Among the first small mammals - insectivores - in the Mesozoic era, a group of such animals emerged that did not possess sharp teeth and claws, or wings, or hooves. They lived both on the ground and in trees, ate fruits and insects. From this group, branches originated, which led to semi-monkeys, monkeys and humans.
The most ancient higher monkeys, from which the ancestors of man originate, are considered parapithecus. These ancient, little-specialized apes diverged into two branches: one led to modern gibbons and orangutans, the other to Dryopithecus, extinct arboreal apes. Driopithecus diverged in three directions: one branch led to the chimpanzee, the other to the gorilla, and the third to the human. Man and great apes are closely related to each other. But these are different branches of the common pedigree trunk.
Scientists suggest that the ancestral home of mankind was somewhere in the territory, including the northeastern part of Africa, South Asia, southeastern Europe, from where people settled throughout the Earth.
What were the original forms from which the most ancient people originated? Until now, such forms have not been found, but a well-studied group of South African monkeys - Australopithecus (“Australus” - southern) gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthem. This group lived on Earth simultaneously with the most ancient people, therefore it cannot be considered the direct ancestors of people.
Australopithecus lived among rocks on flat, treeless spaces, were two-legged, walked slightly bent over, knew meat food; their skull had a volume of about 650 cm 3 .
In the early 60s of our century, the English scientist Louis Leakey found fragments of skulls, bones of a hand, foot, lower leg, collarbone in the Oldoway Gorge in the territory of modern Tanzania (East Africa). The fossil creatures to which they belonged were somewhat closer to humans in the structure of the foot and hand than the australopithecines, but their brain volume did not exceed 650 cm 3. There were also found pebbles of a pointed shape and stones that left the impression of being artificially processed. According to the majority of Soviet anthropologists, these creatures should also be considered Australopithecines. Morphologically, they differed little from the great apes. The difference consisted in the appearance of the first glimpses of consciousness associated with the use of natural objects as tools, which prepared the transition to their manufacture.
It is believed that the ancestors of the earliest people were a species of bipedal apes close to the African australopithecines, who, on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of natural selection, developed the ability to often and variably use sticks and stones as tools.
Level "A".
1. Choose the correct sequence of eras in the history of the Earth:
a) Proterozoic - Paleozoic - Archaean - Mesozoic - Cenozoic;
b) Archaean - Proterozoic - Paleozoic - Cenozoic - Mesozoic;
c) Archaean - Proterozoic - Paleozoic - Mesozoic - Cenozoic;
d) Archaean - Proterozoic - Mesozoic - Paleozoic - Cenozoic.
2. Placental mammals arose:
a) in Perm; b) in chalk; c) in the Paleogene; d) in the Jurassic.
3. Flowering plants are widespread:
a) in the Cenozoic; b) in chalk; c) in the Triassic; d) in the Paleogene.
4. Terrestrial vertebrates have acquired a modern look:
a) in the anthropogen; b) in the Neogene; c) in chalk; d) after the end of the last ice age.
5 ... The common ancestors of man and anthropoid monkeys were:
a) lemurs; b) Australopithecus; c) Dryopithecus; d) gorillas.
6. What are the evolutionary relationships between humans and modern human-like apes?
a) Man descended from common ancestors with the great apes. b) Man is a descendant of modern apes.
c) Man and great apes never had common ancestors d) Monkeys descended from ancient people.
7. The human skull is different from the skull of monkeys:
a) massive, forward-stretched jaw bones; b) the predominance of the cerebral part of the skull over the front;
c) the predominance of the facial part of the skull over the brain; d) the development of the ridge to which the cervical muscles are attached.
8. Man differs from great apes:
a) the presence of hairline; b) a developed thumb, opposed to all the others; c) the presence of nails; d) the shape of the ears.
9. Man, unlike great apes, has:
a) the ability to work; b) a four-chambered heart; c) caring for offspring; d) volumetric vision.
10. In the early stages of human evolution, under the control of biological factors, the following was formed:
a) features of its structure and life; b) articulate speech; c) labor activity d) thinking, developed consciousness.
11. The driving forces of anthropogenesis do not include:
a) the struggle for existence; b) social lifestyle; c) hereditary variability; d) modification variability.
12. What adaptive significance was the adaptation of the dark-skinned Negroid race?
a) protection from ultraviolet rays; b) increased metabolism;
c) adaptation to the maritime climate; d) improvement of respiratory function.
13. Monkey-man is called:
a) Australopithecus; b) pithecanthropus; c) Neanderthal; d) dryopithecus.
14 ... The development of speech was facilitated by:
a) collective hunting; b) the use of fire; c) upright posture; d) developed brush.
15. In the struggle for existence, they won during anthropogenesis:
a) ancient people; b) human populations that made and used tools;
c) having a brain volume of up to 900 cm 3; d) human populations that lived 2-2.5 million years ago.
16. Protruding nose in Caucasians:
a) promotes high heat transfer; b) is not adaptive;
c) protects the larynx and lungs from hypothermia; d) adaptation to the lack of solar radiation.
Level "B".
1. Cro-Magnons and living people are united by:
a) brain volume up to 1600 cm 3;
b) the predominance of the brain over the facial;
c) developed chin protrusion;
d) the volume of the brain is 1000-1200 cm 3;
e) the use of metal tools;
f) belong to the species Homo sapiens.
2. Arrange the names of the bones of the lower limb in order from thigh to toes:
a) phalanges of the fingers; b) metatarsus; c) femur;
d) bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula); e) the tarsus.
Level "C" (task with a detailed answer)
1. Why in the process of evolution none of the races reached the level of the species in their development?
Option 2
Level "A".
Choose one correct answer
1. The accumulation of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere associated with photosynthesis began:
a) in the Paleozoic; b) in the Archean;
c) the concentration of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere has always been approximately the same; d) with the emergence of eukaryotes.
2. The first terrestrial vertebrates appeared:
a) in the Devonian; b) in the Carboniferous; c) in the Cambrian; d) in Perm.
3. The heyday of reptiles was:
a) Silurian; b) the Mesozoic; c) Paleogene; d) Paleozoic.
4. Which of these animals lived at the same time as primitive man?
a) mule; b) ichthyosaurus; c) woolly rhinoceros; d) eohippus.
5 ... The most ancient people include:
a) Australopithecus; b) Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus; c) Neanderthals; d) Cro-Magnons.
6. A person of the modern type was:
a) Neanderthal; b) Cro-Magnon; c) pithecanthropus; d) sinanthropus.
7. Major human races:
a) Caucasians and Mongoloids; b) Caucasians, Indians, Negroids and Mongoloids;
c) Caucasians, Negroids and Mongoloids; d) Caucasians, Negroids, Mongoloids and Neanderthals.
8. Man, unlike animals, perceives words as:
a) a combination of individual sounds; b) the expression of a certain thought; c) a set of sounds that are not related to each other; d) sound signal.
9. An example of a biological factor in human evolution:
a) communication with each other through oral and written speech; c) labor activity;
b) the ability to transfer acquired knowledge by inheritance; d) the use of clothing.
10. The action of only biological factors of evolution cannot explain the appearance in humans:
a) diaphragmatic breathing; b) the second signaling system; c) the arch of the foot; d) S-shaped curvature of the spine.
11. What part of a person's upper limb has changed most dramatically during his evolution?
a) shoulder; b) forearm; c) brush; d) scapula.
12. The specific feature of a person is not:
a) 48 chromosomes; b) the possibility of crossbreeding representatives of different races; c) the presence of the mammary glands; d) live birth.
13. A common feature for humans and apes is:
a) S-shaped spine; b) the forelimbs of the grasping type; c) poorly developed superciliary arches; d) brain volume from 1000-1500 cm 3.
14 ... Indicate the biological prerequisites for anthropogenesis:
a) gradual release of the forelimbs; b) feeding the young with milk;
c) arcuate spine; d) well-developed eyesight and hearing.
15. Name the factor of evolution that ensured human development:
a) modification variability; b) gene drift; c) stabilizing selection; d) hereditary variability.
16. The rudiments of articulate speech were possessed by:
a) Neanderthals; b) Cro-Magnons; c) Sinanthropus; d) pithecanthropus.
Level "B".
1. Select the features of the human skeleton that are associated with upright posture:
a) chin protrusion;
b) the size of the vertebrae grows from the cervical to the sacral;
c) the spine has four bends;
d) arched foot;
e) the absence of the tail section; f) a wide unfolded pelvis.
2. Arrange the names of the bones of the upper limb in order from the shoulder to the toes:
a) the bones of the wrist; b) the humerus; c) phalanges; d) the bones of the forearm (ulna and radius); e) the metacarpus.
Level "C" (task with a detailed answer).
1. Why are races not separate biological species?
Assessment of resultstest number 3 on the topic "The origin of life on Earth and anthropogenesis"
№ question | answer | Number of points | № question | answer | Number of points |
Level A | Level A | ||||
Level B | Level B | ||||
b, d, a, e, c | c, d, e, b, a | ||||
Level C | Level C | ||||
Why, in the process of evolution, none of the races reached the level of the species in their development? | Why aren't races separate species? | ||||
The maximum number of points is 23 |
|||||
mark | number of points |
Examination work No. 4 "Ecological relationships of organisms"(to lesson 25)
Objective: assess the degree of assimilation of the following concepts: environmental factors, their importance in the life of organisms. The ability to explain the relationship of organisms with each other and the environment.
The work uses tasks of basic, advanced and high levels of complexity. Basic level assignments are 50% of the maximum primary score, increased - 33%, high level - 17%. They correspond to the minimum content of basic and secondary (complete) general biological education, the requirements for the preparation of graduates.
All tasks of the basic level (1-10) provide for the choice of one correct answer out of four.
To test knowledge at an advanced level, tasks are used with the choice of several correct answers (II, III). Completing these tasks serves as an indicator of mastering more complex and diverse types of educational activities. They allow you to test the knowledge of students about the essence of biological processes, phenomena and their laws; the ability to compare, apply knowledge in familiar and changed situations. A high-level assignment (IV) provides for the choice of correct judgments and is aimed at testing knowledge about the most essential biological laws that manifest themselves at all levels of the organization of living things; skills to independently operate with biological concepts, substantiate and explain biological processes and phenomena, and apply theoretical knowledge in practice.
1 option
I ... Choose one correct answer:
1. A form of relationship in which one species gains some advantage, without bringing any harm or benefit to the other, is called:
2. Symbiotic relationships, in which the presence of each of the two types becomes mandatory for the other partner, are called:
3. Competitive relations in biocenosis arise between
4. The form of relationships between species, in which organisms of one species live on nutrients or tissues of an organism of another species, is called:
5. If a gorchak fish lays eggs in the mantle of a bivalve mollusk, this is an example:
a) sympathy; b) protocooperation; c) lodging; d) acclimatization.
a) does not have a significant effect on the owner; b) always leads the owner to death;
c) brings certain benefits to the owner; d) does harm, but only in some cases leads to the imminent death of the owner.
8. Some mushrooms grow on the roots of certain trees. This type of relationship is called:
9. Predators in the natural community:
a) destroy the population of victims; b) contribute to the growth of the victim population;
c) improve the health of the victim population and regulate its size; d) do not affect the size of the victim population.
10. The organism in whose body the reproduction of parasite occurs is called:
II ... Choose a few correct answers:
1. As a result of intraspecific competition, the following occurs:
a) self-thinning of plants b) search for new habitats c) increase in the reproduction of individuals
d) decrease in reproduction of individuals e) development of territorial behavior
2 ... Examples of symbiosis are:
a) the relationship of algae and fungus in lichen
b ) the relationship of termites and flagellate protozoa living in its intestines
c) the relationship of leguminous plants with nodule bacteria settling on their roots
d) the relationship between a person and the E. coli bacteria living in his intestines
e) the relationship of flowering plants and fungi that form mycorrhiza
III ... Select the traits that characterize the predator
IV
Intraspecific relationships are a mechanism that ensures self-regulation of the population size.
Interspecies competition plays an important role in the formation of a natural community.
The spatial distribution of animals in a population is governed by their behavior.
Abiotic factors do not affect the competitive relationship of two related species.
Territorial behavior in animals is a way of regulating the population size.
Organisms of the two species respond in the same way to an increase in their population density.
Competition is not a form of biotic relationship.
A competitive relationship is generally beneficial for both organisms.
Self-thinning in spruce trees is an example of interspecies competition.
An example of intraspecific competition is the relationship between wolves in a pack.
2 option
Choose one correct answer:
1 . Symbiotic relationships in which coexistence is beneficial for both species, but not necessarily for them, are called:
a) commensalism; b) mutualism; c) protocooperation; d) neutralism.
2. The relationship between sharks and stick fish is an example:
a) mutually beneficial relationship; b) useful-neutral relations; c) useful-harmful relationship; d) mutually harmful relationship.
3. Self-thinning in firs is an example:
a) intraspecific competition; b) interspecies competition; c) commensalism d) population aging
4. The form of relationships between species in which one of the co-living species is oppressed, while the other receives neither harm nor benefit, is called:
5. The spread of seeds of some forest plants by ants is an example:
a) mutualism; b) protocooperation; c) commensalism; d) neutralism.
6. Birds gathering food on the ground, in the grass or in trees by the way of feeding are:
7. The relationship between the populations of the wolf and the hare - the hare - is
8. Competitive relationships between organisms in eco-systems are characterized by
a) oppression by species of each other b) weakening of intraspecific struggle
c) the creation of an environment by some species for others d) the formation of similar characters in different species
9. An example of interspecies competition is the relationship between:
a) wolves in a pack b) a host organism and parasitic worms
c) red and black cockroaches d) mouse-like rodents and foxes
10. The stomach and intestines of ruminant mammals are constantly inhabited by bacteria that cause fermentation. This is an example:
II . Choose a few correct answers:
1. Examples of competition are the relationship between:
a) predators and prey
c) species using the same resources
d) individuals of the same species
e) living organisms and abiotic factors
2. Examples of commensalism are:
a) the relationship of lions with gie-us, picking up the remnants of uneaten food
b) the relationship of various bacteria that process various organic substances of dead organisms
c) the relationship between penicillic molds and some bacteria, for which antibiotics secreted by fungi are detrimental
d) the relationship of a tit and a mouse living in the same forest
e) the relationship of epiphytes with trees, on the trunks and branches of which they settle
During its life, it attacks one, sometimes several individuals.
During its life, it attacks a large number of individuals.
It eats only part of the substance of its victim.
It eats almost the entire victim.
Leads his victim to death.
Harms the victim, but rarely leads to a quick death.
The development cycle is closely related to sacrifice
Attacks the victim and feeds on it himself
Attacks the victim, but does not feed on it himself
IV ... Choose the right judgments.
Work program (541)
Working programmActivities; exercise self-control and self-esteem. WORKINGPROGRAM Shamsuvalieva Roza Ravilievna Full name I qualification ... activity; exercise self-control and self-esteem. WORKINGPROGRAM Shamsuvalieva Roza Ravilievna F.I.O. I qualification ...
Work program (653)
Course work programState educational standard in content workingprograms it is supposed to implement actual in ... practical content workingprograms has basic and advanced level. Implementation workingprograms ensures mastery ...
Work program (664)
Working programmWORKINGPROGRAM in informatics for grade 9 ... -2012 academic year Explanatory note Workingprogram on Informatics and Information Technology ... SPb .: Peter, 2009 When compiling workingprograms the recommendations of the constructive-methodical writing were taken into account ...
Intraspecific relationships are a mechanism that provides self-regulation of the number of populations.
Interspecies competition plays an important role in the formation of a natural community.
The spatial distribution of animals in a population is regulated by their behavior.
The settlement of rats and mice in houses was caused by the destruction of their natural habitats by humans.
Abiotic factors do not affect the competitive relationship of two related species.
the program Parfenyuk O.V. Workingprogram in informatics Informatics grades 8 - 9 Explanatory note. Workingprogram developed ...
Taxon - a classification unit in the taxonomy of plant and animal organisms.
The main evidence of the origin of man from animals is the presence of rudiments and atavisms in his body.
Rudiments - these are organs that have lost their meaning and function in the process of historical development (evolution) and remain in the form of underdeveloped formations in the body. They are laid even during the development of the embryo, but do not develop. Examples of rudiments in humans can be: coccygeal vertebrae (remnants of the tail skeleton), appendix (appendix of the cecum), body hair; ear muscles (some people may wiggle their ears); third eyelid.
Atavisms - This is a manifestation, in individual organisms, of characteristics that existed in individual ancestors, but were lost in the course of evolution. In humans, this is the development of the tail and hairline throughout the body.
Historical past of people
The first people on earth... The name of the ape-man - Pithecanthropus - received one of the earliest finds, made in the 19th century in Java. For a long time, this find was considered a transitional link from monkey to man, the first representatives of the hominid family. These views were facilitated by morphological features: a combination of modern-looking bones of the lower limb with a primitive skull and intermediate the mass of the brain. However, the Pithecanthropes of Java are a fairly late group of hominids. From the 1920s to the present, an important discovery was made in southern and East Africa: the remains of bipedal Plio-Pleistocene primates (from 6 to 1 million years old) were found. They marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of paleontology - the reconstruction of these stages of evolution of hominids on the basis of direct paleontological data, and not on the basis of various indirect comparative anatomical and embryological data.
Age of bipedal ape-man australopithecus... The first Australopithecus of East Africa - zinjanthropus was discovered by the spouses L. and M. Leakey. The most striking feature of Australopithecus is upright posture. This is evidenced by the structure of the pelvis. Walking upright is one of the most ancient human acquisitions.
The first representatives of the human race in East Africa... Along with the massive Australopithecines, other creatures lived in East Africa 2 million years ago. For the first time this became known when, the next year after the discovery of zinjanthropus, the remains of a miniature hominid were found, the brain volume of which was no less (and even more) than that of Australopithecus. Later it turned out that he was a contemporary of the zinjanthropus. The most important discoveries were made in the lowest layer, dating back 2–1.7 million years. Its maximum thickness is 40 meters. The climate when this layer was laid was more humid and its inhabitants were zinjanthropus and prezinjanthropus. The latter did not last long. In addition, stones with traces of artificial processing were found in this layer. Most often it was a pebble ranging in size from a walnut to 7–10 cm, with few chips of the working edge. Initially, it was assumed that the zinjanthropes were able to do this, but after new discoveries it became obvious: either the tools were made by a more advanced prezinjanthrop, or both inhabitants were capable of such initial stone processing. The emergence of a clamp with a full opposition of the thumb must have been preceded by a period of dominance of the power grip, when the object was raked in a handful and clamped in the hand. Moreover, it was the nail phalanx of the thumb that experienced especially strong pressure.
Preconditions for anthropogenesisThe common ancestors of great apes and humans were herd narrow-nosed monkeys that lived on trees in tropical forests. The transition of this group to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by a cooling climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright posture. The straightened position of the body and the shift of the center of gravity caused the replacement of the arched spinal column by the S-shaped one, which made it flexible. A vaulted springy foot was formed, the pelvis expanded, the chest became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus was lighter, and most importantly, the front limbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, their functions became more complicated. The transition from using objects to making tools is the line between ape and man. The evolution of the hand followed the path of natural selection of mutations useful for work. Along with upright posture, the most important prerequisite for anthropogenesis was the herd way of life, which, with the development of labor activity and exchange of signals, conditioned the development of articulate speech. Concrete ideas about the surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, thinking and speech abilities were developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
Stages of human development... There are three stages in human evolution: ancient people, ancient people and modern (new) people. Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.
| Human ancestors | Progressive features in appearance | Lifestyle | Tools |
| Parapitecus (discovered in Egypt in 1911) | We walked on two legs. Low forehead, brow ridges, hairline | Regarded as the oldest great ape | Tools in the form of a club; hewn stones |
| Driopithecus (found bone remains in Western Europe, South Asia and East Africa. Antiquity from 12 to 40 million years) | According to most scientists, Dryopithecus are considered as a common ancestral group for modern apes and humans. | ||
| Australopithecus (bone remains of 2.6-3.5 million years old were found in South and East Africa) | They had a small body (length 120–130 cm), weight 30–40 kg, brain volume - 500–600 cm 2, walked on two legs. | They consumed vegetable and meat food, lived in open areas (such as savannahs). Australopithecus is also considered as a stage of human evolution that immediately preceded the emergence of the most ancient people (arhantropus). | Sticks, stones, animal bones were used as tools |
| Pithecanthropus (the oldest man, the remains were discovered - Africa, Mediterranean, Java; 1 million years ago) | Height 150 cm; the volume of the brain is 900–1,000 cm 2, the forehead is low, with a superciliary ridge; jaw without chin | Social lifestyle; lived in caves, used fire. | Primitive stone tools, sticks |
| Sinanthropus (China and others, 400 thousand years ago) | Height 150-160 cm; brain volume 850–1 220 cm 3, low forehead, with a superciliary ridge, no chin protrusion | Lived in herds, built primitive dwellings, used fire, dressed in skins | Tools of stone and bone |
| Neanderthal (ancient man); Europe, Africa, Asia; about 150 thousand years ago | Height 155-165 cm; brain volume 1 400 cm 3; little convolutions; the forehead is low, with a superciliary ridge; the chin protrusion is poorly developed | Social lifestyle, construction of hearths and dwellings, use of fire for cooking, dressed in skins. They used gestures and primitive speech for communication. There was a division of labor. The first burials. | Tools of labor made of wood and stone (knife, scraper, polyhedral points, etc.) |
| Cro-Magnon - the first modern man (everywhere; 50-60 thousand years ago) | Height up to 180 cm; brain volume - 1 600 cm 2; high forehead; convolutions are developed; lower jaw with chin protrusion | Tribal community. Homo sapiens belonged to the species. Settlement construction. The emergence of rituals. The emergence of art, pottery, agriculture. Developed. Developed speech. Domestication of animals, domestication of plants. They had cave paintings. | Various tools made of bone, stone, wood |
Modern people... The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently (about 50 thousand years ago), who were called Cro-Magnons. Increased brain volume (1 600 cm 3), well-developed articulate speech; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock painting), clothing, jewelry, bone and stone tools, the first tamed animals - all testify to the fact that a real man has finally isolated himself from his bestial ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern humans form one species - Homo sapiens. Many years passed before people moved from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering) to a producing economy. They learned how to grow plants and tame some animals. In the evolution of Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance, the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably.
Human race
All modern humanity belongs to one species - Homo sapiens... The unity of mankind follows from a common origin, similarity of structure, unlimited crossing of representatives of different races and the fertility of offspring from mixed marriages. Inside the view - Homo sapiens - there are five large races: Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, American. Each of them is divided into small races. Differences between races are reduced to features of skin color, hair, eyes, nose shape, lips, etc. these differences arose in the process of adaptation of human populations to local natural conditions. It is believed that black skin absorbed ultraviolet rays. Narrow eyes protected from harsh sun exposure in open spaces; the wide nose quickly cooled the inhaled air by evaporation from the mucous membranes, on the contrary, the narrow nose warmed the cold inhaled air better, etc.
But man, thanks to labor, quickly got out of the influence of natural selection, and these differences quickly lost their adaptive significance.
Human races began to form, they began to form, as it is believed, about 30-40 thousand years ago in the process of human settlement of the Earth, and then many racial characteristics had an adaptive meaning and were fixed by natural selection in a certain geographic environment. All races of man are characterized by general species characteristics of Homo sapiens, and all races are absolutely equal in biological and mental relations and are at the same level of evolutionary development.
There is no sharp border between the main races, and there are a number of smooth transitions - small races, whose representatives have smoothed or mixed features of the main masses. It is assumed that in the future the differences between races will completely disappear and humanity will be racially homogeneous, but with many morphological variants.
Human races should not be confused with concepts nation, people, language group... Different groups can be part of the same nation, and the same races can be part of different nations.
This article will focus on the ancestors and close relatives of modern man.
The topic is interesting and uncomplicated.
Driopithecus
- literal translation: "tree monkeys"
Common ancestor of modern man and great apes. Lived about 25 million years ago in Africa and Europe.
Outwardly, they most likely looked like modern chimpanzees.
Driopithecus lived in herds, mainly in trees.
Due to the "arboreal" life in Dryopithecus and its descendants, one can notice some peculiarity:
forelegs can rotate in all directions
This lifestyle has played an important role in evolution:
the grasping function of the forelimb developed, which subsequently led to the ability to manipulate objects
- improved coordination, developed binocular color vision, life in the herd gave rise to the emergence of the public and, as a result, to the emergence speech;
aboutbrain volume clearly more than that of the ancestors;
at teeth was a thin layer of enamel, which suggeststhat Dryopithecus ate plant foods (fruits, berries).
Australopithecus
–Transitional form from monkey to man (or, possibly, relatives of the transitional form).
Lived about 5.5 million years ago.
Literal translation: "southern monkeys", so named because its remains are found in southern Africa.
Australopithecines are already more "humanized" monkeys.
They moved on their hind limbs, hunched over a little.
started to use primitive "tools of labor": stones, sticks, etc.
- the brain volume was approximately 400-520 cm 3, which is three times less than the brain volume of modern humans, but slightly larger than the brain volume of modern large monkeys;
- were not tall: 110 - 150cm, weight: 20 - 50kg.
Australopithecus ate both plant and meat foods (less often).
- they knew how to hunt using "tools of labor";
life expectancy was short: 18 - 20 years;
Homo habilis
- possibly the first representative of the genus Man
According to the alternative opinion, Homo habilis is a representative of the Australopithecus, since he looks very much like them.
He lived about 2 million years ago.
Possibly a descendant of one of the Australopithecus species. Skillful named because started making and knowingly use tools. I picked up raw materials for the manufacture of tools, which no animal can boast of.
- the volume of the brain, in comparison with Australopithecus, has increased to about 600 cm 2, the facial part of the face of the skull has decreased, "giving way" for the brain part;
- teeth are smaller than those of Australopithecus.
- a skilled person switched to euryphagia (omnivorousness);
- feet, had a vault, became more adapted to walking on the hind limbs;
- the hand has become more adapted to gripping, the gripping power has increased;
- the larynx was not yet adapted for speech, but the part of the brain responsible for this function was already developed.
Homo erectus
- already definitely a representative of the kind of people.
He lived about 1 million - 300 thousand years ago.
Named as it is not difficult to guess, because of the "final transition" to upright posture.
- he was already characterized by "human" qualities: speech and abstract thinking;
- Homo erectus has stepped far forward: his tools became much more complex, he mastered by fire, some scientists suggest that he could even get it on his own;
- Outwardly, Erectus was a bit like a modern man, but still different from him: skull had thick walls, the forehead was low with massive supraorbital protrusions, large, heavy lower jaw, the chin protrusion is weak;
- sexual dimorphism was less pronounced than in Australopithecines, but it still took place: males were slightly larger than females.
- growth was 150 - 180. Brain volume: approximately 1100 cm 3.
Homo erectus led a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. They lived and hunted in groups - this helped in the development of speech and sociality. It is assumed that Homo erectus was displaced by the Neanderthal 300 thousand years ago, but the latest anthropological data reject this.
Pithecanthropus (translated: monkey man)
– a kind of Homo erectus.
Lived in Southeast Asia 500-700 thousand years ago, was first discovered on the island of Java.
Pithecanthropus is not the ancestor of modern man, it can be called rather our cousin.
Sinanthropus
- another kind of Homo erectus.
Lived 600-400 thousand years ago somewhere in the territory of modern China.
Sinanthropus became one of the last most developed representatives of the Homo erectus species. Some scholars are regarded as the ancestors of modern man.
Neanderthal, Neanderthal man
- a species of the human race, previously considered a subspecies of Homo sapiens.
Lived in Europe and North Africa over 100 thousand years ago.
The Neanderthals had a hard time, they lived during the Ice Age, so it is no wonder that they learned to make dwellings and clothes... The Neanderthals ate mostly meat. Neanderthal is not a direct ancestor of Homo sapiens, although, perhaps, he lived next to the Cro-Magnons and could freely interbreed with them, thus leaving his "genetic trace" in the modern representatives of the genus People. It is also believed that there was a struggle between the Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals, as a result of which the latter probably disappeared. Probably Cro-Magnons could hunt Neanderthals, and vice versa. Neanderthals were large, muscular creatures, more massive than a Cro-Magnon.
- the brain volume of Neanderthals was 1200-1600 cm³.
- height: about 1.5 meters;
- the skull was stretched back (due to the large brain), but the forehead was low, the cheekbones were wide, the jaws were large, the chin, like that of erectus, was poorly expressed;
- the brow ridge protruded noticeably;
- the Neanderthals had a culture: the first religion (they buried their fellows in special rites), a musical instrument;
- medicine began to appear: Neanderthals could heal fractures.
Cro-Magnon
- the first representative of the species Homo sapiens, lived about 40 thousand years ago.
- cro-Magnons had a definitively human appearance: a high straight forehead, the brow ridge disappeared, a chin protrusion appeared;
- cro-Magnons were taller (about 180 cm tall) and less massive than Neanderthals;
- brain volume: 1400-1900 cm 3
- possessed articulate speech, formed the first "real" human society;
- cro-Magnons lived in clan communities of 100 people, creating the first settlements. They built dwellings: huts of skins, dugouts. They made clothes, hunting tools: spears, snares, harpoons, household items: knives, needles, scrapers. They were engaged in agriculture. They hunted collectively using a revolutionary method: driven hunt. Began to domesticate animals;
- were highly developed culturally: they were engaged in rock painting, made sculptures from clay.
Just like the Neanderthals, they developed burial rites, from which we can conclude that both of them believed in an afterlife. According to official science,cro-Magnon is the direct ancestor of modern man.
It took nature many millions of years to transform the monkey into modern man - the crown of creation. We are the result of a long evolutionary process that we have just skimmed briefly. Questions on this topic can get caught in the GIA and the Unified State Exam. And we covered this topic, I hope you were interested.
Common ancestors of humans and great apes
Among the first small mammals - insectivores - in the Mesozoic era, a group of such animals emerged that did not possess sharp teeth and claws, or wings, or hooves. They lived both on the ground and in trees, ate fruits and insects. From this group, branches originated, which led to semi-monkeys, monkeys and humans.
The most ancient higher apes, from which the ancestors of man originate, are considered parapithecus. These ancient little specialized apes diverged into two branches: one led to modern gibbons and orangutans, the other to Dryopithecus, extinct arboreal apes. Driopithecus diverged in three directions: one branch led to the chimpanzee, the other to the gorilla, and the third to the human. Man and great apes are closely related to each other. But these are different branches of the common pedigree trunk.
Scientists suggest that the ancestral home of mankind was somewhere in the territory, including the northeastern part of Africa, South Asia, southeastern Europe, from where people settled throughout the Earth.
What were the original forms from which the most ancient people originated? Until now, such forms have not been found, but a well-studied group of South African monkeys - Australopithecus ("Australus" - southern) gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthem. This group lived on Earth simultaneously with the most ancient people, therefore it cannot be considered the direct ancestors of people.
Australopithecus lived among the rocks on flat, treeless spaces, were two-legged, walked slightly bent over, knew meat food; their skull had a volume of about 650 cm 3.
In the early 60s of our century, the English scientist Louis Leakey in the Oldoway Gorge in the territory of modern Tanzania (East Africa) found fragments of skulls, bones of a hand, foot, lower leg, collarbone. The fossil creatures to which they belonged were somewhat closer to humans in the structure of the foot and hand than the Australopithecines, but their brain volume did not exceed 650 cm 3. There were also found pebbles of a pointed shape and stones that left the impression of being artificially processed. According to the majority of Soviet anthropologists, these creatures should also be considered Australopithecines. Morphologically, they differed little from the great apes. The difference consisted in the appearance of the first glimpses of consciousness associated with the use of natural objects as tools, which prepared the transition to their manufacture.
It is believed that the ancestors of the earliest people were a species of bipedal apes close to the African australopithecines, who, on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of natural selection, developed the ability to often and variably use sticks and stones as tools.
In the process of human formation, three stages, or phases, should be distinguished: 1) the most ancient people, 2) ancient people, and 3) the first modern people.
The oldest people
The transition from fossil apes to humans took place through a series of intermediate creatures that combined the features of apes and humans - monkey people. It is believed that they appeared at the beginning of the anthropogen, that is, about a million years ago.
Pithecanthropus means in translation "monkey-man". His remains were first discovered by the Dutch physician Dubois in 1891 on about. Java. Pithecanthropus walked on two legs, leaning slightly forward and possibly leaning on a club. Had a height of about 170 cm, his cranium was the same length and width as that of modern humans, but lower and consisted of thick bones. Brain volume reached 900 cm 3: The forehead is very sloping, there is a solid bony ridge above the eyes. The jaws protruded strongly forward, there was no chin protrusion.
The Pithecanthropus created the first tools from stone, which were found in the same layers as the bones. These are primitive scrapers and drills. There is no doubt that the Pithecanthropus used sticks and branches as tools. The most ancient people thought, invented,
The emergence of labor proved to be a powerful impetus to the development of the brain. Darwin attached exceptional importance to the high mental development of our ancestors, even the most ancient ones. The development of the mind took a big step forward with the emergence of speech. According to F. Engels, the rudiments of speech appeared in the earliest people in the form of inarticulate sounds that had the meaning of various signals.
Interesting finds sinanthropus - "Chinese man" who lived somewhat later than Pithecanthropus. His remains were found in 1927-1937. near Beijing.
Outwardly, the Sinanthropus was in many ways reminiscent of Pithecanthropus: the forehead is low, with a developed superciliary ridge, a massive lower jaw, large teeth, and no chin protrusion.
However, Sinanthropus were more advanced beings. Their brain size ranged from 850 to 1220 cm 3; the left lobe of the brain, where the motor centers of the right side of the body are located, was slightly larger compared to the right lobe. Consequently, the Sinanthropus' right hand was more developed than the left. Sinanthropus mined and knew how to maintain fire, apparently dressed in skins. The excavations revealed a thick layer of ash, charred branches, tubular bones and skulls of large animals, tools made of stones, bones, horns.
In 1907, near the city of Heidelberg in Germany (on the modern territory of the Federal Republic of Germany), a very massive lower jaw was found, without a chin protrusion, but with teeth like a human. The owner of this jaw was named heidelberg human. Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus are considered two species of the first sub genus - monkey-men (a kind of people): Pithecanthropus erectus and Peking Sinanthropus. They are representatives of the first initial stage of the transformation of a monkey into a man; as F. Engels put it, these are "formed" people. From them came the representatives of the second stage of humanization - the Neanderthals. Some researchers attribute Heidelberg man to the most ancient people, and others to the ancient.
Ancient people
In the lowest layers of cave deposits in Europe, Asia and Africa, whole skeletons of adults and children were found neanderthals (named after the place of discovery in 1856 - the valley of the Neander River in Germany on the modern territory of the Federal Republic of Germany). In the USSR, the remains of Neanderthals were found in the south of Uzbekistan and in the Crimea. The first settlements of Neanderthals date back to 400-550 thousand years ago.
Neanderthals were shorter than us, stocky (men on average 155-158 cm), walked slightly bent over. They still had a low sloping forehead; at the base of it hung strongly developed superciliary arches, the lower jaw without a chin protrusion or with its weak development. The volume of the brain approached the human brain - about 1400 cm 3, but the convolutions of the brain were less. Their spine curvature in the lumbar region was less than that of modern humans. They lived in difficult conditions of the advance of glaciers, in caves, where they constantly kept fire. They ate vegetable and meat foods. The Neanderthals owned stone and bone tools. Apparently, they also had wooden tools.
Judging by the structure of the skull and facial bones, scientists believe that when communicating with each other, Neanderthals used gestures, inarticulate sounds, and rudimentary articulate speech. They lived in groups of 50-100 people together. The men hunted animals; women and children gathered edible roots and fruits; the older, more experienced, made tools. Neanderthals wore skins and used fire. Neanderthals are considered species belonging to the second subgenus - ancient people (human race). They are the ancestors of the first modern humans - Cro-Magnons.
The first modern humans
A large number of finds of skeletons, skulls and tools of the first modern people are known - cro-Magnons (the name of the town of Cro-Magnon in the south of France), who lived 100-150 thousand years ago. Remains of Cro-Magnons were also found in Russia (south of Voronezh, on the right bank of the Don). Cro-Magnons were up to 180 cm, with a high straight forehead and a cranial volume up to 1600 cm 3; The continuous over the orbital ridge was absent. The developed chin protrusion indicated a good development of articulate speech. Cro-Magnons lived in dugouts, caves with painted walls. Tools made of horn, bone, and flint are very diverse and decorated with carvings. On the walls of the dwellings, scenes of hunting, sacred dances, people and deities were depicted. Drawings are made with ocher and other mineral paints or are scratched. Cro-Magnons dressed in skins, sewn with bone and flint needles. The technique of making tools and household items is much more perfect than that of the Neanderthals. The man knew how to grind, drill, knew pottery. He tamed animals and took the first steps in agriculture. Cro-Magnons lived in a generic society.
Cro-Magnons and modern humans form the species Homo sapiens - reasonable person, belonging to the third subgenus - new people (kind of people).
So, having risen from the animal world, our ancestors, as a result of a complex and long process of human development, turned into people of a modern species. Social factors and laws became the leading and determining ones. This is the qualitative uniqueness of human evolution in comparison with the evolution of animals.
Hereditary variability and natural selection among people still take place, but on the basis of developing knowledge and social reorganization, a person learns to control biological laws, prevent harmful manifestations and enhance beneficial ones.