isolation, which can be the result of indifference to people or mistrust of them, but can be the result of deep inner concentration; frankness and its opposite - secrecy; sensitivity, tact, responsiveness, fairness, solicitude, politeness, or, on the contrary, rudeness.
The third group of character traits expresses a person's attitude towards himself. These are self-esteem, pride, correctly understood and the associated self-criticism, modesty and the opposite - vanity, arrogance, conceit, sometimes turning into arrogance, resentment, shyness, egocentrism (the tendency to constantly be in the center of attention along with one's feelings), egoism ( concern mainly about their personal welfare), etc.
The fourth group of character traits expresses a person's attitude to work, his work. These include initiative, perseverance, hard work and the opposite - laziness; the desire to overcome difficulties and the opposite to it - the fear of difficulties; activity, conscientiousness, accuracy, etc.
In relation to work, characters are divided into two groups: active and inactive. For the first group, typical activity, determination, persistence; for the second - passivity, contemplation. But sometimes the inactivity of character is explained (but by no means justified) by the deep inner contradictions of a person who has not yet "decided", has not found his place in life, in a team.
The brighter and stronger a person's character, the more definite his behavior and the more clearly his individuality appears in various actions. However, not all people have their actions and deeds determined by their inherent personal characteristics. The behavior of some people depends on external circumstances, on the good or bad influence of comrades on them, on the passive and lack of initiative in fulfilling certain instructions of leaders and superiors. Such employees are spoken of as spineless.
Character cannot be considered an independent, as it were, the fifth side of the general dynamic structure of the personality. Character is a combination of internally interrelated, the most important individual aspects of a personality, characteristics that determine a person's activity as a member of society. Character is a personality in the originality of its activity. This is his closeness with abilities (we will consider them in the next lecture), which also represent a personality, but in its productivity.
In conclusion of the conversation about the essence of such an important category in the structure of personality, which is character, and before proceeding to consider the classification of characters, I would like to talk about two options for disharmonious relationships between character and personality, illustrating them with examples of two Russian autocrats taken from works the remarkable Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky.
The first of these examples - the subordination of personality to character, uncontrollable character - is illustrated by the description of Paul I.
"Character<…> benevolent and magnanimous, inclined to forgive offenses, ready to repent of mistakes, lover of truth, hater of lies and deceit, caring about justice, persecutor of all abuse of power, especially covetousness and bribery. Unfortunately, all these good qualities became completely useless both for him and for the state due to the complete lack of measure, extreme irritability and impatient demands of unconditional obedience.<…> Considering himself always right, he stubbornly adhered to his opinions and was so irritable with the slightest contradiction that he often seemed completely beside himself. He himself realized this and was deeply upset by this, but did not have enough will to defeat himself. "
The second example is the absence of personality, its substitution with character, that is, the presence of developed forms of external manifestation in the absence of internal content - Empress Catherine II.
“She was capable of exertion, of strenuous and even unbearable work; therefore, to herself and to others she seemed stronger than herself. But she worked more on her manners, on the way of dealing with people, than on herself, on her thoughts and feelings; therefore her manners and treatment of people were better than her feelings and thoughts. In her mind there was more flexibility and receptivity than depth and thoughtfulness, more bearing than creativity, as in all her nature there was more nervous liveliness than spiritual strength. She loved more. and knew how to manage people than affairs.<…> In your letters of friendship<…> it seems to be playing a well-learned role and with feigned playfulness, with pretended wit, it tries in vain to cover up the emptiness of the content and the tension of presentation. We meet the same features in her treatment of people as in her activities. In whatever society she rotated, whatever she did, she always felt as if on stage, so she did too much for show. She herself admitted that she loved to be in public. The atmosphere and impression of the case were more important to her than the case itself and its consequences; therefore, her mode of action was above the promptings that inspired them; therefore, she cared more about popularity than about utility, her energy was supported not so much by the interests of the business as by the attention of people. Whatever she thought, she thought more about what they would say about her than about what would come of the planned case. She valued the attention of her contemporaries more than the opinion of her offspring ... She had more popularity than love for people, and in her work there was more brilliance, effect than greatness, creativity. She will be remembered for longer than her deeds. "
Probably, no one needs to be convinced of how important it is to understand the characters of the people with whom you meet every day - be it your relatives or employees. Meanwhile, our idea of \u200b\u200bthe types of characters is sometimes extremely abstract. We often make mistakes in assessing the person we are interested in. Sometimes you have to pay dearly for such mistakes: after all, it may be a mistake in choosing a friend, assistant, employee, spouse, etc. The fact is that we, poorly orienting ourselves in characters, sometimes do not notice the best features of others. We pass by what is valuable in a person, we do not know how to help him open up.
Man as a person, of course, is not reducible to character. Personality is determined, first of all, by the social activity that it performs. A person has social orientations, ideals, attitude to others and to various aspects of life, knowledge, skills, abilities, level of their development, temperament. Personalities are characterized by harmonious development as a whole, learning ability, flexibility of behavior, the ability to reorganize, the ability to solve organizational issues, etc. However, characterological traits are essential for understanding the personality. The brighter the character, the more it leaves an imprint on the personality, the more it affects behavior.
Numerous attempts to classify character types as a whole (rather than individual traits) have so far been unsuccessful. In addition to the variety and versatility of characterological qualities, the variety of the proposed classifications is also explained by the difference in features that can be used as their basis.
The ancient Greek philosopher and physician Theophrastus (372–287 BC) in his treatise "Ethical Characters" described 31 characters: flatterer, chatterbox, braggart, etc. He understood character as an imprint in the personality of the moral life of society.
The French moralist La Bruyere (1645-1696) gave 1,120 such characteristics, dividing his essay into a number of chapters: the city, about the capital, about the nobles, etc. He, like Theophrastus, in his characteristics revealed the inner essence of man through his deeds ... For example, he wrote: "Dodgers tend to think of others as tricksters; they are almost impossible to deceive, but they do not deceive for long."
From Aristotle comes the identification of character with volitional personality traits, and hence the division of character into strong and weak in terms of the expression of volitional traits in it. It is more correct to understand a strong character as the correspondence of a person's behavior to his worldview and beliefs. A person with a strong character is a reliable person. Knowing his beliefs, you can always foresee how he will act in a certain situation. It is about such a person that they say: "This one will not fail." It is impossible to say in advance about a weak person how he will act in a given situation.
Another example of the classification of characters is an attempt to subdivide them into intellectual, emotional and volitional (Ben, 1818-1903). Until now, one can hear the characteristics: "This is a man of pure reason", or: "He lives in the mood of the day." Attempts were made to divide characters into only two groups: sensitive and volitional (Ribot, 1839-1916) or into extroverted (directed at external objects) and introverted (directed at their own thoughts and experiences) - Jung (1875-1961). Russian psychologist A. I. Galich (1783–1848) divided characters into bad, kind and great. There have been attempts to give more complex character classifications.
The most widespread division of characters according to their social value. This assessment is sometimes expressed by the word "good" character (and in contrast - "bad"),
Also widespread in everyday life is the division of characters into light (characteristic of livable, pleasant people around and easily finding contact with people) and heavy.
Some authors (Lombroso, Kretschmer) tried to associate not only temperament, but also character with the constitution of a person, understanding by the latter the features of the structure of the body that are characteristic of a person in a given rather long period of time.
In recent years, in practical psychology, mainly thanks to the efforts of K. Leonhard (Humboldt University of Berlin) and A.E. Lichko (V.M.Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute), ideas about the most striking (so-called accentuated) characters have been formed , which are very interesting and useful for practice, including can be taken into account in the organization of production activities. Some stable combinations of characterological traits were noticed, and it turned out that such combinations are not an infinite number, but a little more than a dozen. Currently, there is no uniform classification of characters. The state of affairs in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge can be compared with the situation in the description of chemical elements before the creation of the periodic system by D.I.Mendeleev. However, it can be noted that many ideas are well established.
Each of the bright characters with varying degrees of severity occurs on average in 5-6% of cases. Thus, at least half of all employees have bright (accentuated) characters. In some cases, there are combinations of types of characters. The rest can be conditionally referred to the "average" type.
Below we will focus on the most striking characters. Take a closer look at the people around you. Perhaps the proposed recommendations will help you understand them, develop the correct line of communication and interaction with them. However, you should not get carried away with the formulation of psychological diagnoses. Each person in certain situations can show the features of almost all characters. However, the character is determined not by what happens "sometimes", but by the stability of the manifestation of features in many situations, the degree of their severity and the ratio. So.
HYPERTENSIVE (OR HYPERACTIVE) CHARACTER
Optimism leads such a person sometimes to the fact that he begins to praise himself, setting out the "natural theory of generational change" and prophesying high positions for himself. A good mood helps him to overcome difficulties, which he always looks at with ease, as temporary, passing. Voluntarily engaged in social work, seeks to confirm his high self-esteem in everything. This is the hyperthymic character. If there is a person with a hypertimal character in the team you are leading, then the worst thing you can do is entrust him with painstaking, monotonous work that requires perseverance, limit contacts, and deprive him of the opportunity to take initiative. Such a worker is unlikely to be useful. He will violently resent the "boredom" of work and neglect duties. However, the discontent arising in these cases is of a benign nature. Having escaped from conditions unacceptable for him, hypertim, as a rule, does not hold any grudge against others. Create conditions for the manifestation of initiative - and you will see how brightly the personality will reveal itself, the work will boil in his hands. It is better to place hypertime in production areas where contacts with people are required: they are indispensable in organizing labor, in creating a climate of goodwill in the team.
Disorders of adaptation and health in hyperthymes are usually associated with the fact that they do not spare themselves. They take on a lot, try to do everything in time, run, rush, excited, often express a high level of claims, etc. They seem to think that all problems can be solved by increasing the pace of activity.
The main recommendation for people with a hyperthymic type of character is not to hold back, as it might seem at first glance, but to try to create such living conditions that would allow expressing violent energy in work, sports, and communication. Try to avoid exciting situations, extinguish the excitement by listening to music, and so on up to a light soothing psychopharmacological treatment and autogenous training.
AUTISTIC CHARACTER
Most people in communication express their emotional positions and expect the same from the interlocutor. However, people of this type of character, although they emotionally perceive the situation, have their own attitude to various aspects of life, but are very sensitive, easily traumatized and prefer not to reveal their inner world. Therefore, they are called autistic (Latin "auto" - turned into oneself, closed). In dealing with people of this type, one may encounter both heightened sensitivity, timidity, and absolute, “stone” coldness and inaccessibility. The transitions from one to the other create the impression of inconsistency.
The autistic nature has its positive aspects. These include the steadfastness of intellectual and aesthetic hobbies, tact, unobtrusiveness in communication, independence of behavior (sometimes even overly emphasized and defended), adherence to the rules of formal business relations. Here, persons of an autistic character, due to the subordination of the senses to reason, can provide role models. Difficulties for this characterological type are associated with entering a new team, with the establishment of informal ties. Friendly relations develop with difficulty and slowly, although if they do, they turn out to be stable, sometimes for life.
If a person with an autistic character came to your team, do not rush to establish informal relations with him. Persistent attempts to penetrate into the inner world of such a person, "to get into the soul" can lead to the fact that he will become even more isolated, withdraw into himself.
The production activity of such a person may suffer from the fact that he wants to understand everything himself. This is the path leading to high qualifications, but often new knowledge and experience is much easier to obtain through communication with other people. In addition, excessive independence makes it difficult to switch from one issue to another, can complicate cooperation. "Without getting into the soul" of such a person, it is important to organize his activities so that he can listen to the opinions of others.
Sometimes people with an autistic nature follow the easiest path - they communicate only with those who are similar to themselves. This is partly correct, but it can enhance the existing character traits. But communication with an emotional, open, benevolent friend sometimes completely changes a person's character.
If you yourself have such a character, then listen to good advice: do not seek to strengthen isolation, detachment, restraint of feelings in communication. Positive personality traits, taken to an extreme degree, turn into negative ones. Try to develop emotionality and the ability to express feelings. Emotional firmness, certainty, the ability to defend one's position - this is just as necessary for a person as the development of other qualities - intellectual, cultural, professional, business, etc. Human communication suffers from this lack - one of the most valuable aspects of life. And in the end - professional activity.
LABLE CHARACTER
Usually a person, experiencing some emotion, such as joy, cannot quickly "change" it. He experiences it for some time, even if circumstances have changed. This is the manifestation of the usual inertia of emotional experiences. Not so with an emotionally labile character: the mood changes quickly and easily following the circumstances. Moreover, a minor event can completely change the emotional state.
A quick and strong change in the mood of such persons does not allow people of the average type (more inert) to "track" their internal state, to empathize with them completely. We often evaluate people by ourselves, and this often leads to the fact that the feelings of a person of an emotionally labile nature are perceived as light, implausible - rapidly changing and therefore as if not real, such that should not be given importance. And this is not true. The feelings of a person of this type are, of course, the most real, as can be seen in critical situations, as well as by the stable attachments that this person follows, by the sincerity of his behavior, and the ability to empathize.
A mistake in relation to a person with a labile character may be, for example, such a situation. The boss, who is not sufficiently familiar with his subordinates, can cause them to criticize, "sneak", focusing (unconsciously) on his own emotional inertia. As a result, the reaction to criticism may turn out to be unexpected: a woman will cry, a man may quit his job ... Ordinary "sanding" can turn into a mental trauma for life. A person with a labile character must learn to live in a "harsh" and "rough" world for his constitution, learn to protect his, in a sense, weak, nervous system from negative influences. Living conditions and good psychological health are of great importance, since the same traits of emotional lability can be manifested not by positive, but by negative sides: irritability, mood instability, tearfulness, etc. For people with this character, a good psychological climate in the work collective is very important ... If others are benevolent, then a person can quickly forget the bad, it is, as it were, repressed. Communication with hyperthymes has a beneficial effect on persons of an emotionally labile nature. The atmosphere of benevolence, warmth not only affects such people, but also determines the productivity of their activities (psychological and even physical well-being).
DEMONSTRATIVE CHARACTER
The main feature of a demonstrative character is a great ability to supplant a rational, critical view of oneself and, as a consequence, demonstrative, somewhat “acting” behavior.
"Repression" is widely manifested in the human psyche, especially in children. When a child plays, say, an electric locomotive driver, he can get so carried away by his role that, if you refer to him not as an engine driver, but by name, he may be offended. Obviously, this repression is associated with developed emotionality, vivid imagination, weak logic, inability to perceive their own behavior from the outside, low self-criticism. All this sometimes persists in adults. A person endowed with a demonstrative character easily imitates the behavior of other people. He may impersonate who he would like to see. Usually such people have a wide range of contacts; as a rule, if their negative traits are not very well developed, they are loved.
The desire for success, the desire to look good in the eyes of others is so clearly represented in this character that one gets the impression that this is the main and almost the only feature. However, it is not. The key feature is the inability to take a critical look at oneself from the outside at certain points in time. To be convinced of this, it is enough to look at what demonstrative personalities represent in other situations. For example, passionate about the role of the patient. Or, flaunting their supposedly immoral behavior, they demonstrate licentiousness, etc. In these cases, regardless of the desire for success in another situation, they can slander themselves that from the standpoint of the previous role is clearly unprofitable. However, there is no correlation of one with the other, there is only a switch from one role to another. Such a person can behave differently with different people, depending on how they would like to see him.
With experience and with the presence of abilities, persons of a demonstrative character are well aware of the characteristics of other people. They see the attitude towards themselves, adjust to it and try to control it. It should be noted that they often succeed in this. They develop the attitude they want to themselves, sometimes actively manipulating people. The growth of traits of this kind, especially when combined with a low level of intelligence and unsatisfactory upbringing, can lead to adventurism. An example of this is the notorious situations with "getting" a shortage of, say, cars. In such cases, deceived people are let down by the fact that they are guided by internal criteria for evaluating lies - they try to determine whether there are any alarming details in the inner world of the adventurer: embarrassment, inconsistency of ideas, etc., which would allow them to suspect him of a lie ... But since the adventurer, after entering the role, does not internally feel the lie, then people can easily be deceived when assessing his behavior.
A "developed" demonstrative personality, so to speak, forms his own worldview, deftly "pulling out" from the accepted views what is most suitable for the type of character. For example, the thesis about false modesty, about the admissibility of praise addressed to oneself is assimilated, inertia is rejected, the rationalism of others is allowed hints of one's chosenness.
It will be difficult for such a person if he falls into a team that does not take into account his personal and psychological originality. But there really is such a peculiarity! If those around him are cold, formal, do not notice him, the person begins to behave in a demonstrative manner: he attracts attention to himself, plays scenes, which is usually condemned by others. But, tell me, how else can a person who lives in images show the originality of his experiences? Is it not through images? Obviously, the game that has arisen in these cases should be perceived as such.
Having recognized the demonstrative character, one should "amend" his promises: after all, this is often associated with self-promotion and entering the role of a person who "can do anything." It is necessary to feel where the conventionality of the game is manifested, and where it is about the real state of affairs.
Such a person can be entrusted, for example, with advertising products, if other personality traits do not contradict this. It is good if a person with a demonstrative character will receive satisfaction not only from the main work, but also to participate in amateur performances: in this case, he will give way to his natural inclinations.
Of great importance for the positive restructuring of such a personality is the desire to develop opposite traits in oneself - the ability to restrain oneself, control, direct one's behavior in the right direction, etc. Abstract thinking allows one to look at oneself from the outside, critically assess one's behavior, compare facts, trace "Over-situational" line of behavior. If demonstrativeness is sufficiently balanced by the opposite traits, a lot is available to a person: both the ability to analyze facts, and the ability to visualize whole pictures, scenarios for the possible development of the current situation, the ability to notice details of people's behavior and accurately respond to them, etc. Under this condition the demonstrative character is mostly manifested by its positive features.
PSYCHASTENIC CHARACTER
An employee with a psychasthenic character, as a rule, is rational, inclined to analytical, "step-by-step" processing of information, comprehension of facts by crushing, highlighting individual features. At the same time, switching to other ways of reflecting the surrounding world - to the level of images, to an intuitive grasp of the situation as a whole - does not occur.
Constant rationalism impoverishes and weakens emotionality. Emotional experiences become dull, monotonous and obey the course of rational constructions. This leads to the fact that, in contrast to the previous type, a weakness of the repression process is observed here. Suppose a person has comprehended the situation, weighed all the pros and cons, came to the conclusion that it is necessary to act in this way, but the emotional movement organizes his inner world so poorly that doubts are not thrown away and the person, as it were, just in case, refrains from action.
The same desires can arise from time to time, not finding expression in the behavior, becoming habitual and eventually even annoying. Exciting topics become the subject of repeated reflection, but this does not lead to anything. Doubts can also be habitual, and fluctuations between "for" and "against" in solving any issue can become permanent. As a result, this type of person is characterized by a lack of a firm position. It is replaced by the desire to explore everything, delaying conclusions and decisions. If you need to rationalize the situation, talk to such a person, he will deeply analyze at least some of its sides, although other aspects may be ignored by him.
But a person with such a character should not be blamed on making decisions, especially those responsible. If he has to accept such, then it is necessary to provide assistance in this: to advise, to select experts on this issue, to suggest solutions, helping to overcome the psychological (and not related to objective circumstances) barrier in the transition from decisions to action. Obviously, administrative work is contraindicated for psychasthenics. Having found himself in a difficult, rapidly changing, multilateral situation, for example, a communication situation, such a person does not have time to comprehend it, may feel constrained, and is lost.
It is possible to improve the character of such a person by developing a figurative memory, emotionality. Imagination allows you to reproduce various situations and compare them, making the right conclusions even without analyzing all sides of each situation. As a result, the need for a lot of mental work disappears, and the conclusions may turn out to be correct. The fact is that the analytical approach is always associated with the risk of not taking into account certain features of the case, which are "felt" during direct perception. Emotionality allows you to combine considerations, to combine the principle of similarity of emotional experiences in different areas of experience, that is, it acts as an integrating force organizing the psyche. Emotional assessments, as it were, replace rational analysis, since they allow reflecting many aspects of the situation. It is known that "no knowledge of the truth is possible without human emotions." The development of emotionality smoothes out psychasthenic features.
STUNNING CHARACTER
The fact is that, according to the characteristics of emotional experiences, a stuck character is the opposite of a labile one. As A. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky writes, the law of oblivion operates in the sphere of feelings (this refers to the usual changeable feelings, not moral and ethical attitudes). Remembering the hurt, praise, enthusiasm, disappointment, etc., we can, of course, imagine our state, but we can no longer relive it, the acuteness of the sensation is gradually lost. Persons of a stuck character are arranged differently: when they recall what happened, feelings, in the words of M. Yu. Lermontov, "painfully hit the soul." Moreover, they can intensify, since, repeating from time to time, they stylize the idea of \u200b\u200bthe situation, transforming its details. Grievances are especially remembered for a long time, since negative feelings are experienced more strongly. People with such a character are vindictive, but this is not due to intent, but to persistence and inactivity of experiences.
Inactivity is also manifested at the level of thinking: new ideas are often hard to assimilate, sometimes it is necessary to spend days, months to instill in such a person a fresh idea. But if he already understands her, then he follows her with inevitable persistence. The same slowness, inertia can manifest itself at the level of movements. Such a person steps slowly, as if with self-admiration.
Inertia and getting stuck on feeling, thoughts, deeds lead to the fact that excessive detailing, increased accuracy are often manifested in work activities, although attention may not be paid at all to something nearby that did not fall into the scope of attention of the stuck personality. For example, the cleaning of the desktop is carried out extremely carefully, in detail and for a long time. On the shelves, carefully, with an understanding of the smallest details, papers and books are laid out.
As we can see from our example, working with people for a leader with a stuck character is not very good. But the arrangement of the shop, giving it an internally organized look, such a person can be entrusted (if by putting things in order, he again does not unnecessarily terrorize others). It should be borne in mind that due to inertia, he may somewhat abuse his power.
A person of this nature is negatively affected by monotonous trauma by some circumstances or constant conditions that cause negative emotions. The accumulation of negative feelings, which not only persist, but also add up, can lead to an explosion.
A person expresses his anger, poor self-control. Extreme situations can lead to pronounced aggressiveness. Positive emotions associated, for example, with success, lead to the fact that a person develops a "dizziness from success", he is "carried", he is uncritically pleased with himself.
The life of a person with a stuck character should be quite varied. Communication with people (and the more of it, the better) will allow him to overcome at least partially his own inner inertia. Of no small importance is the understanding of the surrounding features of this character: tolerance for the expression of long-forgotten grievances or accusations, a condescending attitude towards inertia. Do not contradict the most "difficult" aspirations of such a person, do not seek to re-educate her. Inertia by itself does not determine on what emotions, positive or negative, a person gets stuck. It is better to perceive "stuck" in positive than negative experiences!
CONFORMAL CHARACTER
Even good qualifications do not help a conforming worker to master independent work skills. Those endowed with such a character can only act if they find support from others. Without such support, they are lost, they do not know what to do, what is right in a particular situation, and what is wrong.
The peculiarity of people of a conformal nature is the absence of contradictions with their environment. Finding a place in it, they easily feel the "average" opinion of others, are easily impressed by the most common judgments and easily follow them. They cannot resist the pressure of persuasive influences, they immediately yield.
Persons of a conformal nature seem to cement the collective. Invisible, never coming to the fore, they are natural carriers of his norms, values, interests. One of the undoubted advantages of this type of character is gentleness in communication, a natural "statement", the ability to "dissolve" oneself in the values \u200b\u200band interests of another.
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Personalities are different - harmoniously developed and reactionary, progressive and one-sided, highly moral and mean, but at the same time, each personality is unique. Sometimes this property - uniqueness - is called individuality, as a manifestation of the individual.
However, the concepts of individual, personality and individuality are not identical in content: each of them reveals a specific aspect of the individual being of a person. Personality can be understood only in a system of stable interpersonal relationships mediated by content, values, and the meaning of the joint activity of each of the participants (1).
The interpersonal connections that form the personality in the team, externally appear in the form of communication or the subject - the subjective relationship, along with the subject - the object relationship characteristic of objective activity.
The personality of each person is endowed only with her inherent combination of features and characteristics that form her individuality - a combination of psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in character traits, temperament, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes, in abilities, and individual style of activity. The way of life as a socially - philosophical concept selects from the variety of qualities and properties inherent in a given personality, only socially stable, socially typical, characterizing the social content of her individuality, revealing a person, his style of behavior, needs, preferences, interests, tastes not on the part of his psychological features that distinguish him from other people, and on the part of those properties and traits of his personality, which are set by the very fact of his existence in a certain society. But if by individuality is meant not a peculiarity of the external appearance or manner of human behavior, but a unique form of existence and a unique manifestation of the common in the life of an individual, then the individual is also social. Therefore, the lifestyle of a person acts as a deeply individualized relationship of the objective position of a person in society with his inner world, that is, it represents a kind of unity of the socially typified (unified) and individual (unique) in behavior, communication, thinking and everyday life of people (3).
In other words, the worldview of a person acquires a socially practical and moral value, insofar as it has become a person's way of life.
From a moral point of view, a sign of a person's personal development is his ability to act according to inner conviction in the most difficult everyday situations, not to shift responsibility to others, not blindly rely on circumstances and not even just “reckon” with circumstances, but also to resist them, to intervene in the course events, showing their will, their character.
The values \u200b\u200band role of the collective in the formation and education of the individual are great. The rule of education, formulated by the remarkable Soviet teacher A.S. Makarenko: proceed from the recognition of the person being brought up. And this must be done in all seriousness, without denying the educated persons the recognition of the possibility of their accomplishment of those deeds that the educator speaks of as high images of achieving exceptional results in the field of production, science and technology, literature and art (15).
You will not become a person by copying anyone else. You can only get miserable one-sidedness. The construction of one's own personality cannot be carried out according to some standard project. As a maximum, only general settings can be obtained here. We must always count on the ultimate realization of human capabilities, never saying in advance: “This will not work for me,” - to fully test your inclinations.
Therefore, human development is the process of personality formation under the influence of external and internal, controlled and uncontrolled social and natural factors. Development manifests itself as a progressive complication, deepening, expansion, as a transition from simple to complex, from ignorance to knowledge, from lower forms of life and activity to higher ones.
Nature has given a lot to man, but has given birth to the weak. To make him strong, completely independent, you need to work hard. First of all, to ensure physical development. In turn, physical and physiological development underlies psychological development as spiritual development. The processes of human reflection of reality are constantly becoming more complicated and deepening: sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activity, abilities, interests, value orientations. Human social development is a continuation of mental development. It consists in the gradual entry into his society - in social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal, professional and other relations, in the assimilation of their functions in these relations. Having mastered these relations and their functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of a person. It means comprehension by him of his high mission in life, the emergence of responsibility before present and future generations, understanding of the complex nature of the universe and the desire for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of a person's responsibility for his physical, physiological, mental and social development. Spiritual development is increasingly recognized as the core, the core of the formation of the personality in a person (12).
Humanity ensures the development of each of its representatives through education, passing on its own experience and previous generations.
If a person draws all his knowledge, sensations, etc. from the sensory world and experience received from this world, but it is necessary, therefore, to arrange the surrounding world in such a way that a person in it cognizes and assimilates truly human things, so that he knows himself as a person. If the character of a person is created by circumstances, then it is necessary, therefore, to make the circumstances human.
The teacher K.D. Ushinsky was deeply convinced that the upbringing of a free, independent and active human personality is a necessary condition for social development.
When asked what a person is, psychologists answer differently. The concept of "personality" usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a person, defining his actions that are significant for people. Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in connections and relationships that are social by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person, which are essential for him and others. Along with the concept of "personality" in science, the term "individual", "individuality" is often used. The concept of "individual" includes both qualities that distinguish a given person from other people, and properties common to him and many other people. Individuality is the narrowest concept in terms of content. It contains only those individual and personal properties of a person, such a combination of them that distinguishes this person from other people.
Characteristics of a personality can be given if one reveals its individual psychological characteristics, such as temperament, abilities, character. When we try to understand and explain why different people, placed in the same or approximately the same conditions, achieve different successes by the circumstances of life, we turn to the concept of ability, believing that the difference in success can be quite satisfactorily explained by them. The same concept is used by us when we need to realize why some people learn knowledge, skills and abilities faster and better than others. Meanwhile, the data of psychological research and pedagogical experience indicate that sometimes a person who initially did not know how to do something and thus did not differ favorably from others, as a result of training, extremely quickly masters skills and abilities and soon overtakes everyone on the path to mastery. He has greater abilities than others. Abilities are something that is not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (ensures) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our Russian scientist B.M. Teplov. The concept of "ability", in his opinion, contains three ideas. “First, by abilities we mean individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Secondly, not all individual characteristics in general are called abilities, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities. Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to those knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person. " Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, a person's abilities act as a certain possibility. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only an opportunity in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only if the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. will be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Ability is an opportunity, and the required level of skill in a particular business is reality. Musical abilities revealed in a child are in no way a guarantee that the child will be a musician. For this to happen, special training is required. Abilities are found only in activities that cannot be carried out without the presence of these abilities. You cannot talk about a person's ability to draw if you do not see his work. An ability that does not develop, which in practice a person ceases to use, is lost over time. The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of various abilities. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person who is capable of many different types of activities.
It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are shared by humans and animals, especially the higher ones. These elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of hand movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's inclination to abstract theoretical thinking, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Abilities can be called the ability to convince others, to achieve mutual understanding, to influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it has long been considered a special kind of ability in social psychology. Until now, in psychology, the main attention was paid precisely to the subject-activity abilities, although the abilities of an interpersonal character are of no less importance for the psychological development of a person. Without mastering speech as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and human mental development would be simply impossible. A person's lack of such abilities would be an insurmountable obstacle precisely on the path of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.
The individual psychological characteristics of a person include the properties of temperament (they are innate), which have a significant impact on the formation of a person's character and behavior, sometimes determine his actions, his individuality. Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes and behavior. Dynamics is understood as the tempo, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes. The idea and doctrine of temperament in their origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. In modern psychology, the classification of temperaments is used, which belongs to the German philosopher I. Kant. I. Kant divided human temperaments into two types: temperaments of feelings and temperaments of activity. In general, "only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic."
The sanguine temperament of activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He seems to be an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker. It quickly ignites, but it cools down just as quickly, it loses interest in what, quite recently, worried and attracted to itself. A sanguine person promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure enters into contacts with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. Strenuous mental or physical work quickly tires him.
The melancholic temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a difficult and tense inner life, attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially in control when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill the given promise, even if its fulfillment does not directly depend on himself.
Choleric temperament of activity characterizes a hot-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down, if they give in to him, go to a meeting. His movements are impetuous, but short-lived.
The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses a tendency towards inactivity rather than strenuous, active work. Such a person slowly gets into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of getting into work.
The properties of temperament exist and are manifested not by themselves, but in a person's actions in various socially significant situations. Temperament definitely affects the formation of his character, but the character itself expresses a person not so much as a physical, but as a spiritual being.
It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system. Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither entirely innate nor dependent on the environment. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate: activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability. The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by how much a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect. One person remembers, recalls, examines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another. The productivity of all these cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained during a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where in the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, imagine, solve more. You shouldn't confuse productivity with efficiency. Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the rapidity of the emergence, termination or switching of a cognitive process from one object to another, the transition from one action to another. For example, some people need more time than others to get involved in mental work or to switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember information or recall it faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.
In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various movements, than in someone who has this property of temperament weakly expressed.
Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as a common basis for many other personality traits, especially character. He, however, determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personality traits. Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsivity and anxiety depend on temperament. The combination of these properties creates an individual type of temperament. Those manifestations of temperament, which ultimately become a property of the individual, depends on training and education, on culture, customs, traditions, and much more. Temperament to some extent affects the development of a person's abilities, which include movements with such essential characteristics as pace, reaction speed, excitability and inhibition. First of all, these abilities, which include complex and accurate movements with a difficult trajectory and an uneven pace. They also include abilities associated with increased performance, resistance to interference, endurance, the need for prolonged concentration of attention.
Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of the psychological qualities of a person. However, with any temperament, it is possible to form qualities in a person that are unusual for this temperament. Psychological research and pedagogical practice show that temperament changes somewhat under the influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. It is known, for example, that A.P. Chekhov was a very balanced, modest and delicate person. But here's an interesting fact from his life. In one of the letters to Olga Knipper-Chekhova's wife, Anton Pavlovich makes such a valuable confession: "You write that you envy my character. I must tell you that by nature I am harsh, I am hot-tempered, etc., etc. But I I'm used to restraining myself, because it is not proper for a decent person to dissolve myself. In the old days I was doing the devil knows what. " It is interesting to note that some people, having learned the peculiarities of their temperament, deliberately develop certain methods themselves to master it. This was done, for example, by A. M. Gorky, who restrained the violent manifestations of his temperament. To do this, he deliberately switched to various side effects with objects. With people who expressed views opposite to him, A.M. Gorky tried to be impassive and calm.
Literally translated from Greek, character means an imprint .. Character is a set of stable personality traits that determine a person's attitude to people, to work performed. Character manifests itself in activity and communication (like temperament) and includes what gives a person's behavior a specific, characteristic shade (hence the name "character"). Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Temperament affects the form of manifestation of character, in a peculiar way coloring certain of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in ebullient activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. The choleric person works energetically, passionately, the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. A high level of abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inseparable connection with the team, a desire to work for its good, faith in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, the ability to be critical of one's work. The flourishing of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not lose heart under the influence of failures, work in an organized manner, and show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as hard work, initiative, decisiveness, organization, perseverance, occurs in the same activity of the child, in which his abilities are also formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, industriousness as a character trait.
The individual psychological characteristics of a person mean, first of all, his character, inclinations and abilities.
From the Greek language, the word character can be translated as "seal", "chasing". It is a set of individual psychological characteristics of a person that develop in activity and determine his typical ways of behavior. Character reflects the content side of the human psyche, in contrast to temperament, which is its dynamic side. The character embodies specific for a given personality attitudes towards activity, other people, towards oneself. They characterize the subjective, selective relationship of a person with the world. The most stable of them are recorded in the form of a person's readiness to act in a certain way, that is, in a semantic attitude. Therefore, character can be defined as a fixed form of a person's semantic experience, which is actualized in its inherent individual style of behavior, with the help of which certain motives are realized (A.G. Asmolov, 1996).
Motives play a special role in character development. In the beginning, any character trait manifests itself in a person's motivations to act in a certain way. Manifesting in various similar situations, these motives are generalized, become stable and fixed as character traits. For example, each person had to tell a lie, but this does not mean that deceit is peculiar to him. If he often resorts to lies in different situations, trying to solve his problems, then she (deceit) will become a property of his character. Thus, the character reflects the system of generalized motives of a person.
Much attention was paid to the study of character in psychoanalysis. 3. Freud understood by character the dynamic originality of individual drives and linked its development with libido, that is, with the unconscious deep psychic energy caused by the sexual instinct
There is a clinical approach to character research. It was reflected in the works of P.V. Gannushkin, K. Leonhard, A.E. Lichko, who paid special attention to various violations in the structure of character. In particular, in the mainstream of the clinical approach to the problem of character, its violations within the normal range are actively studied - character accentuation. Gross, irreversible changes in character are associated with his pathology. Character accentuations are manifested in the excessive development of its individual properties. They are more often found in adolescence (about 88% of adolescents have differences in character accentuation). Pathological manifestations of character, called psychopathies, should be distinguished from accentuations. The reasons for the pathology of character are diverse. These include congenital defects of the human psyche, trauma, diseases, difficult social conditions, etc.
Abilities are understood as the totality of individual psychological characteristics of a person, which is a condition for the successful performance of an activity. A person's abilities are not limited to his knowledge, skills, skills, although there is a certain connection between abilities, on the one hand, and knowledge, skills, skills, on the other. The higher the level of development of abilities, the easier and faster a person masters knowledge, abilities and skills. And vice versa, the more a person knows and can do, the more intensively his abilities develop.
The manifestation of abilities can be represented as the ratio of the productivity of an activity to its "price", ie, the higher the effectiveness of the activity and the less effort expended on its implementation, the higher the level of development of abilities. This is an objective assessment of a person's abilities. Subjectively, abilities are assessed as the ratio of the success of an activity to the degree of difficulty of its implementation: the higher the success of an activity and the easier it is for a person, the higher he assesses his abilities.
There are significant differences in the interpretation of the concept of "ability" in foreign and domestic psychology. In foreign psychology, abilities are often viewed as universal characteristics of a person: the ability to create, the ability to love. Sometimes abilities are understood as the innate characteristics of the subject. In Russian psychology, these features and abilities are clearly distinguished. The former are regarded as inclinations. The inclinations are understood as anatomophysiological and functional features of the nervous system (sensitivity, plasticity, etc.) and structural features of the analyzers.
The inclinations of a person, like other individual properties, are multivalued, that is, on the basis of the same inclinations, various abilities can be formed. Thus, the inclinations do not determine the development of abilities, but fulfill the function of their prerequisites. The inclinations of a person may remain unfulfilled if the conditions for their development are not created. Therefore, timely identification of the inclinations is important for the formation of abilities. In families where parents are engaged in a certain type of activity, for example, acting, their children are more likely to display the corresponding inclinations. The involvement of the person himself in this type of activity is of decisive importance for the development of abilities. Their development occurs in a spiral: the implementation of the abilities of one level opens up opportunities for the implementation of the abilities of another, higher level.
Abilities can be general and special, actual and potential. General abilities meet the requirements of many types of activities, special ones - the requirements of specific activities (for example, musical, pedagogical, etc.). General abilities include intelligence, because it is necessary to perform any kind of activity. Abilities exist in some unity of general and special.
Relevant can be called those abilities that, having formed, are realized in activities in real time. Potential abilities are in a latent (hidden) form until the occurrence of certain conditions necessary for their implementation. There is also a connection between actual and potential abilities.
Topical ones become potential if there is no need for their implementation. For example, musical ability becomes potential if a person is focused on other activities at a given time.
We can talk about the levels of development of abilities, correlated with a person's giftedness, his talent and genius. The level of giftedness assumes a person's learning ability, the presence of intellectual potential. It is no coincidence that giftedness is viewed as a general ability. Talent is a bright, extraordinary manifestation of a person's abilities in a particular area. Talent presupposes the development, first of all, of a person's special abilities. Genius is the highest level of development of abilities, expressed in the creation of a fundamentally new one, which has historical, epoch-making significance for the life of society. In the genius of a person, both his general and special abilities are manifested. If talent makes a significant contribution to a certain area, then a genius with his creativity changes the idea of \u200b\u200bmankind about certain phenomena that are significant for him. Thanks to A. Einstein, the idea of \u200b\u200btime changed, and 3. Freud managed to change the view of society on the nature of the human psyche.
Abilities are associated with other personality traits: character, values, motives, goals of self-awareness. For example, such character traits as purposefulness and perseverance ensure the success of a person's activity, which, in turn, is a condition for the development of abilities.
Literature
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Glossary
The unconscious - a wide range of mental phenomena from unconditioned reflexes to creative abilities
Action is a unit of activity; arbitrary intentional mediated activity aimed at achieving a perceived goal.
Activity - purposeful activity that meets the needs of the subject.
The makings are anatomical, physiological and functional features of the nervous system, which are natural prerequisites for the development of abilities.
Meaning is a generalized form of consolidation by the subject of social and historical experience acquired in the process of joint activity and communication and existing in the form of concepts, defined in action schemes, social roles, norms and values.
An individual is a person as a single natural being, a product of phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, the unity of innate and acquired, a bearer of individually peculiar traits (inclinations).
Individuality is the psychological uniqueness of an individual, individual person taken as a whole, in all its properties and relationships.
Personality is a systemic quality of an individual determined by his involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activities and communication.
A motive is a set of external or internal conditions that cause the subject's activity and determine its direction
Ontogenesis is the formation of mental structures during the life of an individual organism, man or animal.
Behavior is the interaction with the environment inherent in living beings, mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity.
Need is a subjective state of an organism, expressing its objective need for objects of the surrounding world
The principle of determinism is a principle that requires explaining the phenomena under study by the natural interaction of factors available to experimental control
The development principle is a principle that assumes that psychological laws are revealed in the development process.
The principle of consistency is a principle that requires considering all objects as systems, i.e., as a set of elements that form a certain unity.
The principles of psychology are the norms that guide the psychologist in his activities when interpreting facts
The psyche is a form of active reflection by the subject of the object of reality, which arises in the process of interaction of highly organized beings with the external world and carries out a regulating function in their behavior.
Mental processes - Separate manifestations of a person's mental activity, conditionally distinguished as independent objects of study (sensations, perceptions, thinking, etc.).
Mental properties are the individual characteristics of the mental activity of a particular person, the features of his mental state, his interpersonal and personal-social relations, which allow us to describe and predict his behavior, direction and dynamics of mental development.
Mental states are a special form of mental realization, which is associated with a specific emotional well-being caused by the experience of events significant for a person
Psychology is the science of the laws of the generation and functioning of mental reflection of reality in the process of human activity and animal behavior.
Sense - the personal meaning of certain phenomena, messages or actions, their relationship to the interests, needs and life context of a particular subject in general.
Consciousness is a form of reflection of reality in its objective, stable properties and in separation from the existing relationship of a person to it
Temperament is a set of formal and dynamic characteristics of a person's behavior, manifested in his general activity, temporal characteristics (pace, rhythm, behavior) and features of emotional response.
Phylogenesis is the formation of structures of the psyche in the course of the biological evolution of a species or the socio-cultural history of mankind.
The goal is a conscious image of the anticipated result, towards the achievement of which a person's action is directed.
Language is an objective, historically developed system of codes.