The history of the ancient China is located in the distant past: a few thousand years ago a great China has already been formed. There were also takeoffs and falls.
Periodization of ancient China is due to the change of dynasties, which create this very story as a result. Let's look at it.
Periodization of ancient China
All these dynasties are also divided into several groups.
Stages of periodization of the history of the state in Ancient China:
1. The first people in the neolithic era.
2. The period with three first dynasties, when China was fragmented, there was no empire as such.
3. Traditional China and Empire.
On this, all the old China ends, the dynasty as such is ceased to edit and the last stage begins, covering only the XX and XXI century.
However, an ancient China refers the period before the Middle Ages, he ends on the Han dynasty. The entire period of the existence of ancient China can be expressed as the building of the foundation for the Great State, for this, what it is now.
Consider below briefly the history of civilization and the periodization of the ancient China, public and government construction, as well as the philosophy of the time and the Grand Inventions.
Start history
It is known that the first ancestors of the Chinese lived 400 thousand years ago in the Neolithic era. The remains of Sinantroprop were found in the cave not far from Beijing. The first people already owned staining and some other skills.
In general, the territory of China is convenient for life, so the story goes into such a distant past. The soil fertrust, and the steppe herself is surrounded by the sea, the mountains that could protect people from the attacks of enemies. Such a convenient location and attracted the first inhabitants who were the ancestors of the current Chinese.
It is also known scientists that there were two cultures after Synantrophs: Yangshao and Longshan. They probably were more, but they mixed together. Only two are archaeologically confirmed.
The culture of Yangshao existed 2-3 thousand years before our era. People of that period lived on an extensive territory from Gansu Province and up to the south of Manchuria. It is known that they could make beautiful colored ceramic products.
Longshan was located mainly in the province of Shandun. In the central part of China, both cultures were superimposed on each other. People also owned the skill of processing ceramics, but their main pride was the ability to make various objects from the bone. On some of them who were found by scientists, dismissal inscriptions were found. It was the first prerequisite for writing.
Further, it is possible to distinguish several stages of the periodization of the history and culture of ancient China. The first three dynasties relate to the stage before formation then a plurality of dynasties during the existence of the empire, and the last stage should be system without dynasties and modern China.
Dynasty Xia
The first famous dynasty in the chronology and periodization of ancient China is the founder of it was Yu, and it existed from 2205 to 1557 to our era. According to some theories, the state was located on the East of North China or only in the north and in the center of Henan province.
The first rulers coped with their state management tasks not bad. The main property of the Epoch is the calendar of the time that subsequently admired the Confucius himself.
However, the decline happened, and he was caused by the pressure of the clergy, and the Russian rulers soon began to neglect their responsibilities of the clergy. Calendar dates began to be confused, the periodization of the ancient China, the social and political structure of the chromium, was shot down. This weakening and took advantage of the emperor Lee State Shang, who began the subsequent dynasty.
Shan-Yin Dynasty
The reign period begins in the XVIII or XVI century BC. e. According to various theories, and ends in the XII or XI century BC. e.
In total, this dynasty has about 30 rulers. Lee Tang (founder of the dynasty) and his tribe believed in Totemism. They adopted the custom of guessing the bones from the culture of Lunashan, they also used for predicting shells.
During the Board, Shan-Yin reigned a centralized management policy led by the emperors of the dynasty.
The end of the period came when Zhou's tribes overthrew the ruler.
Zhou Dynasty
Zhou is the last powerful dynasty of the first stage in the periodization of the history of the state of the ancient China before the formation of the Chinese Empire, which existed from IX in the III century to our era.
There are two stages: Western and Eastern Zhou. Western Zhou had the capital of Zunzhou in the West, and possessions covered almost the entire pool of the Juanhe River. The essence of the policy of that time was that the chief emperor of the rules in the capital, and his approximate (usually relatives) ruled the sets of the lots on which the state split. This resulted in universities and the struggle for power. But as a result, stronger possessions enslaved weaker.
China at the same time was defended from the constant attacks of the barbarians. That is why the ruler moved from the western capital to the eastern capital of Chengrzhou in the state of Loi in 770 BC, and began the period of the history of the ancient China called Western Zhou. The relocation of the ruler meant conventionally refusing to power and from government management.
All China was split into several kingdoms: Yan, Zhao, Sun, Zheng, Lou, Qi, Chu, Wei, Han, Qin, and on the many small principalities that great kingdoms have conquered over time. In fact, some kingdoms were much more powerful on politics than the kingdom, where the chief ruler Zhou was. Qi and Qin were considered the strongest, and it was their rulers that contributed a greater contribution to politics and to fight barbarians.
Separately, it is worth allocating the kingdom of Lou from these kings. Education and writing reigned in it, although in political plan Lu was not much. It was here that the confusion was born and lived - the founder of Confucianism. The end of the Zhou period usually consider the year of the death of a philosopher in 479 to our era. Confucius wrote the history of Western Zhou in Chunzu's chronicles. Many events of that time are known only thanks to these records. It is also known that during this period, Taoism began to penetrate into China.
The end of the dynasty was the fact that all the kingdoms fought among themselves for power. Wid the most powerful - Qin with the ruler Qin Shihuandi, who, after the conquest, was able to unite all of China and began a new dynasty. And the ruler of Zhou himself lost the status of heavenly mandate.
Qin
Since the ruler Qin united all China, the new stage of the history and periodization of the ancient China began. The era of fragmentation was replaced by the epoch of the Imperial Board with the combined parts of the whole state.
The era existed not long. Only from 221 to 207 BC, but it is Qin Shihuandi (the first emperor) contributes a special contribution to the culture of ancient China. During this period, a great Chinese wall was built - the specialistic state of the state, whose greatness amazes until now. The ruler Qin Shihuandei spent many reforms. For example, monetary and judicial reform, and also writing reform. With it, the construction of a single road network began.
Despite all the advantages, historians distinguish significant disadvantages, which also caused the period that the period of Qin existed for a long time. Qin Shihuandi was a supporter of Legianess. Leather is a philosophical school of that period, the essence of which was in very hard measures for people and punishments for any provinces and not only. This affected such a sharp jump in the form of victories over different tribes and at such a quick construction of the Chinese wall in order to protect against barbarians and enemy captives. But it was the cruelty that the dislike of people and a sharp change of dynasties immediately after the death of Qin Shihuandi.
Han and Xin
The Han Empire existed from 206 to our era to 220 years old. It is divided into two periods: Western Han (from 206 to N. e. On 9 years old) and late (Eastern) Han (25-220 years. N. E.)
Western Han had to eliminate the consequences of destroyed after the Qin period. In the empire, hunger and mortality were reign.
The ruler Liu Bang freed many state slaves, which became involuntary in Qin for the provinces. He also canceled hard taxes and strong punishments.
However, in 140-87 BC. e. The Empire returned to the despotism, as with the ruler Qin. The ruler of the U-di dynasty again introduced high taxes, which were charged even from children and the elderly (this resulted in frequent murders in families). China's territory by this time expanded greatly.
Between Western and East Han there was a dynasty of Xin dynasty led by the ruler Van Man, who managed to overthrow eastern Han. He tried to strengthen his power by conducting many positive reforms. For example, a certain territory of the Earth was established for each family. If it was higher, then the part was given to poor or people without land.
But at the same time, chaos with officials occurred, due to which the treasury empty, and had to increase taxes. This served as a reason for people's discontent. People's uprisings began, it also served as the advantage of Van Man's representatives was killed during an uprising entitled "Red eyebrows".
Liua was put forward to the candidates for the throne. He wanted to reduce hostility to power in people by reducing taxes and the liberation of slaves. The period of Western Han began. This time also made a significant contribution to the story. It was then that the Great Silk Road was established.
At the end of the second century, excitement broke out again among the people. The uprising began "yellow dressings", which lasts almost 20 years. Dynasty overthrew, a period of three trochequras began.
Although the Khan period was a period of lifting, at the end of the era after the twenty-year-old war began a constant struggle between the commander of the dynasty and other leaders. This led to another excitement in the empire and mortality.
Jin.
The Jin era and subsequent periods can already be attributed to the Middle Ages, but consider the very first dynasties to understand what the policy of the ancient China has led and how the rulers had to eliminate the consequences.
The population after the Chang wars decreased several times. There were also cataclysms. The rivers began to change their channels, thereby causing flooding and decay of the economy. Alloyed the situation constant raids of nomads.
Cao Cao, who completed the uprising of "yellow bandages", united the fragmented North of China in 216. And in 220, his son Cao Payi founded the Wei Dynasty. At the same time, the states of Shu and W. So began the period of three trochequras. Permanent wars began between them, which aggravated the military-political situation within China.
In 249, Szhao's Suma stood in chapter Wei. And his son Yang Son, when his father died, took the throne and founded the Jin dynasty. At first, Wei won the shu, and then W. The trochequraity period came the end, the Tzin era began (265-316). Soon the nomads won the north, the capital had to be transferred from Loyana to the south of China.
Smoy Yan began to distribute the lands to his relatives. In 280, a decree was released on the exact system, the essence of which was that the land plot is assumed to each person, but in return, people must pay the treasury. It was necessary to improve relations with simple people, replenish the treasury and lifting the economy.
However, this entailed not to improve the centralization, as was supposed, but on the contrary. After the death of Yana's Sum, in 290, the struggle between the owners of major goals - relatives of the deceased ruler began. She lasted 15 years, from 291 to 306 years. At the same time, in the north of the state, the position of nomads was strengthened. Gradually, they were located along the rivers, began to grow rice and enslave the whole settlements of people.
In the period Jin, as it is known, Buddhism's religion began to strengthen. Many monks and Buddhist temples appeared.
Sui
Only in 581, after a long period of Troubles, Zhou Yang Jiang managed to unite the north-crushed nomads. The rule of the dynasty of sui begins. He then captures the Chen state in the south and thus unites all China. His son Yang Di took up wars with some states of Korea and Vietnam, created a great channel for the transport of rice and improved the Chinese wall. But people were in pain, because of what a new uprising began, and Yana Di was killed in 618.
Tian
Li Yuan founded the dynasty that existed from 618 to 907 years. The empire during this period reached his heyday. The rulers of Lee improved economic ties with other states. Cities and the number in them began to increase. Started actively develop agricultural crops (tea, cotton). Especially in this regard, the son of Lee Yuan was separated - Li Shimin, whose policies came out to a new level. However, in the VIII century, he reached his peak conflict between military and power in the center of the Empire. In 874, the War of Juan Chao began, which lasted until 901, due to which the dynasty broke off. In the 907-960, the Chinese Empire was again fragmented.
State and public construction of ancient China
Periodization of all periods of ancient China can be considered as similar to the stages of history in their device. At the heart of the public device - collective farming. The main activity of people is cattle breeding and crafts (which have been developed to high levels).
At the top of the authorities there were aristocracy, there were slaves and peasants below.
Brightly pronounced was a generic heritage. During the Shan-Yin, each of the ruler's relatives was given a special title depending on how closely relatives are. Each title gave its privileges.
In the periods of Yin and Western Zhou, the Earth was issued only for the use and economy, but not like private property. And from the period of Eastern Zhou, the land was already distributed for private ownership.
Slaves first were state, and then became private. In their category, prisoners, very poor communities, tramps and others, usually fell into their category.
In the stages of the periodization of the ancient China, the public and the state unit can be distinguished by the fact that in the era of Yin, first of all, the throne of the brother of the deceased ruler was invested, and in Zhou Titul, he passed to his son from his father.
Under the ruler reigned a palace management system.
Separately, it is worth highlighting, speaking of periodization of the history of the state and ancient China: the right already existed, but at the initial stage heavily intertwined with religious principles and ordinary ethics. Patriarchate reigned, he won the elders and fathers.
In the V-III centuries BC e. The right was an integral part with cruel punishments, while the legality was already already. And with the Han dynasty, people again returned to the Confucianism and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe harmonious inequality of people depending on the rank.
The first written sources of the right are dating about 536 by the year to our era.
Philosophy
The philosophy of the ancient China is very different from the philosophy of any other European countries. If there is God and life after death in Christianity and Muslim, then the Asian schools were the principle "here and now." In China, too, appealed to kindness during life, but simply for harmony and well-being, and not under the fear of the punishment after death.
The basis of lying trinity: the sky, the earth and the person himself. People also believed that there is a qi energy, and in everything there should be harmony. Women's and male began: Yin and Yan, who have completed each other for harmony.
In total, there are several main philosophical schools of the time: Confucianism, Buddhism, Misa, Lead, Taoism.
Thus, if we generalize the said, then we can conclude: Already before our era, the ancient China formulated a certain philosophy and adhered to some religions, which are still in China are an integral part of the spiritual life of the population. At that time, all major schools changed and only sometimes superimposed on each other depending on the stage of periodization.
Culture of the ancient China: the wealth, crafts and inventions
Some of the greatest treasures of China and to this day are the Great Wall of China. The most amazing thing here was to build them under the control of the first emperor of ancient China Qin Shihandei from the Qin dynasty. It was then that the legalism and cruelty of people reigned, which under the fear and pressure built these truly great structures.
But to the Grain Inventions, powder, paper, typography and compass can be attributed.
It is believed that the paper was invented by Cai Lun in 105 BC. e. For its manufacture, a special technology was required, which still resembles the current paper manufacturing process. Until this period, people scraped letters on shells, bones, clay signs and bamboo coats. The invention of the paper led to the invention of typography in a later period of our era.
The first semblance of a compass arose in ancient China at the Han dynasty.
But the crafts in ancient China existed the random set. Several thousand years before e. Silk began to extract (whose production technology for a long time remained secret), tea appeared, made clay products and bone products. A little later, a great silk path appeared, drawing pictures on the row, sculptures from marble, painted on the walls. And also in ancient China, all the well-known pagodas and acupuncture appeared.
Conclusion
The social and political structure of the ancient China (periodization from the era of Neolith right up to the Han dynasty) had its shortcomings and dignity. Subsequent dynamos adjusted policy makes. And the entire history of the ancient China can be described as periods of flushes and decays moving along the spirals. Moving up, so "blooms" each time became improved and better. Periodization of the history of ancient China is a bulk and interesting topic that we have considered in the article.
china Cast Law
In the history of the ancient China, four periods can be distinguished, each of which is associated with the reign of a certain dynasty:
- - Shang (Yin) state - from the XVIII century. BC e. until the XII century BC e.;
- - Zhou State - from the XII century. BC e. until 221 BC e.;
- - The state of Qin - from 221 BC. e. until 207 BC e.;
- - State Han - from 206 BC. e. Until 220 g. e.
In the Chvііі century BC. Due to the conquest of the Inician tribes of another tribe, the state of the ancient China is formed. The main occupation of the residents of the ancient China was agriculture. In addition, the development of agriculture among the Chinese antiquity was quite high for that time level. They used agricultural devices such as hoe, plow, etc. Along with agriculture in ancient China, craft developed, trade and even existed a money circulation.
The head of state in ancient China was the emperor, relying on the branched apparatus of officials. The territory of the ancient China was divided into areas and counties. Each county and region managed two officials - military and civilian governors. Already during the Board of the Han dynasty, the sale of posts and examination of officials before joining the position.
State Shang (Yin) is a public and state system.
A characteristic feature of the state of education in China is that the process of the transition from the primitive community building to class society was activated by the conquest of one people to others. Since the organs of the primitive-free system were not adapted to manage the conquered people, a special state apparatus was created.
In the reign of the Shan dynasty, at a later time called Yin, society and the state were slave-owned. Slaves were in possession of both private individuals and the state. The Yinsky dominant class was made up to the priestly, the secular aristocracy and the aristocracy of the subordinates are tremeny. The social position of the secular aristocracy was determined by land possessions, the presence of slaves, proximity to the king held. In accordance with this, titles were assigned, which gave certain privileges.
Most of the population was free communities. The land was considered by state property and was at the disposal of the kings. All lands were divided into two categories:
- - public field, which was processed together with the whole community;
- - The entire harvest came the elderly community and eventually sent
Private fields that were individually used by the family, however, the property of their holders.
In private property there were slaves, houses, tools of labor. Slaves could not have any family nor property. The main sources of slavery were:
- - capture of prisoners in war;
- - sale in slavery for debts;
- - appeal to slavery for some crimes;
- - Getting slaves from subordinate tribes as a date.
In the state of Shan, (Yin), the state system at an early stage retained the features of a tribal military democracy.
In the future, there is a transition of all the completeness of power to the king - Van. Elders from breeding leaders become sole rulers. Among the subjects is strengthened by the idea of \u200b\u200bthem as "sons of the sky", which received power by the will of Divine Forces. The largest slave owner, the Supreme Military Chief, the Higher Judge and the High Priest was the king. He headed the state apparatus. Higher positions were engaged in the appointment of the king his close relatives. Smaller posts - Professional officials: scribes, tax collectors, judges, etc. In ancient China, there was a division of officials into three main categories:
- - Higher civilian officials;
- - Military officials;
- - Advisors, priests.
In the XII century BC e. In the state, the Shang (Yin) exacerbates internal contradictions. At the same time, it strengthens its strength and expands the possessions of the Zhou tribe, which was under the authority of the Inisk Vanov. Under the leadership of this tribe, a number of tribes are united for the fight against the yin state.
In 1076 BC e. Zhou tribes caused the defeat of the Yin Army. The state of the Shang Polo, and the Kingdom of Zhou came to replace him.
The period of Western Zhou, Eastern Zhou and Zhango.
The time of government in ancient China dynasty Zhou (from the XII century. BC. Until 221 BC) is divided into three main periods:
- - The period of Western Zhou - 1122 - 742. BC e.;
- - The period of Eastern Zhou - 770 - 403. BC e.;
- - The period of Zhango ("seven warring kingdoms") - 403 - 221. BC e.
In the period of Western Zhou (1122 - 742 BC er), the slave-owned state is strengthened, its structure is complicated. The Company is characterized by a higher level of development of productive forces, an increase in the number of slaves, the development of large land tenure.
The supreme power belonged to the hereditary king (Vanu), but there was no centralized state during the entire period of Zhou. Van directly controlled only the metropolitan area, and the rest of the country was divided into principalities, which operated the dominated princes (Zhuhou). The territories of the principalities were subdivided into smaller administrative units that have developed on the basis of the former tribal division. The lowest administrative-territorial unit was a rural community. The state apparatus, which was led by the Supreme Sannis (Xiang), consisted of an approximate personal servants of Wan and trusted slaves. Xiang was the head of the administrative apparatus and the closest assistant Wan on the management of the country. In the kingdom of Zhou there was a palace management system: Palace employees were simultaneously and officials. It included a large number of officials who have a variety of competence. Higher officials (Dafa) were divided into three classes - senior, medium, younger.
On the top of the social staircase there was a slave-owned aristocracy, which consisted of a Zhowa hereditary and military nobility, as well as partly those who survived after the conquest of the Yin Aristocracy.
In this period, large land tenure develops intensively, a tendency towards becoming ownership of private land ownership appears. Formally the owner of the land was considered the king, but the slave-owned aristocracy could freely dispose of its possessions. Over time, the right of major slave owners to the ownership of land turns into ownership of land. Community land use during the period of Western Zhou continued to play a prominent role. The situation of farmers (NUNFU) was generally heavy. Many ruined and switched to the discharge of landless tenants. The number of slaves was replenished during this period by:
- - prisoners of war;
- - conquered civilian population;
- - State criminals.
The army in the kingdom of Zhou was constant only partly, being composed of small personnel detachments and militia, which joined them during the war.
In the middle of the VIII century. BC e. The collapse of Western Zhou took place due to the weakening of the ties of the central authorities and the rulers of the dependent princes, as well as unsuccessful wars with nomads. When the country broke up into a number of independent states, then the Zho kings turned into the rulers of small possession - Eastern Zhou.
The economic and political life of the country during the period of Eastern Zhou (770 - 403 BC. Er) is characterized by the following changes:
- - Development of crafts and trade, which led to an increase in the role of merchants in public life;
- - decline in hereditary land tenure of the generic aristocracy. Her lands are gradually moving towards serving nobility.
Significant land ownership focuses in the hands of military leaders, seruners, merchants. Private property of slave owners to Earth is strengthened.
In the period of "warring kingdoms" - Zhanggo (403 - 221 BC. E.) continues the development of large land tenure. It is accompanied by the destruction of the old type of land tenure - community. With the introduction of land tax, when instead of treating community fields of farmers, it was obliged to pay tax from their land, one of the first blows was applied on community land tenure.
The state of Qin and reform Shang Yana.
The third period of the history of the ancient China is the kingdom of Qin, from 221 BC. e. until 207 BC
From the middle of the VIII century. BC er, after the destruction of the monarchy of the Western Zhou, the country broke up into many independent states. They led the conquest war among themselves, during which weaker states were talked stronger. The kingdom of Qin appeared in about the X century. BC e. Initially, it was dependent on the Zhou dynasty, and then, during Zhango, it was among the seven powerful "warring kingdoms". In the III century. BC E. It subjugates the remaining Chinese states.
In 359 - 348 BC. State Avestigator, Chief Advisor to Emperor Shang Yang held a series of reforms that contributed to the strengthening of the central government.
Shang Yang was one of the founders of the philosophical school of the legists, which had an excellent state law. Under it, strict compliance with laws was considered the primary condition of order in the country. During this period, the emperor was approved by mandatory laws, uniform written signs were introduced, weighing and length are ordered. As a result, the transformations of Shang Yana:
- - preclosed the right of private property to Earth and the free purchase and sale of land was officially permitted, which caused a bunch of community land tenure;
- - a compulsory crushing of large patriarchal families was carried out, which also accelerated the collapse of the community;
- - In order to centralize, the entire territory of the state was divided into administrative treasures - a new administrative division was carried out on a territorial principle;
- - taxes began to be charged on the basis of the number of land treated;
- - The army was re-equipped and reorganized.
In the Centralized Qin Empire, the head of state was the emperor - Huangdi. In his hands, all the completeness of the legislative, executive and judiciary was focused.
There was a branched state apparatus headed by two ministers - left and right Chensyanov. Chensyanov's deputies were secretaries. Other senior government officials were the head of the Palace Guard, the official who was the cult of the ancestors of the emperor, an official who had ends with issues of external intercourse. Imperial advisers played a major role in the activities of the state office.
When the kingdom of Qin subordinates the rest of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, the reforms Shang Yana were distributed to the whole country. The empires produced the following transformations:
- - administrative: the territory was divided into 36 regions, which, in turn, were shared on the counties, the counties - on parish, and the parish - to TIN, which represents a low administrative unit;
- - Agrarian: encouraged agriculture;
- - financial;
- - Military.
Every region was headed by two ruler - representatives of military and civil authorities, appointed and shifted by the emperor. Firmly established uniform laws that have karaserd over the slightest misconduct, have directed the activities of imperial officials. The former aristocratic titles were destroyed, the criterion of knowledge was wealth and merit to the state.
In the Qin Empire, a special judicial department was composed, which indicates the allocation of judicial functions from the general administrative.
As a higher judicial instance, the emperor himself was played, who could directly disassemble court cases. The judicial agency followed the application of criminal laws. All things about the most serious crimes passed through his hands, especially cases related to the excess of power by officials. At the head of this department stood Tinwei.
The provincial judge was simultaneously the boss of the prison in the district. The army played a huge role in ancient China, which was determined by frequent wars and peasant uprisings.
The constant army was gradually formed, which was on the content of the treasury. At first it was the bodyguards of the emperor and parts guarding the capital. Police features were resting on these parts.
In the Empire, Qin existed military service. Men from 23 to 56 years old were taken to the army, which were supposed to pass one year training, carry a garrison service during the year and a month to serve in the militia at the place of residence. Without the duration of service for the protection of state borders, the guided officials were sent, criminals, stray merchants, as well as those who lost freedom for debts.
State Han and the fall of the Han Empire.
Due to social contradictions in the Empire, Qin was constantly broken up uprising, the most powerful of which in 207-206. BC e. led to the death of the Qin monarchy. The founder of the new dynasty - Hanskaya - became one of the leaders of this uprising, rural headman Liu Ban.
Imperial Dynasty Han Rules since 206 BC. e. on 220 g. e. This period is customary to divide on the following:
- - Western or Early (Elder), Han (206 BC. Er - 8 g. E.);
- - Board Van Mana (9-23 years. N. E.) and the Board of Liu Xuan, or Ganesh (23-25 \u200b\u200byears. N. E.);
- - Eastern, or late (younger), Han (25-220 years. N. E.).
Liu Bang, who proclaimed himself with the emperor Gao-Zeu, at the beginning of his rule made a number of assignments to the farmers, reducing taxes and canceling the harsh laws of the Qin Dynasty. However, his reforms did not stop the growth of slavery and large private land tenure. The new moment in the agricultural relations of Western Han was that the land tenure of "strong houses", peculiar estates-fortresses with their own armed guards.
Slavery, combined with feudal structure, has reached the greatest development, which was the reason to have exacerbated social contradictions. Leaving the former structure of the central and local state apparatus, the royal authorities sent their efforts to the centralization of the country. A new territorial-administrative division was conducted - on 13 major districts, with an increase in the number of areas and counties. District auditors were raised at the head of the districts - the governors of the emperor who carried out control over the local administration. The area and counties were headed by three appointed officials of the official: the ruler and his civil and military business assistants. The activities of the local administration were controlled by inspectors from the Center.
In 8 g. e. The throne, as a result of the palace coup, captured Van Man. Proclamation of himself by the emperor (in 9 n. E.), He took a new attempt to soften the class contradictions by reforms. The inspirations of his reform were Confucians who came to the shift to the legists.
In the field of land tenure, Van Mana was done as follows:
- - by prohibiting the purchase and sale of the Earth, private property on it was canceled;
- - all the lands were announced by the royal;
- - the system of community land tenure was restored.
In the field of slavement:
- - Private slavement was canceled - the purchase and sale of slaves was prohibited;
- - The state received legitimate right to own slaves, that is, the slaves became state.
Wang Man was held by other reforms, including cash, new taxes were introduced, special administrations were established, which had to regulate market prices and regulate the loan percentage.
However, all this did not lead to stabilization of the political situation, but only to the deepening and aggravation of class contradictions, to the destruction of the country's economy.
In 18, AD The uprising broke out, the participants of which were called "redobrov".
During the struggle against the rebels, landowner aristocracy founded a new dynasty - Late (younger, or Eastern) Han. The uprising of the "redobrov" was suppressed at the end of 27 n. er, but the country managed to unite only by 37 n. e.
Returning in 23 g. e. For the throne, the Han dynasty canceled decrees and orders to Van Mana. Some concessions were made to the peasantry, the tax burden was lightweight.
The state apparatus was substantiated - the Imperial Council was created, the highest advisory body under the emperor; Functions for managing the country were divided by five departments. The country's economy began to stabilize.
In the second half of the II century. n. e. The power of the Eastern Han dynasty as a result of powerful peasant uprisings came into decay. During the struggle against the reserves, major military leaders who headed various armed political groups became independent of the central government. This led to the political crisis and to the destruction of the country's economic system. In 220, the Unified Han Empire was destroyed - she broke up into three independent kingdoms, the period of the existence of which was called Song (Trozenia).
The second half of the I millennium BC. e. in society Ancient Chinareceived the name Zhango - Fighting kingdoms. It was the era of constant wars between the minor principalities and the kingdoms formed on the ruins of the once powerful Power of Zhou. Over time, there were seven strongest among them, which subjugated their power of weak neighbors and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: kingdoms Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. But it was the era of changes in all areas of life, production and public relations. The cities grew, the crafts were improved, and agriculture developed, the iron came to shift bronze. Scientists and writers created remarkable interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry continuing to worry the reader. It is enough to say that it was at that time that the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism lived at this time, and the most Chinese people consider themselves to be.
Despite the boundaries, it was a single world, one civilization, it created all the conditions not only for the merger, but also to exit their geographical limits such an association within the framework of the Unified Empire occurred at the end of the III century. BC e. Under the rule of the dynasty of one of the "seven strongest" - kingdom Qin. Dynasty rules with single China is only one generation, only 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade was! Reforms touched upon all parties to the life of Chinese society.
Map of ancient China in the era of Qin and Han
I replaced new dynasty - Hanwhich not only did not cross everything done first Emperor Qin ShihuandiBut I retained, imagined his achievements and distributed them to the surrounding peoples, from the wasteland of Gobi in the north, to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the East to the Mountains of the Pamir in the West. The Empire of the Ancient China, which pretended to the end of the III century. BC e., existed until the end of II century. n. e. when new, even more significant changes led her to crisis and decay.
In the further history of the civilization of the ancient China, there were still quite a few dynasties, both local and prose. The epochs of power replaced the periods of decline. But from each crisis, China came out invariably retaining the originality and the cultural wealth of their cultural wealth. Witness the next take up of Chinese civilization We are with you now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was made in that distant era, when the China's Crimson Empire was born.
Street of the Chinese city of East Zhou
The emergence of civilization of ancient China
Kingdom Qin Among other major formations of ancient China was not the strongest and enlightened. It was in the north of the country, had heavy soils and adjacent to numerous nomadic tribes. But the natural borders are fenced - the River Juanhe and the mountain ranges, the Qin king was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for the attack on neighboring powers and tribes. The land of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe rivers, Jinghe and Lohe, are very fertile. In the middle of the III century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guing channel, work was carried out on the drainage of the marshes, which significantly increased the crop. In the kingdom of the Qin, important trading routes were held, and trading with neighboring tribes became one of its sources of enrichment. Of particular importance for the state, trading with northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia. From Qin exported mainly iron and products from it, salt and silk. From the cattle breeding tribes of the North and North-West, the inhabitants of the kingdom of Qin received wool, skins and slaves. In the south-west, the kingdom of Qin traded with residents of the regions of Mu and Ba. Fertile lands and mining riches of these areas lying on the junction of trade routes, which led far to the south-west until ancient India, caused the expansion of the Cinsky kingdom.
Since the Board of Xiao Guna (361-338 BC er) began to strengthen Qin. And it was not only in the success of the economy and conquering campaigns. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of the ancient China.
In the middle of the IV century BC e. In the kingdom of Qin were implemented important reformscontributing to its comprehensive strengthening. Shanan Yang was conducted by Shanov, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of Fucking. First was land reform, annealed decisive blow to community land tenure. According to the establishments of Shang Yana, the land began to freely buy and sell. In order to centralize the state, Shanan Yang introduced a new administrative division according to the territorial principle, which violated the former boundaries established by another old tribony division. All the kingdom was broken by the counties (Xiang). The treasures were crushed into smaller education, government officials were delivered at the head of everyone. The most minor administrative units have become a circular order association from five and ten families. Second reform There was a tax. Instead of the former land tax, which was 1/10, part of the crop, Shanan Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the number of land treated. This provided the state an annual permanent income, independent of harvest. Drought, floods, crouching now all the severity fell on the farmers. The new tax collection system provided huge funds necessary to rule the kin kingdom for wars.
According to military reform Shang Yana, the Zinskoy army was re-equipped and reorganized. In it included Connection. The fighting chariots, which made the basis of the military relics of the previous hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the composition of the army. Bronze weapons replaced new - from iron. The long upper clothes of warriors changed the short, like a barbaric nomads, a jacket, comfortable in hike and battle. The army was divided into tops and dozens connected by a circular order system. The soldiers who did not show the proper courage were subjected to severe punishment. After the military reform, Shang Yana, the Zinskaya Army became one of the most combat-ready armies of the Ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Nan was created by 18 degrees of acquaintance for military merits. For each captive and the killed enemy relying one degree. "Rooded houses that have no military merit can no longer be in the lists of nobles," the decree said. The result of reforms conducted by the Shang Yan was the appearance on the place of before the amorphous education - the kingdom of the Qin - a strong centralized state. Already since the Board of Xiao Guna began the struggle of the Cinsky kingdom for the union under its hegemony of the entire territory of the ancient China. The Qin kingdom did not have equal strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, completed by the formation of the Empire, are associated with the name of In Zhen (246-221 BC. E.). As a result of many years of struggle, he subjugated one after another all the kingdoms of the Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - Kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - Kingdom Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - The Kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC e. It was finally conquered by the kingdom of Chu in the same year surrendered to the kingdom of Yan. The last - in 221 BC. e. - Conquered the kingdom of qi. Chariot, arcing and horses are made with extraordinary accuracy transmitting all the details of the sobrases. Having done the head of a huge state, In Zheng chose a new title - Huangi (emperor) for himself and his descendants. Latest sources are usually referred to Qin Shihuandythat literally means "First Emperor Empire Qin." Almost immediately after the conquests of the conquests of the Ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shihuandi made successful campaigns against Huns in the north and kingdom of Yue in the south. The Chinese state has emerged beyond the borders of national education. From this point on, the history of the imperial period begins.
Sericulture. Silk in ancient China
Sources indicate that the ancient Chinese of silk worm and silklook. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the sun and the symbol of fertility. The old Chinese texts mention the sacred tute groves or individual mulberries as the place of departure of rituals associated with the cultural culture cult. According to the legend, a Yin baby was found in the Mulberry Dupel, who became the two-chair of the first china dynasty. The deity of the silk worm was considered a woman who stands at the tree on his knees and weave the flush thread.
Money in ancient China
In the VI century BC er, as well as at the other end of the civilized world in front of Asia and, in kingdom Jin. For the first time, metallic money appeared. Soon they began to be cast in the rest of the powers of the ancient China. In different kingdoms money had a different form: in Chu - the shape of the square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of the shovel, in Qin there were large money with square holes in the middle.
Writing
For a letter until the invention of paper in China, bamboo or wooden plates and silk were used. Bamboo plates stuck in peculiar "notebooks." Shelkovoy "Books" were kept in rolls.
Improved technology writing Ancient China. Bamboo trunks The Chinese split into thin planks and wrote onto them black inch of hieroglyphs from top to bottom. Then folded into a row they fastened them with leather straps on the upper and lower edge - a long bamboo cloth was obtained, easily folded into the roll. Such was an ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - Juiana; In the skated form they were put into the clay vessel, stored in the stone gamars of the imperial libraries, in the wicker boxes of scribes.
Politics of ancient China
The Chinese Society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the accomplished and coming changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological trends, some of which were protected by ancient, others took all the innovations as a given, the third were looking for ways of further progress. It can be said, politician entered the house of each Chinese, and passionate disputes of supporters of various teachings flared up on the squares and in taverns, with the courts of the nobles and the dignity. The most famous teachings of that epoch were Taoism, Confucianism and Fazzya, conventionally called the school of legislates, - legists. Political platforms that nominated by representatives of these areas expressed the interests of different layers of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings performed both representatives of higher light and people are doubtful and poor. Some of them were immigrants from the lowest layers of society, even from the slave environment. The founder of Taoism is considered a hemalemand sage Lao Tziwho lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise, known as "Dae De Jing" ("Book O Tao and DE"). The teaching set forth in this book has become a significant expression of a passive protest of the community against increasing the tax negle and ruin. Condeming wealth, luxury and knowledge, Lao Tzu spoke against the arbitrariness and cruelty of rulers, against violence and wars. Social ideal of ancient Taoism was a refund to the primitive community. However, along with passionate chief of injustice and violence of Lao Tzu, he preached a refusal to fight, putting forward theory "Navigation"According to which a person must submore to follow the Dao - the natural flow of life. This theory was the basic principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.
Confucianism arose as an ethical and political teaching at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. And in the future it was very widespread. Its founder is considered a preacher from the kingdom of Lou - Kun-Tzu (Confucius, as it is called in the European world; about 551-479 BC.). Confucians were ideologists old aristocracy, justified the order of things since ancient times, were negatively related to enrichment and elevation of people of doubt. According to the teachings of Confucius, each person in society should occupy a strictly defined place. "The sovereign must be a state truck, subjects - subjects, father - father, son,", "said Confucius. His adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached a great importance to the cult of ancestors.
Representatives of the third direction - Fazzya expressed the interests of a new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, the termination of civil wars between the kingdoms and insisted on the implementation of reforms corresponding to the requirements of time. This direction of social thought has reached a heyday in the IV-III centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of Fazzya were Shanan Yang, who lived in IV. BC e. and Han Fei (III century BC). The legists created their theory of political and government. In their works for the first time in the history of China, it was nominated the idea of \u200b\u200b"legal law" as instruments of government. In contrast to the Confucians guided by the ancient traditions and customs, the legists believed that the state of government should lie strict and mandatory laws (FA), which meet the demands of modernity. They were supporters of creating a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the association of ancient China, it was the one who followed this teaching. He was chosen by the rulers of the outskirts and the least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who would have received the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "strong kingdom and the weak people", the absolute power over the entire subway.
Craft
On the level development of the ancient Chinese holidays Says a list of professions. Ancient writers report on artisans of various specialties: skillful loafers, carpenters, masters of jewelry, gunsmiths, specialists in making carts, ceramic products, weales, even builders of dams and dams. Each region, the city was famous for their masters: the kingdom of Qi - the production of silk and linen fabrics, and his capital Lignji was the largest to the center of the weaving craft. Here, thanks to the convenient location, salt and fishing crafts were obtained. Linjun's city in Shu (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, has become one of the most significant mining centers and iron treatment. For that time, the centers of iron production were Nanyan in the kingdom of Han and Handan - the capital of Kingdom Zhao. In the kingdom of Chu, Hofi was famous for the production of leather goods, Changsha - jewelry. Coastal cities are known for the construction of ships. About the Ancient Chinese courts gives the representation well preserved wooden model 1B-vein boat (See below), which archaeologists discovered during excavations of the ancient graves. Already in this remote epoch, the Chinese invented a primitive compass; Initially, they were used with land travel, and then Chinese navigators began to apply it. The growth of cities and craft production, the expansion of the land and water road network gave impetus and the development of trade.
At this time, ties were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of the ancient China and neighboring tribes. The Northern and Western tribes of the Chinese bought slaves, horses, cattle, rams, skin and wool; At the tribes that lived in the south - elephant bone, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was considered stronger and richly rich, where there was a significant number of major merchants. And their influence on political life intensified so much so that they became more and more often they began to hold senior government positions at the courtyard. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the IV century. BC e. A large dignity was made by the trader Bai Tuy. In the kingdom of Qin in the III century. BC e. The famous horses trader Lui Bueway served as the first adviser. In the kingdom of Qi, the Tian family was raised.
Three thousand years ago, the Great Chinese Plain between the Rivers Juanhe and Yangtze began to settle the first Chinese. Despite the fact that the first states began to appear on this territory, their inhabitants considered themselves a single people with a single culture and language.
The emergence of ancient China occurred almost the same as in ancient Egypt, Sumer and Ancient India - on the shores of large rivers. In the Valley of Juanhe (in Chinese - "Yellow River") and ancient Chinese civilization originated. The first kingdom arose in 2 millennia BC. e. and called Shan or Yin. Archaeologists excavated the capital of this kingdom Great City Shan and the tomb of the Shan Kings - Vanov.
In 1122 BC e. The warlike tribe of Zhou, headed by Word, defeated the Shagians and established its primacy, and the majority of the country's population of Shang-Yin drew into slavery. But in the 8th century BC. e. The state of Zhou broke up under the blows of nomads; Now, one, then another kingdom, of which the largest state was the Kingdom of Jin (7-5th century to N. e.). With the collapse of States Jin began the period of Zhango ("fighting kingdoms") when China was divided into two dozen small princes of the principalities, badly obeyed Zhousvan.
6-5th century BC. e. - The time of the first philosophical teachings of the ancient China. Of all the wise men of this time, a confusion was especially revered by the Chinese. His teaching about the "noble man," about respect for the elder, about modesty, about the importance of education, about the attitude towards the ruler as the head of the family, for a long time in China, the ideal relationship between people - and in the family, and in the state.
In 221 BC, the ruler Qin In Zheng united large territories into a single empire and took the title Qin Shihuandi, which means "the first emperor of the Qin dynasty. So that people do not ropat, they were kept in constant fear. Qin Shihuandi brutally suppressed any resistance, applying the most terrible treasures, for example, could be cooked alive in the boiler. For the slightest guidance of man, they beat the heels bamboo stick or sliced \u200b\u200bhis nose. If a person violated the law, then his whole family was exposed to punishment: the condemned relatives turned into slaves who were used on heavy construction work.
Having established its complete power in the Empire, Qin Shihuangi began a war with nomads-Huns, attacked from the north on his borders. He decided to fix his victory forever to the construction of a powerful border wall, called the Great Wall. It was erected from stone blocks and bricks hundreds of thousands of convicts and ordinary peasants. The height of the wall was with a three-storey house. At the top, two carts could be dispersed without any work. In the towers carried the security service. At the bottom of it, they lived, and on the top platform, the watch closely followed the surroundings and, in the case of danger, the fire was burned, smoke, which was visible far. A large squad of warriors hurried to this place to this place.
With the fall of the dynasty of Qin to power, one of the leaders of the peasant war - Lyuban came. He reduced taxes and canceled the most cruel laws introduced in China by Emperor Qinashovandy. Lyuban became the founder of the Han dynasty. In the Han era, the main features of the Chinese state were formed, which were inherent to him before the beginning of the 20th century.
The collection of taxes in a large country required Chan's officials in geometry and arithmetic. For learning the basics of mathematics used special textbooks and collections of tasks. Ancient Chinese astronomers accurately calculated the duration of a sunny year and made a perfect calendar; They were known hundreds of stars and constellations, they calculated the periods of circulation of the planets. In ancient China, the beginning of the Chinese civilization and its culture - science, literature, art were laid.
The death of the Han dynasty was associated with the uprising of "yellow dressings", which covered the country in 184. Although the uprising was cruelly suppressed, it caused the hardest blow to the country. In 220, the Han dynasty fell, and several independent states were formed on its territory. This event is usually considered to be the end of the period of antiquity in Chinese history.
The history of the ancient China is divided into four periods associated with the Board of a certain dynasty:
- 1) Yin (Shang) - XVI-XI centuries. BC.;
- 2) Zhou - XI-III centuries. BC.;
- 3) Qin - 221-207. BC.;
- 4) Han - 206 BC - 220 AD.
During the fourth period, the process of developing a slave-ownership state begins to feudal.
The formation of the Ancient Chinese state according to the Chinese tradition was associated with the conquest of the Shan Shang Neighboring tribes. The need to hold in the obedience of the conquered population has intensified the process of formation of the state.
The state system of the ancient Chinese state over time was transformed into a classic oriental despoty. The king was a focus of the highest state power, the commander of the army, the highest court, the Supreme Priest, leading its origin from God. Higher positions in the state appointed relatives of the king, and smaller - judges, scribes, tax collectors and others - professional officials.
At the highest level in the social hierarchy there was a king (van). Then the Shan slave-owned aristocracy and priestly came. The next step was occupied by the slave-owned aristocracy of the conquered tribes. Depending on the proximity to the king of the aristocracy possessed titles that were given the right to certain privileges.
The bulk of the population was free communities. In the period of the state, Yin (Shang) community has played a big role. Community land use was organized on the system "well fields". All lands were divided into two categories: "Public" field and "private" fields. The "public" field was processed together with the entire community, the entire harvest was made by the elder of the community and then the king. "Private" fields were individually used by the family, which was also the entire harvest. The whole land was considered as state ownership and was at the disposal of the king. In private property there were slaves, houses, tools of labor.
Slaves could own both individuals and the state. Sources of slavery were: Military capture, selling for debts, appeal to slavery for some crimes, receiving slaves as a date. Slaves were in the position of livestock; They could not have any family nor property.
In the XII century The Yin State (Shang) experienced a deep crisis. At the same time, one of the tribes was strengthened by one of the tribes - Zhou, who was under the control of the state of Shan. In 1027 BC. The Zhou tribes caused the defeat of the troops. On the change of the empire, the state came a state based on Zhou tribes.
The Board of the Zhou dynasty is divided into three periods (the period of Western Zhou, Eastern Zhou and Zhangho ("Fighting Kingdoms")), which consistently replaced each other.
The first rulers of Zhou distributed their relatives and leaders of the friendly tribes of the Ducks into hereditary possession. Total registered about 200 such complaints. The owners of the devals formed a price of hereditary nobility - Zhu Hou. The most noble titles - Gong and Hou - wore the nearest relatives of the ruler. Guna and Hou, in turn, complained to their close relatives of Daifu titles. The lower layer of Zhowa aristocracy was serviced people - Shi - descendants of noble people on the side line.
The supreme power in the state was in the hands of the king (Vana), who was called the son of the sky (Tian Zi). The entire territory of the country was divided into areas led by the rulers appointed by the king. However, essentially these were individual kingdoms. Centralized state apparatus during the entire period Zhou did not exist.
During the kingdom of Zhou, the king was still the Supreme Owner of the Earth, but the ownership of a slave-owned nobility was gradually turned into a private property, which could be alienated, to lease, mortgage. For farmers, a community and community land use continued to maintain their importance. However, during the period of "warring kingdoms", the system of "well fields" occurs and further strengthening individual land tenure.
Over time, the areas of traditional stay of Zhou began to be exposed to more frequent raids of Western tribes, and in 771 BC. The ruler of China Pin Wan was forced to transfer the capital to the East. The period of Eastern Zhou began or, as it is also called, "separated kingdoms" (Chunzu). Once in the land of the specific rulers, Chinese Vanya preserved only the nominal power. Increased fragmentation and rivalry between the lots, which turn into actually independent states. In the central regions, there were relatively small kingdoms based on the closest relatives of the Zhowsky kings. These include the kingdoms Lou, Wei, Zheng, Han, Jin, and others. It was their rulers who were the first to call their own possessions of the middle states. On the re-ferey there were larger and powerful states: in the east, the kingdom of qi, in the west Kingdom of Qin, in the lower reaches and the average course of the Yangtze River Kingdom, Yue and Chu.
From VII century BC. These states entered the fight for the championship, which was originally conducted under the slogan of the restoration of the Government of the Zhouse rulers. The concept of "hegemon" (BA) occurred, the power of which was based on a bare force, unlike the king (Vana), which was affected by the subjects of "strength of virtue." For the first time, the title took in 651. The ruler of the kingdom of Qi Huai-Gui. Later, it was repeatedly transitioned to the rulers of other kingdoms. In 544 BC. The rulers of the lots have concluded a world agreement, which, however, was respected long.
In V c. BC. The country broke up into a variety of independent states, which were led by a fierce struggle.
The formal date separating the era of "separated kingdoms" from the "Fighting Kingdoms" era is considered to be 481 BC. - The year of the end of the oldest Chinese chronicles "Chun Qui". However, for the opposition of two periods there were objective reasons associated with deep changes in China's social and economic life. In many kingdoms, political reforms were carried out, aimed at limiting the privileges of the generic aristocracy and the strengthening of the sole power of the ruler. The main goal of these transformations was the mobilization of all the forces of the state in the struggle for survival.
In the III century. BC. The winner in this struggle was the king of Qin, which turned into a strong centralized state. Shang Yana's reforms were of particular importance for strengthening the Qin Empire - the sander of the Qin State (died in 338 BC). In order to centralize the state, administrative division was carried out on a territorial basis, the free sale and purchase of land was legalized, taxation was established in accordance with the number of land treated, it was re-equipped and reorganized by the army. In each of the 36 educated areas were scheduled for two ruler, military and civilian, the former aristocracy was put under the strictest control. Wealth and government merits were the criterion of knowledge, old titles were destroyed. Severe laws were introduced for the slightest misdeed. The reforms Shang Yana contributed to the sharp strengthening of the Qin Army and the state as a whole. In 249 BC. The Qin Army defeated the domain of the Zhousky king, putting the end of the Zhowa dynasty. In the following years, the rulers of Qin managed to defeat the rest of the state. By 221 BC The country's union was completed.
The ruler of Qin took the title of Huangi (emperor) and entered the story under the name Qin Shihuandi, i.e. First Emperor Qin.
Having completed the association of China, Qin Shihuandy immediately made a number of symbolic gestures confirming his position of the only lord. He traveled the whole country, setting memorable steles at different strokes, ascended to the sacred mountain of Tishan and made the sacrifice of the sky on her top, began the construction of grandiose palaces in the capital, etc. However, royal innovations, aimed at the unification of the political and public life of the Empire, had much greater importance for the follow-up history of China. Qin Shihuandi abolished previous specific possessions and introduced a unified country management system, dividing China on 36 regions, which, in turn, were divided into the counties. Unified state service rules and criteria for evaluating officials of officials were introduced, and local officials were charged with the duty almost every day to submit to their heads about the state of affairs in the suspension; Even the absence of an official in the sick service should have identified documented. Money has been unified, uniform lengths of length and weight, a single writing, even a single axis width for the cart has been introduced. Qin Shihuandi introduced a single name for its subjects - "black-headed". The subject of the empire was forbidden to own weapons, and from the 6 giant statues, which were set in the Cinema capital from the cinestic authorities of Iron Swords, and other weapons. Qin Shihuandi took care of the safety of the external borders of its empire. He conceived the construction of a grand wall along the northern frontiers of China, togeting several million people for work. This wall was supposed to protect China from nomadic Syunnu raids. At the same time, Qin Shihuandi sent troops to the south - to the region of modern provinces Guangdong and Fujian. There were built fortresses and new areas were established, the first Chinese population of which was referred to as references.
Qin Shihuandi took decisive measures to ensure ideological uniformity. He forbade his subjects to reading any books with the exception of those that could bring practical benefits (the latter were attributed to the management on agriculture, crafts, medicine, fortunate). In 213 BC The famous "burning books" took place, followed by the execution of more than 400 scientists, suspected in disloyal regime.
However, the rapid grandiose construction work turned out to be an exorbitant heavy burden for the treasury, and the adopted administrative control measures are far from such effective as Qin Shihuandi counted. As soon as he died and was buried in his grand tomb, as unrest began throughout the empire, quickly grew into armed rebellion. The authority of the successor Qin Shihuandi - Erishawandi ("The second emperor") was clearly insufficient to ensure that the Cine Army could hold back the wave of popular perturbation. Acute social contradictions and folk uprisings led to the elimination of the Qin monarchy. In 209 BC On the lands of the former kingdom of Chu flared up a powerful uprising. Three years later, one of the rebel armies, headed by a rural old-fashioned Liu Bana, caused a decisive defeat by the Qin Troops. Erishawandi was killed by His courtiers, and Liu Ban, taking the capital of the empire, became the founder of the Hairy dynasty. Soon he managed to spread his power to all China.
Liu Ban did not restore the Qin management system. He complained to the seven of his closest companions of the title of Van, and later distributed hereditary diets to another 130 comrades. However, all hereditary possessions were in the eastern and southern regions of the empire, whereas in the western part of the areas and counties established by Qin Shihuandi are preserved. The order headed by Liu Bana was preserved for about half a century after his death, when the throne occupied his son and grandson. Embeding to the throne in 140 BC Liu Bana Emperor U-di has taken decisive measures to strengthen the central government. Now the goet was supposed to share between all the heirs of his owner. At the same time, the U-di restored the authority of inspectors that controlled the local administration existed in Qin. The rulers of the areas from now on charged to the duty to recommend for the service of capable young people, and a special academy was created in the capital to prepare future officials. The main government department was the Secretariat of the Emperor.
The kings of the new dynasty were undertaken repeated attempts to weaken the severity of social contradictions. At the end of the i century. BC. Emperor U-Di introduced restrictions on the size of land possessions and the number of slaves owned. No one could have more than 138 hectares of land and 200 slaves.
After the death of U-di on the Han Prestrol, the minor rulers were. At the court, Favoritism flourished, the authorities often fell into the hands of temporarys from among the relatives of the Empress or servants of the Imperial Harem. At the same time, the wide masses of the peasantry - the constant support of the throne - ruined and replenished the ranks of the vagrants or bathers in the farms of major landowners.
The weakening of the Han House led to the change of power. The relative of the Empress Van Manman in 8 g., Becoming "Yes Si Ma" - Han's Higher Sannis, captured power as a result of a coup. In 9, AD He proclaimed himself with the emperor of a new blue dynasty. Having come to power in the conditions of the growing struggle of the masses against major landowners, Van Mans conducted a number of reforms.
Wangman found his public ideal in the descriptions of the Rannezhou. He forbade buying and selling the land, which was declared royal, restored the community land tenure system. Each family was allocated arable one. The sale of slaves was banned, but at the same time the number of state slaves increased. The state regulation of market prices and interest on loans was introduced, monetary reform was carried out and new taxes were introduced. There was a state monopoly on a coin chasing, mountain and river crafts. Van Man sought to focus in the hands of the state all sources of income and create a strong bureaucratic empire. The office of government officials was increased, the appointment of a position was practiced on an examination basis.
However, to prevent the crisis of the slave-ownership state, all these reforms, of course, could not. In 12, under pressure from rich landowners, a ban on the sale and sale of land and slaves was canceled. At the same time, drought and floods, which happened to a rare constancy for several years in a row, caused hunger in the central regions, followed by armed meters. The most fame received the rebel detachments from Shendong, whose members were called "redobrov", as they smeared the face with red paint, to resemble the demons to their appearance. Their leader issued himself for the sibling of the Han dynasty. In 23, "Krasnobrov" managed to take the imperial capital. Van Mai died in his palace.
However, the victory went to the descendant of the notable branch of the Han House of Liu, who in 25 g. Proclaimed the restoration of the Han dynasty. Since Liua chose Loyang his capital, his dynasty was named East, or late Han.
The history of the Nostdhankian dynasty largely resembles the history of its predecessor. At first, the central authorities restored control over the entire territory of the country, although calm in the empire was purchased by the cost of compromise between the administration and the local elite. Over time, the growth of large land ownership and the ruin of the peasantry pushed the state. The politically decline of the dynasty, as in the Epoch of Early Han, was expressed in the elevation of the imperial favorites from among the relatives of the Empress and Palace Enunov, which led to the exacerbation of the struggle between these temporars and regular officials. The social base of power was steadily narrowed, and at the same time tax revenues were reduced in treasury.
In 184, an uprising broke out, known as the uprising of yellow bandages, immediately swept the majority of the central regions of the Empire. The performance of yellow bandages was suppressed by government troops and squadrons of provincial magnates, but the Han Yard finally lost control over the country. In 189, the Palace Guard learned the beating of Enuns of the Imperial Harem, and then the troops came from the border of General Dong Zho completely plundered the capital. Hanskaya Power actually ceased to exist. True, formally, the power of the Han Emperor was held for another 30 years, while applicants for the throne found out the relationship between themselves. Almost all this time, the Han Emperor was in the rate of commander Cao Cao, who deftly took advantage of the authority of the Han House in order to strengthen in the central regions of the former empire. In 220, Cao Pi, the eldest son Cao Cao, forced the Han Emperor to renounce his title and proclaimed the welling of the Wei dynasty.
Cao Pi, who overthrew the last Han sovereign, failed to become the ruler of all of China. The commander Liu Bay, who settled in Sichuan, declared himself the emperor of the Han dynasty (in history, his kingdom is called Shu or Shu-Han). In November 222, EXAMPUT Liu Bei Last Sun Quan, proclaimed the creation of the kingdom of y in the areas of the lower and middle course of the Yangtze.
The kingdom of Wei was the strongest among new states. The basis of his power was the system of military settlements, which consisted of about 80% of the consolidated population. At the same time, a new system of selection and qualifications of officials was introduced. From now on, all civil servants in accordance with their "merits, virtues, talents and behavior" were divided into nine ranks. In the areas established special positions of Zhongzhenov ("impartial and direct") who made the selection of candidates for the service. The latter was assigned the "rustic" category that determined their personal abilities. The "Rustic" category institute has secured the dominance of the local elite, very quickly ensuring the right to possess the highest second category.
Cao not long remained the owners in their state. In the 40s The key posts in the army moved to the family of the Sum, and soon the successors of Cao Cao were divided by the fate of the Han Dynasty: in 265. The last Way ruler "lost the throne" Suma Janany, who founded the Jin dynasty. By this time, Yan's Sum was already subordinate to the kingdom of Shu-Han, and in 280 Palo and the South-China Kingdom of W. China was again united under the rule of the Jin dynasty. However, the triumph of the house of the Sum turned out to be short. At the end of 311, internecake broke out inside the reign clan, which led to nomadic tribes, which have long been inhabited by the Northern and Western borders of the Empire. In 308, the leader Syunnu Liu Yuan proclaimed himself by the emperor, and three years later, the cavalry of nomads seized and looted the Jin capital of Loyang. This event can be considered the end of the era of the ancient empires.